“Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks” Newcomer Academy Visualization Four
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Bedrock Geology Glossary from the Roadside Geology of Minnesota, Richard W
Minnesota Bedrock Geology Glossary From the Roadside Geology of Minnesota, Richard W. Ojakangas Sedimentary Rock Types in Minnesota Rocks that formed from the consolidation of loose sediment Conglomerate: A coarse-grained sedimentary rock composed of pebbles, cobbles, or boul- ders set in a fine-grained matrix of silt and sand. Dolostone: A sedimentary rock composed of the mineral dolomite, a calcium magnesium car- bonate. Graywacke: A sedimentary rock made primarily of mud and sand, often deposited by turbidi- ty currents. Iron-formation: A thinly bedded sedimentary rock containing more than 15 percent iron. Limestone: A sedimentary rock composed of calcium carbonate. Mudstone: A sedimentary rock composed of mud. Sandstone: A sedimentary rock made primarily of sand. Shale: A deposit of clay, silt, or mud solidified into more or less a solid rock. Siltstone: A sedimentary rock made primarily of sand. Igneous and Volcanic Rock Types in Minnesota Rocks that solidified from cooling of molten magma Basalt: A black or dark grey volcanic rock that consists mainly of microscopic crystals of pla- gioclase feldspar, pyroxene, and perhaps olivine. Diorite: A plutonic igneous rock intermediate in composition between granite and gabbro. Gabbro: A dark igneous rock consisting mainly of plagioclase and pyroxene in crystals large enough to see with a simple magnifier. Gabbro has the same composition as basalt but contains much larger mineral grains because it cooled at depth over a longer period of time. Granite: An igneous rock composed mostly of orthoclase feldspar and quartz in grains large enough to see without using a magnifier. Most granites also contain mica and amphibole Rhyolite: A felsic (light-colored) volcanic rock, the extrusive equivalent of granite. -
Geochemical Cycle
Geochemical cycle In Earth science, a geochemical cycle is the pathway that chemical elements take in the surface and crust of the Earth.[1] The term "geochemical" tells us that geological and chemical factors are all included. The migration of heated and compressed chemical elements and compounds such as silicon, aluminium, and general alkali metals through the means of subduction and volcanism is known in the geological world as geochemical cycles. The geochemical cycle encompasses the natural separation and concentration of elements and heat-assisted recombination processes. Changes may not be apparent over a short term, such as with biogeochemical cycles, but over a long term changes of great magnitude occur, including the evolution of continents and oceans.[1] Contents Differentiating biogeochemical cycles Earth system Pathways Important cycles See also References Differentiating biogeochemical cycles Some may use the terms biogeochemical cycle and geochemical cycle interchangeably because both cycles deal with Earth's reservoirs. However, a biogeochemical cycle refers to the chemical interactions in surface reservoirs such as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere whereas a geochemical cycle refers to the chemical interactions that exist in crustal and sub crustal reservoirs such as the deep earth and lithosphere. Earth system The Earth, as a system, is open to radiation from the sun and space, but is practically closed with regard to matter.[2] As all closed systems, it follows the law of conservation of mass which -
Fact Sheet 5 Principles of Stone Extraction
QuarryScapes guide to ancient stone quarries Fact Sheet 5 Fact Sheet 5 Principles of stone extraction In all stone quarry situations the extraction phase rich) ones. Partly because they in general display is based on one or combinations of three the most brittle behaviour, but also because it is a fundamental principles: well documented fact (and experience among quarrymen) that siliceous rocks (granite in 1. Levering; expanding open fractures by particular) have well defined preferred splitting inserting levers, crowbars or stones 2. Splitting; creating fractures, preferable directions defined by microfractures in quartz. planar, by strokes (i.e. sledge hammer), Splitting by heating is caused by a combination of wedging; heating or blasting with thermal expansion properties and brittle explosives behaviour. It works best on quartz-rich rocks due 3. Channelling (carving); making channels in to the well known but poorly understood change the rock by carving with hammer and of mechanical properties of quartz when heated. chisel, pickaxe or stone tools, heating with fire, sawing or drilling Channelling is the third fundamental principle. Channels in the rock are made by removing the Levering may be described as the “simplest” way rock mass by chiselling, picking, sawing or of extraction, involving the expansion of natural heating. In most soft stone quarries from the cracks or other planes of weakness (such as Bronze Age onwards, channelling is the most bedding planes) using various tools. important extraction method. In most cases, channelling is combined with other methods. For Splitting may be defined as the act of generating instance, channels are made perpendicular to the new fractures for extracting rock. -
