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The Dilemma and Dynamics of Mongolia's Foreign Policy After The

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ௐ 4 ഇ! ࢱ 75-95! 2020 ѐ/΋؞ཱི !ס έ៉઼ᅫࡁտ؞Ώ! ௐ 16 Taiwan International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 75-95 Winter 2020 蒙古建國後外交政策的困境與動力 ࡰ஽ܲ ૩̋ࡊԫ̂ጯ̳ВᙯܼၱᇃӘրઘି଱ ၡ ࢋ ᄋΟВ׶઼д 156 ༱π̳֧͞۞˿г˯่ѣࡗ 320 ༱ˠĂߏБ஧ ೀЩˠ˾౵ං͌۞઼छĄ఺̰࣎ౙ઼छ׎гநҜཉ˯Ϊѣܻᘲ೻ͽ݈ ᇆᜩ˭Ăٕ۞اѐ۞።Ϋдѩ׌࣎ዐ 300 ܕĂ҃ᄋΟا׌࣎ዐ઼̈́̚ ͹઼Ăٕүࠎᛂᓑ۞኎ߐ઼Ąд఺ᇹ۞ˠ˾ං͌Ăགྷᑻ̂؟؇୻઼ࠎ ڦඕၹ˭ĂҬͼڼᏥ઼̚ăܻᘲ೻Ăͽ̈́ӵдܻ̝̚ม۞гቡ߆಼ֶ γ۞ޢ઼ޙજ˧Ąώኢ͛ଣ੅ᄋΟٺؠ˞ᄋΟγϹ߆ඉ۞ӧဩϖᅈк ҌᛂᓑϞྋ݈Ăͽᛂᓑ኎ߐ઼۞ޢ઼ޙᄋΟд۞઼ޙϹ߆ඉĄ1921 ѐ ๕ລ˯ϔ͹঎ഈĂ൴ण΍ҋึޢᛂมವՐπᏊĂдᛂᓑϞྋ̚ٺ֎Ғ ᄋΟ઼ٺĺ઼छщБၹຐĻᄃĺγϹ߆ඉၹຐĻĄඊ۰֭Ϗ඾ግ۞̎ ˵ड़ৈࠎңĉ۞זٙ଀ޢҖĺ઼छщБၹຐĻᄃĺγϹ߆ඉၹຐĻે ՟ѣు˘̬௜ᄋΟᄃЧ઼۞ᙯܼтңႊซĉᄋΟણΐ˞к͌кᙝ௡ ಏ͞ࢬ͞ءᖐĉ̬ˢ˞к઼͌ᅫ߿જĉᄏЯ఺ֱೡّࢗ۞̰ट่ߏ ĂΪਕͅߍᄋΟ઼д઼ᅫᄅέ˯ు႙߿᜙Ăҭ̙ਕڍౘࢗ۞࿅඀ᄃј ׎઼छՀщБăγϹՀ፾ϲĄĺ઼छщБၹຐĻᄃĺγϹ߆ඉၹځᙋ ຐĻ۞ჟល̈́ႊซ̖ߏώኢ͛ჸ൏ٙдĄ ᙯᔣෟĈ઼छщБၹຐăγϹ߆ඉၹຐăௐˬዐ઼߆ඉ ăௐ 4 ഇĞ2020/΋؞ཱིğס Įέ៉઼ᅫࡁտ؞Ώįௐ 16 76 壹、前言 ઼࡚੃۰೻ᏚĞEdgar Snow, 1905-72ğణયॡܑצдତڌѐͨ፨ 1936 