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Spring 1985

A Widening Horizon Sisterhoods On The Northern Plains, 1874-1910

Susan C. Peterson University of North Dakota

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Peterson, Susan C., "A Widening Horizon Catholic Sisterhoods On The Northern Plains, 1874-1910" (1985). Great Plains Quarterly. 1846. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/greatplainsquarterly/1846

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Great Plains Studies, Center for at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Great Plains Quarterly by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. A WIDENING HORIZON CATHOLIC SISTERHOODS ON THE NORTHERN PLAINS, 1874,1910

SUSAN C. PETERSON

Catholic sisterhoods have been part of Amer­ the stereotypes would suggest. Among the more ican life since the colonial period, first as oper­ than fifteen groups who attempted to bring ators of charitable institutions to aid the needy religion and education to reservation missions and then, in the nineteenth century, as teachers and farming communities in the last quarter of both immigrant children in the East and In­ of the nineteenth century, four religious orders dian children at schools on reservations stand out for their successful adaptation to the in the West. Conventional historical studies frontier environment: the from have either slighted or ignored their contribu­ Montreal in Canada, the Sisters of the Presentac tions to the settlement of the northern plains, tion from Ireland, the Benedictine Sisters from and recent articles on in his­ Switzerland, and the Sisters of St. Francis from tory journals do little better. In both secular Germany. Other sisterhoods were unable to and church histories, Catholic sisters are tradi­ found lasting institutions and retreated to the tionally pictured as silent representatives of more populous regions from whence they female purity or as extensions of the church came. By contrast, the four groups treated in hierarchy on the frontier. A more recent stereo­ this study succeeded where others failed. type attributes radical feminist motives of Through their resourcefulness and their flexibil­ separation from male society to female religious ity in responding to unforeseen circumstances, orders.1 they not only established and maintained The experience of the Catholic sisterhoods schools but also started hospitals and brought on the northern plains is far more diverse than much-needed health care to the people of the region. The challenges facing these sisterhoods in An associate professor of history at the Uni­ the often hostile physical environment of the versity of North Dakota, Susan Peterson has western frontier required traits and abilities published articles about religious communities that are often missing from stereotypes of reli­ of women on several plains frontiers. gious orders of women. The image of the sister leading a cloistered, confined existence, cut off [GPQ 5 (Spring 1985): 125-32. from the "evils" of the outside world, does not

125 126 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SPRING 1985 fit the women of the four orders who made eastern and western provinces. Thus, when they the most lasting contributions to the social received a request for aid in founding a school development of the northern plains. These among the Devils Lake Sioux from Indian sisterhoods all came from outside of the United Agent William Forbes in 1874, their mother States. None of them had any experience with agreed to send four of her community's the people or the environment of the plains. members on the long journey from Quebec to For three of the groups, English was a new Dakota Territory. They envisioned no difficulty language to be learned, in addition to the var­ in a Canadian order working in the United States ious dialects spoken by the Indian tribes. One because the Grey Nuns were already working in group was accustomed to very cloistered living, missions in Ohio and Massachusetts that had and none had previous experience in nursing. been started several years earlier. 