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Bovine Hypodermosis: a Review

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Bovine Hypodermosis: a Review IJAAR 6 (2018) 18-29 ISSN 2053-1265 Bovine hypodermosis: A review Gautam Patra1*, Parthasarathi Behera2, Samares Kumar Das3, Subhamoy Ghosh1, Papia Biswas4, Ajit Kumar5, C. Lalnunpuia1, C. Lalchhandama6, Seikh Sahanawaz Alam7, Jayashre Bhagawati8 1Department of Veterinary Parasitology; College of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Central Agricultural University, Selesih, Aizawl, India. 2Department of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry; College of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Central Agricultural University, Selesih, Aizawl, India. 3Department of Veterinary & Animal Husbandry Extension; College of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Central Agricultural University, Selesih, Aizawl, India. 4Department of Veterinary Public Health & Epidemiology; College of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Central Agricultural University, Selesih, Aizawl, India. 5Department of Veterinary Parasitology; WBUAFS, Kolkata-37, West Bengal, India. 6Department of Veterinary Pharmacology & Toxicology; College of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Central Agricultural University, Selesih, Aizawl, India. 7District Microbiologist, Malda Medical College & Hospital, Malda, West Bengal, India. 8FCLA; College of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Central Agricultural University, Selesih, Aizawl, India. Article History ABSTRACT Received 28 December, 2017 Cattle hypodermosis (warble fly infestation, WFI) is an economically important Received in revised form 17 disease in livestock throughout the world. Larvae of Hypoderma spp. cause January, 2018 Accepted 23 January, 2018 subcutaneous myiasis of domesticated and wild ruminants. The important species in cattle are Hypoderma bovis and Hypoderma lineatum whereas, Keywords: Hypoderma diana, Hypoderma actaeon and Hypoderma tarandi, affect roe deer, Hypodermosis, red deer, and reindeer, respectively. Hypoderma crossi infects sheep and goat. Warble fly, Adults of the cattle grub are commonly known as heel flies, warble flies, bomb Hypoderma bovis, flies or gad flies. The larval stages of Hypoderma bovis and Hypoderma lineatum Hypoderma lineatum. are commonly called ‘ox warbles’. The biology of hypodermosis is complex in nature. The parasitic larval stage of Hypoderma spp. spend about one year in domesticated as well as in the wild animals, while the adult free-living stage lasts only for few days. The disease causes heavy economic losses to animal production like milk and leather industry. It can also affect the general health status as well as the immune system of the body of the diseased animals. The early diagnosis of hypodermosis is of great importance for planning treatment and eradication program. The control measures of the disease have been efficiently practiced and consequently this disease is controlled at national level in many European countries. Keeping in view the importance of the disease, the present review intends to underscore and provide up to date information about Article Type: the overall aspect of hypodermosis in animals with the existing literature Review available with special emphasis on hypodermosis on cattle. ©2018 BluePen Journals Ltd. All rights reserved INTRODUCTION Warble fly infestation is a major disease of economic (Scholl, 1993). Larvae of Hypoderma spp. cause a significance affecting livestock throughout the world. The subcutaneous myiasis of domesticated and wild warble has an Anglo-Saxon origin which means boil ruminants. The definitive hosts for this parasite are Int. J. Adv. Agric. Res. 19 Table 1. Prevalence rate of hypodermosis in cattle globally. Country Prevalence rate (%) Host References UK 40 Cattle (Webster, 1998) Turkey 3.56-10.23 Cattle (Gulanber et al., 2000) Kazakhstan 30 Cattle (Mukhtar and Omarkhan, 2004) Albania 38.66-41.28 Cattle (Otranto et al., 2005) Turkey 31.9 Cattle (Kara et al., 2005) Turkey 23.3 Cattle (Simsek et al., 2008) Turkey 2.96 Cattle (Cicek et al., 2011) Turkey 28.9 Cattle (Karatepe et al., 2013) herbivores including cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, deer Only one species viz., H. lineatum has been described and reindeer. There are seven species of Hypoderma from India affecting the bovidae with a prevalence rate of that affect the wild and domesticated animals and these 50–90% (Soni and Khan, 1945) and Yadav et al. (2013) are Hypoderma bovis (Northern cattle grub), Hypoderma reported prevalence rate (9.73%) of H. lineatum in case lineatum (common cattle grub), mainly affecting cattle, of cattle from Jammu state by conventional palpation Hypoderma diana, Hypoderma actaeon, Hypoderma method. tarandi, H. sinense affecting roe deer, red deer, and reindeer respectively (Taylor et al., 2016) and GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION Hypoderma crossi of sheep and goat (Scholl, 1993). The disease has been extensively studied all over the world Hypoderma spp. have cosmopolitan in distribution but due to its high economic significance. It has been more commonly found in tropical and subtropical reported from almost all countries rearing livestock. Many countries of the world. The prevalence of disease due to scientists in the past worked on the epidemiology, Hypoderma varies in different regions of the world and economic significance and control of hypodermosis in upon the region studied (O’Brien, 1998; Scholl, 1993; Europe including the eastern European countries of the Martinez-Moreno et al., 1992). In many countries, the former USSR and Asia. It has been observed that the rate of infestation was reported up to 100% in different parasite is unable to adopt the seasonal life cycle to the herds that might be due to a great variation between the conditions of Australia and South Africa due to the parasitological and immuno-diagnostic techniques for the climatic conditions (Tarry, 1998). detection of hypodermosis. It might reflect differences of During the recent decade, livestock production has antibody-mediated host immune responsiveness in increased significantly. However, still this sector has not different species of animals (Frangipane di Regalabone yet reached its full potential to deliver adequate meat for et al., 2003). The prevalence rate of hypodermosis varies the rising human population across the globe (Thornton, depending upon diagnostic methodologies used ranging 2010). Among several restraining factors, parasitic from 21 to 79% in Spain, 43% in Belgium, 85% in Italy diseases that severely affect livestock are the biggest (Puccini et al., 1997; Preston, 1984; Frangipane di constraints. Among parasitic diseases, ectoparasitic Regalbone et al., 2003), while it was 44.2% in Greece infestation is a serious veterinary health problem affecting (Papadopoulos, 2004). In East Turkey, 28.6% cattle were livestock industry, worldwide (Hourrigan, 1979). found seropositive for hypodermosis (Balkaya et al., Hypoderma spp. under the family Oestridae is 2010). Similarly in Middle East, the disease has responsible for causing subcutaneous myiasis that prevalence rate of 14.1% in Libya (Otify and Mansour, affects both wild and domestic ruminants across the 1994) and 23% in Iraq (Abul-Hak, 1973). South East northern hemisphere (Boulard, 2002). This is an endemic Asian countries like China have a record of 80% (Yin et disease of livestock (including goats, deer, buffaloes, al., 2003) and 18.4% in Pakistan (Ahmed et al., 2012). yaks and cattle) which results a severe decline of milk Yadav et al. (2013) reported prevalence rate (9.73%) of and meat production and depreciation in hide quality from H. lineatum in case of cattle from Jammu state of India. holes and other flaws caused by Hypoderma larvae (Hall The prevalence rate of hypodermosis in cattle across the and Wall, 1995). globe is shown in Table 1. Oviposition and egg development *Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected]. Tel: +91 8582859415. The egg laying of H. lineatum and H. bovis varies Patra et al. 20 Figure 1. Egg of H. lineatum (Photograph by Lyle J. Buss, University of Florida). significantly so does its ovipositing behaviour (Andrews, lineatum larvae in the body of affected animals varies. In 1978; Colwell, 1992; Scholl, 1993; Tarry, 1998). Both case of H. lineatum, larvae travel through the submucosal species also differ from each other in approaching the connective tissues of oesophageal wall of the body and animals, egg laying behaviour, egg size, phenotype and ultimately reach at the back of animals while in H. bovis it migration pattern in the affected host, etc. (Scholl, 1990). travels along the nerve paths and reaches into the spinal Mating occurs soon after the flies emerge and females canal. The migration of the larvae inside the body of host begin to lay eggs within 20 min after copulation. is again aided by the proteolytic enzymes secreted from the anterior part of the larvae (Scholl, 1993). The larvae move in the resting site of the body of the Eggs, skin penetration and larval development host in different ways in both species of Hypoderma. In case of H. lineatum, the larvae travel in the loose Eggs of H. lineatum are 1 mm in length and are laid in a submucosal tissue of the esophagus while in H. bovis the row of six eggs and attached by a petiole to the hairs larvae move towards the similar resting site in the below the hocks (Figure 1) (Tarry, 1998) while in case of epidural fat between the dura mater and periosteum in H. bovis the eggs are laid singly on the body and above the spinal canal (winter resting site). At this stage, the the hocks of the animals (Urquhart et al., 1991) and the first instar larvae are approximately 15 mm
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