ొ˘ĂγᄋΟВ׶઼૟Ξֶ׎ຍᙸјࠎ̚රᓑ֣۞ޢϯĈĶ༊ˠϔࢭ׻јΑ В׶ڼवͽ̈́ဦ౾ˠĞҘᖟˠğ૟Ξͽјࠎ̚රᓑ֣۞ҋܫĄϿ೻ᜋି̶ ͹ཌྷ۰͘̚ќೇٙѣεгĉķ઼ޓķĄ೻ᏚયĈĶ઼̚ˠϔߏӎࢋଂ͟ώ઼ ݱͽݑ۞͹ᝋĂ˵ࢋќೇԧ઼Бొ۞εгĄ఺ಶߏܜаඍĈĶ่̙ࢋܲ኎ͨ ᄲ႕߷υืќೇĄҭԧࣇ̙֭ԯ઼̚ͽ݈۞തϔгഈᔿΒ߁д̰Ą༊ԧࣇ ͹ཌྷ۰઼ޓഈᔿˠϔԓ୕ଲ௲͟ώڍĂтޢќа઼̚۞εгĂ྿ј፾ϲͽ έ៉Ąķٺ፾ϲ۞ጼ੽Ą఺˘ᕇТᇹዋϡפۋᴼᗆĂԧࣇ૟ሤধ͚೯΁ࣇ۞ ڌĞՂ✕पĂ2015ć߉ϒዡĂ2016Ĉ50ğॡҌ̫͟аᐝ࠻఺˘߱ྖĂͨ፨ Вயᛨ઼઼̈́̚ϔᛨ၆఺߱።Ϋෛ઼̚۞ڌᄮؠᑕྍ፾ϲ۞έ៉ݒజͨ፨ ڌ֍Ă၆׌઼ˠϔૻᏮĶέ៉ߏ઼̚׽ѣᅳ˿ķ۞ຍᙊԛၗćдͨ፨̙҃ В׶ڼवͽ̈́ဦ౾ˠĞҘᖟˠğ૟Ξͽјࠎ̚රᓑ֣۞ҋܫϿ೻ᜋି྆ீ В׶઼ķΪ̙ڼĂĶҋڱͼ჌୉ໝ඗۞үܕĂ၆໰̚ВᇴȈѐ၆ྍડְ˘઼ γᄋΟВ׶઼ֶ׎ຍᙸјޞഇڌ፨ͨٺ९ּ̝˘ćҌ۞઼ޓ࿅ߏ̚Вᓿ֏ Δضࠎ̚රᓑ֣۞˘ొ̶Ă֍ኜ઼̚၆ݑĞ̰ğᄋΟ۞̼͛ໝ඗ĂΪਕᇉ ം۞௲̚ԭፄĄځ˞ĞγğᄋΟˠϔઇ ఺ቔኢ͛ଣ੅ѝд 1921 ѐӈ̏፾ϲ۞ᄋΟĞγᄋΟƝΔᄋΟğ׎γϹ ٚᄮ׎፾ϲĂ1949ع߆ඉ۞ӧဩᄃજ˧ĄᄋΟд 1946 ѐӈజ̚රϔ઼߆ οࢦາٚᄮᄋΟࠎ˘፾ϲ઼छĄކѐ 2002 ٺ˫ঐٚᄮĂפعѐ̚රϔ઼߆ ˧රˠВ׶઼݋д 1949 ѐٚᄮ׎፾ϲгҜĄᄋΟγϹ߆ඉ۞ӧဩᄃજ҃̚ ˘ࠧᕇᄃѩ˟઼ٚᄮƝ̙ٚᄮᄋΟ፾ϲ൑ᙯĂඊ۰ߏͽᛂᓑϞྋ۞̶֤۞ ѐઇ˘̶࣎ࠧᕇĄдѩ̝݈ᄋΟγϹѣ׎Ķ׌̝̂มᙱࠎ̈ķ۞ӧဩĂд ᄋΟు႙൴णкࢬШγϹĂणன׎ϔ͹઼छ۞γϹજ˧Ąॡมᕇ۞ޢѩ̝ ĂޢᄲᛂᓑϞྋͽ݈ĂᄋΟ۞γϹԆБߏӧဩćٕߏᄲᛂᓑϞྋ̝ܧ̶֭ࠧ Ąϡॡมᕇኢࢗӧဩᄃજ˧Ϊਕᄲᛂᓑ۞Ϟྋߏ˘࣎ؕܐ˧ߏᄋΟγϹજ ҾߏӧဩƝજ˧Ą̶ޢ౷Ϟྋ݈Ɲ̷ܧᖼԶᕇĂ֭ γϹ߆ඉ۞ӧဩᄃજ˧ 77ޢ઼ޙᄋΟ 貳、歷史背景分析與蒙古外交政策的困境 ఺઼࣎छ۞̂̈ăˠ˾۞кٺՙפ˯ޘ඀۞̂ޝ઼࣎छ۞γϹ߆ඉ˘ ဿăགྷᑻ˧ณͽ̈́ٙд۞ҜཉĄ҃ᄋΟВ׶઼ࣣрд఺ೀ͞ࢬপҾ۞ࡎ΍Ą д 156 ༱π̳֧͞۞˿г˯่ѣࡗ 320 ༱ˠĂߏБ஧݈ೀЩˠ˾౵ං͌۞ Ǖܻᘲ೻ͽ઼̈́̚Ą҃఺اछĄ఺̰࣎ౙ઼छ׎гநҜཉ˯Ϊѣ׌࣎ዐ઼ ѐ۞።