3 U.S. government Indian policy during those The Sisters of the Presentation were an order years was inconsistent. Despite these obstacles, founded in Ireland in 1776. Like the Grey however, these four orders became well known Nuns, they were dedicated to helping the poor, for their schools and hospitals within the thirty­ and their activity in Ireland centered on edu­ six-year period from 1874 to 1910. cating children from the slums of Irish cities. Of recent foreign origin, the four sisterhoods When Bishop Marty visited a Presentation con­ comprised a part of the late-nineteenth-century vent in on his way back to the United influx of immigrants to the West. All four States from in 1879, he told the sisters groups began their tenure in Dakota Territory of his desperate need for teachers at mission as to the Indians; the Presentation schools he planned to found on reservations in Sisters and the Benedictine Sisters added non­ Dakota Territory. His visit proved successful; Indian schools to their apostolate, while three and two ac­ the Grey Nuns and the Sisters of St. Francis cepted the challenge and left the security of confined their activities to the Sioux of the their Irish convents for the uncertainty of the Fort Totten, Standing Rock, Rosebud, and Yankton Reservation in 1880. Some Irish Pine Ridge reservations. These same two orders Presentation Sisters were already working in retained ties with their motherhouses-in Mon­ the United States-in and New treal for the Grey Nuns and in Buffalo, -but nothing in the sisters' training York, for the -while the Presenta­ or background prepared them for the hardship tion Sisters established motherhouses in Fargo, of the Dakota Territory environment or the North Dakota, and , South Dakota, rigors of educating the children of the Yankton and the founded a motherhouse in Sioux.4 Yankton, South Dakota. Three of the four The Benedictine Sisters took a somewhat groups-the Presentation Sisters, the Benedic­ different route to the Standing Rock Reserva­ tines, and the Franciscans-arrived through the tion. This group had left Switzerland for the auspices of Martin Marty, OSB, the first bishop United States in 1874 because of difficulties of Dakota Territory. The Grey Nuns started with government authorities over their teaching their school because the Devils Lake Reserva­ activities, and they settled in Missouri near a tion had been assigned to the Benedictine , where they met as part of President Grant's peace policy, and Martin Marty. In 1881, after he had been named the Indian agent invited them because he was bishop of Dakota Territory, he asked the sisters familiar with their order since his cousin was a to staff a school at Standing Rock, one of only member.2 two reservations in Dakota Territory assigned The Grey Nuns were a Canadian order to the Catholic church under Grant's peace founded in Montreal in the 1730s to serve the policy. As the years passed and more Benedic­ poor, the ill, and the aged. They had a long rec­ tine Sisters from the Missouri motherhouse ord of service among the Indians of both the came to work at Standing Rock, the mother A WIDENING HORIZON 127 superior and her council decided to move their of the difficult frontier conditions. One of headquarters to Yankton, Dakota's territorial these was disease. Their school records all re­ capitol, in order to be closer to both the reser­ port illnesses such as measles, whooping cough, vation and the bishop, whose residence was in and scarlet fever among their students, and the the same city. 5 sisters themselves were not immune to such ail­ When Grant's peace policy came to an end ments. The Sisters of St. Francis experienced in the early 1880s, other reservations in Dakota a high rate of tuberculosis, with ten of their were opened to Catholic missionaries. In 1886 members at the missions in South Dakota dying Bishop Marty and the Jesuits on Rosebud of the disease between 1885 and 1910. The Reservation invited the Sisters of St. Francis to rigors of homesteading also brought about diffi­ staff the school they were building at St. Fran­ culties for two groups of sisters, the Grey Nuns cis Mission. This group of nuns was part of a and the Benedictines. In one instance, the Bene­ congregation of sisters who had come to the dictine Sisters agreed to homestead a section of United States from Germany in the 1870s as a land close to their convent near Redfield, and result of pressure from the government of Otto the two members who were sent to the fore­ von Bismarck. They had founded a motherhouse saken claim shanty had to endure scarcity of in Buffalo, New York, and operated schools in food as well as loneliness. As one sister com­ such far-flung areas as California and Nebraska. mented on the privations, "One can imagine the Like the Presentation and Benedictine sisters, insecurity and fear as they spent the long hours the Franciscans had no previous experience in of the night in their primitive shanty.,,8 teaching Indian children, but they were success­ All four sisterhoods came to Dakota Terri­ ful enough at Rosebud to help found Holy tory to serve as teachers; some taught at mis­ Mission on Pine Ridge Reservation three sion schools on reservations and others in parish years later. 