Chapter 2 Alaska’S Igneous Rocks
Chapter 2 Alaska’s Igneous Rocks Resources • Alaska Department of Natural Resources, 2010, Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys, Alaska Geologic Materials Center website, accessed May 27, 2010, at http://www.dggs.dnr.state.ak.us/?link=gmc_overview&menu_link=gmc. • Alaska Resource Education: Alaska Resource Education website, accessed February 22, 2011, at http://www.akresource.org/. • Barton, K.E., Howell, D.G., and Vigil, J.F., 2003, The North America tapestry of time and terrain: U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Investigations Series I-2781, 1 sheet. (Also available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/imap/i2781/.) • Danaher, Hugh, 2006, Mineral identification project website, accessed May 27, 2010, at http://www.fremontica.com/minerals/. • Digital Library for Earth System Education, [n.d.], Find a resource—Bowens reaction series: Digital Library for Earth System Education website, accessed June 10, 2010, at http://www.dlese.org/library/query.do?q=Bowens%20reaction%20series&s=0. • Edwards, L.E., and Pojeta, J., Jr., 1997, Fossils, rocks, and time: U.S. Geological Survey website. (Available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/fossils/contents.html.) • Garden Buildings Direct, 2010, Rocks and minerals: Garden Buildings Direct website, accessed June 4, 2010, at http://www.gardenbuildingsdirect.co.uk/Article/rocks-and- minerals. • Illinois State Museum, 2003, Geology online–GeoGallery: Illinois State Museum Society database, accessed May 27, 2010 at http://geologyonline.museum.state.il.us/geogallery/. • Knecht, Elizebeth, designer, Pearson, R.W., and Hermans, Majorie, eds., 1998, Alaska in maps—A thematic atlas: Alaska Geographic Society, 100 p. Lillie, R.J., 2005, Parks and plates—The geology of our National parks, monuments, and seashores: New York, W.W. -
COMPARISON of GRANITE and PRECAST CONCRETE CURBING Cost and Technical Issues
COMPARISON OF GRANITE AND PRECAST CONCRETE CURBING Cost and Technical Issues MICHAEL SOCK April 1999 Prepared for the Rhode Island Department of Transportation by the Research and Technology Development Section RHODE ISLAND DEPARTME NT OF TRANSPORTATION William D. Ankner , Ph. D., Director James R. Capaldi, P .E., Chief Engineer Colin A. Franco, P.E., Ma naging Engineer, R&TD Executive Summary This study was undertaken to determine the technical and economic feasibility of using granite curbing as an option within the normal practices of highway construction in Rhode Island. Previous studies have been carried out by various entities, including the RIDOT design section. These were reviewed and referenced where appropriate. For this endeavor, the R&TD Section began with a literature search and surveys of states and vendors in their usage of highway curbing. A trip to the Fletcher Granite Quarries in Chelmsford was also undertaken to get a first hand look at the curbing operation and logistics involved in the supply of curbing. Through an interview with Mr. Robert Fruggiero, retired RIDOT Materials Engineer, we learned details about the inception of zero slump concrete curbing. As the technical aspects of granite vs. concrete curbing had been studied and reported on previously, we decided just to overview these and focus our effort on the economics of initial and life cycle costs instead. Needed information was difficult to obtain. However, we did get the same from various sources, such as states, vendors, contractors, and RIDOT records. The life cycle costing was done using conventional formulae, but with three different interest rates. -
Cemetery Preservation QUICK TIPS
Georgia’s State Historic Preservation Office IIIIIICCCeeemmmeeettteeerrryyy PPPrrreeessseeerrrvvvaaatttiiiooonnn QQQUUUIIICCCKKK TTTIIIPPPSSSIIIIII Common Monument and Gravemarker Materials Below are brief descriptions of the most common stones and monument material types found in Georgia. Stones vary in hardness and therefore in their ability to survive satisfactorily outdoors in cemeteries, as well as their ability to withstand cleaning or restoration. The Mohs Scale of Mineral Hardness, created in 1812, establishes talc as the softest mineral material and diamond as the hardest. There is no need to determine the exact hardness of a stone you are working on. However, seeing how some common cemetery materials rank on the Mohs Scale can guide your choice of the best methods for working with them: Talc (see "soapstone" below) Marble Sandstone Granite Diamond 1 3-4 5 7-8 10 If identifying the type of stone is difficult, but will be important to a cemetery preservation project, referring to a stone/mineral field guide is recommended, or consulting with a geologist or other expert. Marker Material Descriptions MARBLE Marble has been used for a great many markers in historic cemeteries in Georgia. The state's marble industry dates back to the late 1830s, when outcroppings of surface marble were discovered in north Georgia. Quarrying began, and markers were carved and sold throughout the area. The Georgia marble industry still thrives today. Several different types of stone that can be polished are called marble. A true marble, though, is a metamorphic rock made up of calcium carbonate, traces of silica and iron oxides; it is rather soft and easily carved. -