ΫĞSchmücking, 2015: 21ğĄͽ 2018 300 ܕЧҋ͹ጱ˞ᄋΟا׌࣎ዐ ѐᄋΟ۞ซ΍˾ֽ໚઼छ௚ࢍֽ࠻׎གྷᑻ˧ณĂд΍˾͞ࢬĂ઼̚ೀͼᝃ 2%ćдซ˾͞ࢬĂ઼̚ᄃܻᘲ೻ࡗЧ ז߁ᄋΟ 9 јͽ˯΍˾ณĂࡻăܻ̙ ΍˾யݡĂࡗ۞؟јĄᚩயߏᄋΟ౵̂ 1.5 זҫ 3 јĂ׎ዶ࡚ă͟ăᔹඈ̙ ˾Κ˞ 8 јҌ 9 јĞWorld Integrated Trade Solution, c. 2018ğĄд఺ᇹ۞ˠ ඕၹ˭Ăڼං͌Ăགྷᑻ಼ֶ̂Ꮵ઼̚ăܻᘲ೻Ăͽ̈́ӵдܻ̝̚ม۞гቡ߆ જ˧Ąٺؠ˞ᄋΟγϹ߆ඉ۞ӧဩϖᅈкڦҬͼ Ă֭˘ۡдᄋΟჯ޺඾གྷᑻăֽـଂ 16 ͵ࡔ੓ՒܻಶฟؕᄃᄋΟгડ ҝд͖ጨՒ႐ͽΔ۞ᄋΟ୉Ăкا̼͛۞ᇆᜩ˧Ą1691 ѐ༊႐ΔᄋΟ୉Ğ ॡĂޓϲ۞୻઼૵Ⴇ࠱ޙன̫ΔᄋΟгડĂϺჍγᄋΟğഈᖭ႕୉ٙٺҶ̶ யϠត̼Ą1913 ѐ 11̖ޢϻࢭ׻֙זۡ˘˭ڼன̫۞ᄋΟ઼ಶд୻઼௚ ͹ᝋķĂ̚ă؟͛ІĻĂγᄋΟٚᄮ઼̚۞Ķځᘪࢎ˞ĺܻ̚ᓏܻ̚͟ 5 ͡ ͹ᝋ҃؟Ăࠎ઼̚ᅳ˿̝˘ొ̶Ą઼ܲ̚ѣ၆γᄋΟ۞ڼٚᄮγᄋΟҋܻ ͹ᝋĂ҃Ւܻ݋ܲ޺˞дγᄋΟ۞Ч჌পᝋĞჯૄѺࡊĂ2020ağĄҋѩĂܧ ᄋΟд 1921 ѐ፾ϲ̝ॡĂ઼ܻдγזۡ˘၆ᄋΟ۞ᇆᜩ˧ᄃ࣌͟ᆧĄ઼ܻ Вய͹ཌྷĂЯѩυצᄋΟѣˬ࣎͹ࢋӀৈĄௐ˘Ă઼ܻᄮࠎᄋΟѣΞਕତ Ꮵᄃ̓ኖćௐ˟ĂᄋΟ۞ጼரгҜࢦࢋّćௐˬĂ઼ܻܫᒔ଀ᄋΟˠ۞ื ͹ཌྷ઼ޓܧᛂᓑ֭ځᙋٺυืٚᄮ઼̚дᄋΟ۞ొ̶ᝋ˧Ăѩᓝѣӄ ĞNemzer, 1939Ĉ456ğĄ Ăд 1924 ѐᆿੵӖ͹ϲጳعѐ፾ϲ۞γᄋΟߏ˘࣎Ӗ͹ϲጳ߆ 1921 ĂјϲᄋΟˠϔВ׶઼ĞMongolia People’s RepublicğĄ༊ॡ۞̚රϔ઼ט ጼĂΞᄲߏ൑˟זĂଂΔЂăࣧ̂̚ጼă઼В̰ጼޢдଯᖙ႕୻عϔ߆઼ ăௐ 4 ഇĞ2020/΋؞ཱིğס Įέ៉઼ᅫࡁտ؞Ώįௐ 16 78 ˧఍நγᄋΟયᗟĄ1945 ѐ઼࡚࿰ҤтࢋБࢬᑝሚ͟ώĂᅮᜁࠗ 100 ༱࡚ ѐ 2 ͡ฮႬ྿ 1945 