6 schools in the growing number of farming com­ All four sisterhoods experienced the harsh munities in the eastern part of the territory. climate and difficult frontier conditions en­ The Grey Nuns, the Benedictines, and the Fran­ dured by the various groups that settled on the ciscans experienced similar situations at mission northern plains in the late 1800s. The blizzard schools on the Fort Totten, Standing Rock, of 1880-81 and the ensuing flooding forced Rosebud, Pine Ridge, and Crow Creek reserva­ the Presentation Sisters to abandon their con­ tions. In addition to coping with the hostile vent at Wheeler in southern Dakota in the sum­ physical environment, they dealt with the mer of 1881. Another blizzard, in 1888, took language barrier, with changes in federal Indian the life of Sister Wilhelmina Kaufmann, a education policy, and with developments in Benedictine who got lost in the snow and curriculum at their respective mission schools. froze to death. More than a hundred Dakotans Since the mid-1800s, government officials suffered a similar fate during that disaster. had issued annual contracts to missionaries by Fire was another danger that plagued frontier which they would allocate rations and a finan­ settlers. Two orders, the Grey Nuns and the cial stipend for every child enrolled in school in Sisters of St. Francis, watched their schools return for the academic and industrial training burn to the ground-the Grey Nuns in 1883 and the missionaries were to provide. When the the Franciscans in 191 O-but both rebuilt their Grey Nuns began their school at St. Michael's destroyed schools. The Presentation Sisters left Mission in 1874, their contract called for pay­ Wheeler and migrated west to the Black Hills in ment of $150 plus rations to each sister, but hopes of staffing a more secure school in Dead­ by 1886, when the Sisters of St. Francis began wood. The sisters also learned to take the teaching at St. Francis Mission, they received rumblings of winter storms seriously. 7 $50 a year plus rations for every student.9 By Aside from the harsh climate, there were the late 1880s, the Bureau of Indian Affairs other dangers the women encountered because abandoned the contract system in favor of 128 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SPRING 1985 government-operated boarding schools, and their school was evaluated by an official school most mission schools were either closed or inspector who did not look favorably on the brought under federal control. By 1890 both use of either the French or Sioux language in the Grey Nuns at Fort Totten and the Benedic­ the classroom.13 The Benedictines were also tines afStanding Rock had become government plagued with the necessity of learning English, employees. Offsetting fears that their schools and their mother superior in Yankton was would lose their religious atmosphere and concerned that more attention should be paid autonomy was the fact that the nuns received to study of the language. Because the Univer­ relatively high salaries as members of the civil sity of South Dakota was close by, the sisters service. In both cases, a teacher received $600 built a convent in Vermillion, where the uni­ per year, and a cook or a seamstress was paid versity was located, in order to take advantage $500 annually. 10 of educational resources there.14 For the Sisters of St. Francis on the Rose­ Despite language difficulties the sisters who bud and Pine Ridge reservations there was a worked with Indians participated in developing different solution to the problem of dwindling the curricula at their schools. The three groups government contracts. When federal support followed similar educational plans. Students for the mission schools was withdrawn in the spent half a day in academic instruction and the late 1890s, the Bureau of Catholic Indian Mis­ other half in manual labor. The academic sub­ sions attempted to continue funding the jects taught in the Indian schools included schools with private donations, but sources of English, mathematics, geography, and history; funds were few. Thus the sisters found it neces­ manual labor instruction consisted of needle­ sary to economize even more than they usually work, sewing, cooking, and cleaning for the did in the face of a financial crisis due to the girls and stockraising and farming techniques loss of contract monies and less-than-adequate for the boys. Students also