Origin, Texture, and Classification of Metamorphic Rocks - Teklewold Ayalew
GEOLOGY – Vol. II - Origin, Texture, and Classification of Metamorphic Rocks - Teklewold Ayalew ORIGIN, TEXTURE, AND CLASSIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS Teklewold Ayalew Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia Keywords: aluminosilicates, assemblage, fabric, foliation, gneissose banding, index mineral, isograd, lineation, lithosphere, metamorphic facies, metasomatism, orogenic belt, schistosity Contents 1. Introduction 2. Occurrence 2.1. Orogenic Metamorphism 2.2. Contact Metamorphism 2.3. Ocean Floor Metamorphism 3. Classification 4. Minerals of Metamorphic Rocks 5. Metamorphic Facies 5.1. Facies of Very Low Grade 5.2. Greenschist Facies 5.3. Amphibolite Facies 5.4. Granulite Facies 5.5. Hornblende Hornfels Facies 5.6. Pyroxene Hornfels Facies 5.7. Blueschist Facies 5.8. Eclogite Facies 6. Tectonic Setting of Metamorphic Facies 7. Textures 7.1. Layering, Banding, and Fabric Development 8. Kinetics 8.1. Diffusion 8.2. Nucleation 8.3. Crystal Growth AcknowledgmentUNESCO – EOLSS Glossary Bibliography Biographical SketchSAMPLE CHAPTERS Summary Metamorphic rocks are igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks whose texture and composition has been changed by metamorphism. Metamorphism occurs as a response to changes in the physical or chemical environment of any pre-existing rock, such as variations in pressure or temperature, strain, or the infiltration of fluids. It involves recrystallization of existing minerals into new grains and/or the appearance of new mineral phases and breakdown of others. Metamorphic processes take place ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) GEOLOGY – Vol. II - Origin, Texture, and Classification of Metamorphic Rocks - Teklewold Ayalew essentially in the solid state. The rock mass does not normally disaggregate and lose coherence entirely; however small amounts of fluids are frequently present and may play an important catalytic role. -
Earth Systems and Interactions
The Earth System Earth Systems and Interactions Key Concepts • How do Earth systems What do you think? Read the three statements below and decide interact in the carbon whether you agree or disagree with them. Place an A in the Before column cycle? if you agree with the statement or a D if you disagree. After you’ve read • How do Earth systems this lesson, reread the statements to see if you have changed your mind. interact in the phosphorus Before Statement After cycle? 1. The amount of water on Earth remains constant over time. 2. Hydrogen makes up the hydrosphere. 3. Most carbon on Earth is in the atmosphere. 3TUDY#OACH Earth Systems Make a Table Contrast the carbon cycle and the Your body contains many systems. These systems work phosphorus cycle in a two- together and make one big system—your body. Earth is a column table. Label one system, too. Like you, Earth has smaller systems that work column Carbon Cycle and together, or interact, and make the larger Earth system. Four the other column Phosphorus of these smaller systems are the atmosphere, the Cycle. Complete the table hydrosphere, the geosphere, and the biosphere. as you read this lesson. The Atmosphere Reading Check The outermost Earth system is a mixture of gases and 1. Identify What systems particles of matter called the atmosphere. It forms a layer make up the larger Earth around the other Earth systems. The atmosphere is mainly system? nitrogen and oxygen. Gases in the atmosphere move freely, helping transport matter and energy among Earth systems. -
Geologic Boulder Map of Campus Has Been Created As an Educational Educational an As Created Been Has Campus of Map Boulder Geologic The
Adam Larsen, Kevin Ansdell and Tim Prokopiuk Tim and Ansdell Kevin Larsen, Adam What is Geology? Igneous Geo-walk ing of marine creatures when the limestone was deposited. It also contains by edited and Written Geology is the study of the Earth, from the highest mountains to the core of The root of “igneous” is from the Latin word ignis meaning fire. Outlined in red, numerous fossils including gastropods, brachiopods, receptaculita and rugose the planet, and has traditionally been divided into physical geology and his- this path takes you across campus looking at these ancient “fire” rocks, some coral. The best example of these are in the Geology Building where the stone torical geology. Physical geology concentrates on the materials that compose of which may have been formed at great depths in the Earth’s crust. Created was hand-picked for its fossil display. Campus of the Earth and the natural processes that take place within the earth to shape by the cooling of magma or lava, they can widely vary in both grain size and Granite is another common building stone used on campus. When compa- its surface. Historical geology focuses on Earth history from its fiery begin- mineral composition. This walk stops at examples showing this variety to help nies sell granite, they do not use the same classification system as geologists. nings to the present. Geology also explores the interactions between the you understand what the change in circumstances will do to the appearance Granite is sold in many different colours and mineral compositions that a Map Boulder Geologic lithosphere (the solid Earth), the atmosphere, the biosphere (plants, animals of the rock. -