performed useful private funds. The problem was finally solved in duties around the school compound, such as the early 1900s when the government, with the mending clothing, carrying firewood, and shov­ consent of the Indian parents, began using eling snow in the winter.1S The mission schools tribal education funds to support mission were visited by government school inspectors schools.ll who evaluated the sisters' teaching methods Another problem the sisters faced on the and encouraged them to use less recitation and reservations was the language barrier. These drill and more discussion in their classes. All difficulties were especially complex because of three groups of sisters received high marks for the variety of languages spoken and the neces­ their students' skill in the craft work produced sity of giving instruction in English. The Grey in the needlework and sewing classes. As the Nuns spoke French and some' English, while years passed, the Bureau of Indian Affairs pro­ the Benedictines spoke German and even less vided textbooks and a course of study, and the English than the Grey Nuns. The Sisters of St. sisters kept records of their students' reactions Francis had the least difficulty with English to their textbooks. For example, one Francis­ because most of their members who served as can sister wrote that a text called Maxwell's teachers at the missions were Americans of Primary Lessons "proved very interesting to the European ancestry.12 At first the Grey Nuns younger students." The sisters also attended solved their problems with the Sioux language teachers' institutes; one in St. Paul and another by hiring a mixed-blood woman who served as in Sioux City, according to their superintendent, aQ. interpreter; they also began learning the "had a salutary stimulating influence on our Sioux dialect as well as increasing their knowl­ teachers during the entire school year. From edge of English. A good command of English the second one attended I hope still more bene­ was even more important after 1890, when ficial results.,,16 they became government employees, because Besides teaching on reservations, two of the A WIDENING HORIZON 129 orders treated in this study were instrumental in Fargo, were engaged in teaching at six parish in bringing education to the Catholic parishes schools in South Dakota, and the Benedictines being founded in the growing number of farm­ could claim seven such schools.21 ing communities in eastern Dakota Territory. The sisters teaching at parish schools did not The Presentation Sisters had come to the terri­ have to deal with the Bureau ofIndian Affairs or tory to teach on the Yankton Reservation. priests, but nevertheless their activi­ They founded a small school at Wheeler, ninety ties were scrutinized by pastors and parishioners. miles northwest of Yankton, but the building They had the usual difficulties adjusting to the that served as both convent and school was frontier communities as well as problems with destroyed by flooding after only a few months. finances and curricula as they struggled to offer Then followed a fruitless journey to Deadwood, education, along with religion, to their young where they had hoped to start a school for the Catholic students. The sisters offset the expense children of miners. The nuns were horrified at of running their schools by charging tuition, the rowdiness of Deadwood's townspeople, such as the $3.50 in weekly fees paid by stu­ and they soon left to return to Wheeler. One dents attending Presentation Academy in Aber­ sister wrote that "conditions were against com­ deen, but after expenses were met, the amount munity life-in fact life at all." 17 They even of money they took in allowed little for reim­ considered returning to Ireland because the bursing the teaching nuns for their living bishop had no immediate suggestions as to expenses. The sums they earned were paltry where they could settle. For several months indeed-less than $25 per month-and the sisters they boarded with a group of Mercy Sisters in were forced to run parish fairs and bazaars as Yankton until a priest at Fargo, in the northern well as to venture out on "begging tours" in portion of the territory, asked them to open an order to finance their schools. The Benedictines academy in his parish. These were the events were fortunate because the salaries earned by that led to the Presentation Sisters' decision to the sisters at Standing Rock were high enough forsake reservation teaching for work among to subsidize their teachers at parish schools, but the growing number of Catholic non-Indian the Presentation Sisters had no such support settlers.18 to rely on. During hard times in South Dakota The Benedictines were increasing in number in the 1890s, several of the schools they staffed because of recent arrivals from Switzerland and were threatened with closing, and the sisters new candidates from the United States. In 1883, were forced to beg for food to feed themselves. when they received a request from the bishop One sister in Aberdeen remembered that the that they send some sisters to open a school convent residents raised a white flag in back of near Redfield in east-central Dakota Territory, the building when the sisters were in need of they decided to undertake parish teaching in food, in the hope that they would receive aid addition to their work at the Standing Rock from neighbors. 22 mission.19 Despite financial difficulties, the parish From these beginnings in Fargo and Red­ schools offered ambitious courses of study, field, the two orders spread their influence often relying on the individual talents of the throughout the eastern half of North and South sisters to supplement the regular offerings of Dakota by the end of the 1890s. The Presenta­ classes in reading, writing, and arithmetic. For tion Sisters, who were asked to staff a school in example, the curriculum at Presentation Acad­ Aberdeen, some one hundred miles south of emy in Aberdeen included classes in music and Fargo, founded a second motherhouse there art along with English, history, geography, and after statehood put the two cities in separate mathematics, and the Benedictines near Red­ episcopal jurisdictions.20 By the turn of the field offered courses in German in addition to century, the sisters from Aberdeen, an offshoot those other subjects. They also taught religion, of the original Presentation group that settled and like other recent immigrants, they did their 130 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SPRING 1985 best to train their students to keep their faith Sisters. The Presentation Order's and to fit into American society as well. 23 made no mention of health care as an aposto­ Though the four sisterhoods in this study late, and the order had evolved solely as a teach­ came to Dakota Territory to serve as teachers, ing sisterhood, but Mother Butler persuaded first on the reservations and then in the farm­ the sisters to change their rule to include nurs­ ing community parishes, it was in the field of ing by reminding them that their founder, health care that three of them were able to Honoria Nagle, had not only operated schools reach a larger portion of the population and in the slums of , Ireland, but had minis­ spread their influence to include non-Catholics tered to the sick as well. Once this hurdle was as well as Catholics. The Grey Nuns, the Presen­ cleared, Mother Butler supervised construction tation Sisters, and the Benedictine Sisters made of a fifteen-bed facility to be known as St. significant contributions in providing emer­ Luke's Hospital. From this beginning, the gency health care services when no other groups Presentation Sisters later added three more were prepared to meet this need. From the time hospitals and schools of nursing as the order of their arrival at Fort Totten Reservation, the became a leader in health care delivery in South Grey Nuns had opened their doors to the sick Dakota.25 and administered medicines and attended to the The Benedictine Sisters entered the field of comfort of ailing Indians. This service was so health care by a different route. In the late important to the reservation that the govern­ 1890s, they w~re told by Bishop Thomas ment Indian agent also encouraged the sisters O'Gorman to finance and staff a hospital in to visit Indian homes to care for the sick. One Yankton. Fearing his displeasure if they re­ of the nuns, Sister Auxelie Lajemmerais, was fused, their prioress, Mother Mathilda Cattani, designated the agency physician by the Bureau accepted the charge in spite of the expense and of Indian Affairs. Although she served in this the sisters' inexperience. Like the Presentation capacity for nine years, she received no finan­ Sisters, the Benedictines borrowed the funds cial remuneration for her work. In the late they needed to convert their former mother­ 1880s the Grey Nuns opened an infirmary near house into a thirty-bed hospital. Mother Cattani the mission in an attempt to meet more fully faced the same kinds of barriers that Mother the health care needs of reservation dwellers. 