Part 629 – Glossary of Landform and Geologic Terms
Title 430 – National Soil Survey Handbook Part 629 – Glossary of Landform and Geologic Terms Subpart A – General Information 629.0 Definition and Purpose This glossary provides the NCSS soil survey program, soil scientists, and natural resource specialists with landform, geologic, and related terms and their definitions to— (1) Improve soil landscape description with a standard, single source landform and geologic glossary. (2) Enhance geomorphic content and clarity of soil map unit descriptions by use of accurate, defined terms. (3) Establish consistent geomorphic term usage in soil science and the National Cooperative Soil Survey (NCSS). (4) Provide standard geomorphic definitions for databases and soil survey technical publications. (5) Train soil scientists and related professionals in soils as landscape and geomorphic entities. 629.1 Responsibilities This glossary serves as the official NCSS reference for landform, geologic, and related terms. The staff of the National Soil Survey Center, located in Lincoln, NE, is responsible for maintaining and updating this glossary. Soil Science Division staff and NCSS participants are encouraged to propose additions and changes to the glossary for use in pedon descriptions, soil map unit descriptions, and soil survey publications. The Glossary of Geology (GG, 2005) serves as a major source for many glossary terms. The American Geologic Institute (AGI) granted the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) permission (in letters dated September 11, 1985, and September 22, 1993) to use existing definitions. Sources of, and modifications to, original definitions are explained immediately below. 629.2 Definitions A. Reference Codes Sources from which definitions were taken, whole or in part, are identified by a code (e.g., GG) following each definition. -
Metamorphic Rocks.Pdf
Metamorphism & Metamorphic Rocks (((adapted from Brunkel, 2012) Metamorphic Rocks . Changed rocks- with heat and pressure . But not melted . Change in the solid state . Textural changes (always) . Mineralogy changes (usually) Metamorphism . The mineral changes that transform a parent rock to into a new metamorphic rock by exposure to heat, stress, and fluids unlike those in which the parent rock formed. granite gneiss Geothermal gradient Types of Metamorphism . Contact metamorphism – – Happens in wall rock next to intrusions – HEAT is main metamorphic agent . Contact metamorphism Contact Metamorphism . Local- Usually a zone only a few meters wide . Heat from plutons intruded into “cooler” country rock . Usually forms nonfoliated rocks Types of Metamorphism . Hydrothermal metamorphism – – Happens along fracture conduits – HOT FLUIDS are main metamorphic agent Types of Metamorphism . Regional metamorphism – – Happens during mountain building – Most significant type – STRESS associated with plate convergence & – HEAT associated with burial (geothermal gradient) are main metamorphic agents . Contact metamorphism . Hydrothermal metamorphism . Regional metamorphism . Wide range of pressure and temperature conditions across a large area regional hot springs hydrothermal contact . Regional metamorphism Other types of Metamorphism . Burial . Fault zones . Impact metamorphism Tektites Metamorphism and Plate Tectonics . Fault zone metamorphism . Mélange- chaotic mixture of materials that have been crumpled together Stress (pressure) . From burial -
Streaming of Saline Fluids Through Archean Crust
Lithos 346–347 (2019) 105157 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Lithos journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/lithos Streaming of saline fluids through Archean crust: Another view of charnockite-granite relations in southern India Robert C. Newton a,⁎, Leonid Ya. Aranovich b, Jacques L.R. Touret c a Dept. of Earth, Planetary and Spaces, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA b Inst. of Ore Deposits, Petrography, Mineralogy and Geochemistry, Russian Academy of Science, Moscow RU-119017, Russia c 121 rue de la Réunion, F-75020 Paris, France article info abstract Article history: The complementary roles of granites and rocks of the granulite facies have long been a key issue in models of the Received 27 June 2019 evolution of the continental crust. “Dehydration melting”,orfluid-absent melting of a lower crust containing H2O Received in revised form 25 July 2019 only in the small amounts present in biotite and amphibole, has raised problems of excessively high tempera- Accepted 26 July 2019 tures and restricted amounts of granite production, factors seemingly incapable of explaining voluminous bodies Available online 29 July 2019 of granite like the Archean Closepet Granite of South India. The existence of incipient granulite-facies metamor- phism (charnockite formation) and closely associated migmatization (melting) in 2.5 Ga-old gneisses in a quarry Keywords: fl Charnockite exposure in southern India and elsewhere, with structural, chemical and mineral-inclusion evidence of uid ac- Granite tion, has encouraged a wetter approach, in consideration of aqueous fluids for rock melting which maintain suf- Saline fluids ficiently low H2O activity for granulite-facies metamorphism.