24 Butler encountered, but they were quickly In Aberdeen the Presentation Sisters offered overcome. Because the Benedictines had no their convent to serve as an infirmary during a local members with nursing experience, the diptheria epidemic that struck the city in the prioress sent six sisters to receive instruction late 1890s. Because they met this emergency so at Catholic hospitals in St. Paul, , admirably, and since Aberdeen was in desperate and Omaha while the hospital was being pre­ need of a hospital, dty leaders met with the pared. There were few difficulties with adding superior, Mother] oseph Butler, to persuade her health care to their constitution because, even to build such a facility. Mother Butler accepted though this particular group of Swiss Benedic­ the request, even though the project presented tines had worked only as teachers, the Rule of a number of problems regarding finances, train­ St. Benedict, which they followed, contained ing for nurses, and the Presentation Order's rule an entire chapter on care of the sick. The new for living. Because she knew that the order had facility, known as Hospital, insufficient funds for building a hospital and eventually grew to serve as a regional medical that no help was forthcoming from the diocese, center, while the sisters operated three more Mother Butler obtained a loan from a local local hospitals in South Dakota.26 banker. Fortunately, a new member of the The key to the initial success of these four sisterhood had received nurse's training before sisterhoods in Dakota Territory lies in their she became a nun, and she was willing to teach adaptability and flexibility. Adjusting to an the skills she had learned to other Presentation inhospitable climate and terrain, the three A WIDENING HORIZON 131 groups who were able to continue as teachers isolation, and persevere in the face of the harsh on the reservations accepted the challenge of reality of life on the frontier. Even when cir­ teaching the children of a race and culture dif­ cumstances forced the sisters to modify their ferent from their own. The sisters who taught rules for living, they persisted in structuring in the parish schools met many problems of their lives around the welfare of the group. As financial hardship and harsh frontier conditions Mary Ryan suggests in her book Womanhood in in their drive to educate the children of parish­ America from Colonial Times to the Present, IOners. women strove for contact with other women. The best examples of their flexibility may be Their frontier experience was of a more com­ seen in their modification of the practice of munal nature than was Turner's frontier of cloistered living and the acceptance of health male rugged individualism.27 Because they care as an addition to the apostolate of the were never isolated from other women, the sisterhoods. Orders that traditionally followed sisters were able to help each other overcome rules of enclosure were strictly constrained, the difficulties of their work in reservation or being prohibited from traveling and, in some parish schools and hospitals. From the begin­ cases, from leaving their convents at all, even ning, when the Grey Nuns staffed a reservation for short periods of time. By contrast, only one school at Fort Totten in 1874, these sisters of the four groups in this study practiced gained support from each other's companion­ cloistered living; and that order, the Presenta­ ship and were thus able to succeed in their mis­ tion Sisters, willingly abolished the custom sion on the northern plains frontier. when they saw that less restriction in travel would better enable them to serve the widely NOTES scattered communities of eastern South Dakota. The readiness of the Grey Nuns, the Presenta­ 1. See Elwyn Robinson, History of North tion Sisters, and the Benedictines to provide aid Dakota (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, to the sick and the subsequent opening of hos­ 1966); Herbert Schell, History of South Dakota pitals in Yankton and Aberdeen are a dramatic (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1968); witness to their adaptability. These under­ Patrick H. Ahearn, ed., Catholic Heritage in takings had the most lasting effect on the Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota (St. developing society of eastern South Dakota Paul: Archdiocese of St. Paul, 1964); John C. Scott, "To Do Some Good Among the Indians: because the sisters ministered to the entire Nineteenth Century Benedictine Indian Mis­ population through their hospitals, both of sions," Journal of the West 23 (January 1984): which gained recognition as regional medical 26-36; Eliane L. Silverman, "Writing Canadian centers. Women's History, 1970-82: An Historical The success of these Catholic sisterhoods in Analysis," Canadian Historical Review 43 providing education and health care on the (December 1982): 513-33. Dakota frontier depended upon their flexibil­ 2. DiamondJubilee Book (Aberdeen, S.Dak.: ity and willingness to adjust, and these traits Sisters of the Presentation, 1961), pp. 29,30; were undoubtedly nurtured by the communal Collections of Personal Interviews, Archives, character of their lives. Nineteenth-century Presentation Heights, Aberdeen, S.Dak.; Ahearn, nuns never labored as solitary individuals; they Catholic Heritage, p. 160. 3. Roy Meyer, History of the Santee Sioux traveled in groups and shared their lives with (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1967), other sisters. Even though the orders were not p. 228; Sister Irene Drouin, archivist, Grey cloistered, they nevertheless retained elements Nuns Provincial House, interview with author, of enclosure that allowed them to live, work, 6 June 1983; Evangeline Thomas, CSJ, Women's and pray together. The spirit thus engendered Religious History Sources (New York: R. R. enabled the sisters to help each other adjust to Bowker, 1983), p. 170. the new environment, endure the hardships of 4. Susan Peterson, "The Presentation Sisters 132 GREAT PLAINS QUARTERLY, SPRING 1985 in Dakota," South Dakota History 10 (Summer Library, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wis.; 1980): 210-21. Annual Report from Sister Clapin to Agent 5. Claudia Duratschek, Under the Shadow John Cramsie, Fort Totten Correspondence, of His Wings (Aberdeen, S.Dak.: North Plains 1871-1901, Archives, Grey Nuns Provincial Press, 1971), pp. 118-23. House, Winnipeg, Manitoba. 6. "Chronicle, St. Francis Mission," p. 1, 16. "School Reports, St. Francis Mission, Bureau of Catholic Indian Missions, Archives, Holy Rosary Mission, 1886-1911"; "Report of Memorial Library, Marquette University, Mil­ Superintendent of St. Francis School," Annual waukee, Wis.; "Holy Rosary Mission," p. 1, Report of Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Bureau of Catholic Indian Missions, Archives, 1896, vol. 11, p. 299; "Report of Superinten­ Memorial Library, Marquette University, Mil­ dent of Standing Rock Agency School," An­ waukee, Wis. nual Report of Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 7. Sister Frances Menahan to Mother Joseph 1896, vol. 11, p. 239. Butler, n.d., Archives, Presentation Heights, 17. Peterson, "Presentation Sisters," pp. 218- Aberdeen, S.Dak.; Sister Celine Allard, "Chron­ 21. icle, Our Lady of Sorrows Mission," p. 33, 18. Ibid. Archives, Grey Nuns Provincial House, Winni­ 19. Duratschek, Under the Shadow, Mother peg, Manitoba. Gertrude to Anselm, 7 April 1883, Sacred 8. "Necrology," Archives, Sisters of St. Heart Convent Archives, Yankton, S.Dak. Francis, Stella Niagra, N.Y.; "Chronicle, St. 20. Peterson, "Presentation Sisters," p. 221. Francis Mission," p. 42; Duratschek, Under the 21. Sister Alicia Dunphy, "Summary Data for Shadow, pp. 93, 105. Encyclopedia Dictionary," Archives, Presen ta­ 9. Meyer, Santee Sioux, p. 228; "Chronicle, tion Heights, Aberdeen, S.Dak.; Duratschek, St. Francis Mission," p. 1. Under the Shadow, pp. i, ii. 10. List of Positions Authorized, Fort Totten 22. Duratschek, Under the Shadow, p. 162; Correspondence, 1871-1910, Archives, Grey Sister Eucharia Kelly, interview with author, Nuns Provincial House, Winnipeg, Manitoba. 12 August 1976, South Dakota Oral History 11. Francis Paul Prucha, The Churches and Center, Vermillion, S.Dak. the Indian Schools (Lincoln: University of Ne­ 23. Aberdeen Daily News, 2 January 1890; braska Press, 1979), pp. 149-60. Duratschek, Under the Shadow, pp. 103-5. 12. "Sisters Serving at South Dakota Mis­ 24. Allard, "Chronicle, Our Lady of Sorrows sions, 1886-1910," Archives, Sisters of St. Mission," pp. 181-210. Francis, Stella Niagara, N.Y. 25. Aberdeen American News, 14 October 13. Allard, "Chronicle, Our Lady of Sorrows 1951, 17 June 1956; Diamond Jubilee Book, Mission," pp. 20, 21. p.46. 14. "Chronicle," September 1896, Sacred 26. Duratschek, Under the Shadow, pp. 145- Heart Convent Archives, Yankton, S.Dak.; 48; Monthly South Dakotan, May 1898; Duratschek, Under the Shadow, p. 118, 122, "Chronicle," May 1897, Sacred Heart Convent 145. Archives, Yankton, S.Dak. 15. "School Reports, St. Francis Mission, 27. Mary P. Ryan, Womanhood in America Holy Rosary Mission, 1886-1911," Bureau of from Colonial Times to the Present (New York: Catholic Indian Missions, Archives, Memorial Franklin Watts, 1983), pp. 31-35.