ٺĂڒРႬົТΫ྿ܘ࢕ᄃ 50 ༱ࡻ࢕ĂЯѩᘲ೻჊ᄃ дົᛉ˯ٚڒጼĄࠎѩĂΫ྿ކĂ၆͟ޢᛉ̚ࢋՐᛂᓑд၆ᇇүጼ౼Ӏົ םҌˬ̝̰࣎͡Ăᛂᓑֶፂͽ˭୧І˟ޢඕՁۋᏚĂдᇇ઼Ըࢫăለ߷ጼ ჯ޺ĞDi̟ืېǕγᄋΟĞᄋΟˠϔВ׶઼ğ۞னۋӄТ༖઼ણΐ၆͟ጼ Crocco, 1964: 21ğĄ ԇ̄͛ᄮࠎγᄋܜࣘγϹొܜҖ߆ੰعĉॡЇ઼ϔ߆ېңᏜγᄋΟன םಶߏჯ޺ 1924 ѐᛂᓑٚᄮ઼̚ጾѣγᄋ͹ᝋ̝ĺ̚ᛂྋՙᚙ९̂ჩېன ؠĂޭೇ׌઼̝ม۞γםĄॲፂྍېؠĻğٙѣனםؠĻĞϺჍĺ1924 ̚ᛂ ТຍࢦາထؠᛂعĶֳѣপঅᝋӀ׶পᝋķć׌઼߆عϹᙯܼć١඗ᛂᓑ߆ ݋ᄮڒซҖ޽ؠ۞ᑭߤࠎͤĄ҃Ϋ྿זᙝࠧĂ֭ᚶᜈჯ޺னѣᙝࠧĂۡ̚ ࠎĶᄋΟˠϔВ׶઼ķѩ˘ЩෟĂ֭೩΍઼̚ࢋٚᄮγᄋΟ۞ېࠎγᄋன ࢦࢋ۞ጼரгҜĂ૱ܧٺчĂ఍֨۞ొڌᄮࠎγᄋ၆ҘұӀֲڒ፾ϲĄΫ྿ ᝋĞჯૄѺࡊĂ2020bğĄ1945 ѐ 8 ̚͡ᛂдం೻ࡊᘪޠڱᛂ͞ᑕѣҋ኎۞ γᄋΟયᗟᛉՙт˭Ĉ˘ăᛂ࢕ˬ̰࣎͡ଂٺࢎĺ̚ᛂ̓рТ༖୧ࡗĻĂ၆ عγᄋΟˠϔ˘Гܑϯ׎፾ϲᙸ୕Ă̚රϔ઼߆ٺΔĶၣԆķć˟ăĶᝥڌ ᓝҖ̳ϔԸைͽቁؠγᄋ۞፾ϲķĂ̯ధ૟ֶ̳ϒ̝ޢТຍĂ૟д͟ώጼୀ ՙؠߏӎٚᄮᄋΟˠϔВ׶઼Ą1945 ѐ 10 ͡ 20 ͟ĂγᄋڍϔԸை۞ඕ̳ ពϯ 97%۞̳ϔᙒјᄋΟˠϔВ׶઼۞፾ϲڍΟᓝҖ̳ϔԸைĂඕ ĞWikipedia, 2020ağĄ ͹઼ķ۞ϲಞĂ้Шϡ઼̚۞؟ͽ˯ኢࢗ۞ϡෟͧྵညߏ৭дᄋΟĶ ᄋΟ።Ϋ۞ᖎٺᕇֽ࠻ᄋΟ͹ᝋᕩᛳĄҭߏ࠻࠻ᄋΟ઼ዸ઼ֹ࡚̂ᐡᙯ៍ ۰֎ҒĞEmbassy of Mongolia to the UnitedܬಏኢࢗĂኢࢗͧ̚ྵૻአజˢ States of American. n.d.ğĈ Ąдତڇفѐజ 1691 ٺᄋΟĄγᄋΟ̰˞ڇفѐ 1636 ٺ႕୻ͳഈ ο፾ϲĄҭކѐ 1911 זĂۡڼ୻ഈ௚צۡ˘ѐ྆ĂᄋΟ 200 ۞ֽ˭ ܬѐˢ 1919 ٺ൒૟ĶγᄋΟķෛࠎ׎̚˘ొ̶Ă̪֭عߏĂ઼̚߆ ᄋΟĄ1921 ѐĂˠϔࢭ׻д઼ܻࡓ࢕۞ᑒӄ˭дᄋΟᒔ౼ĂᄋΟ˞ ӘјϲĂކјࠎ͵ࠧௐ˟̂ۤົ͹ཌྷ઼छĄ1924 ѐᄋΟˠϔВ׶઼ γϹ߆ඉ۞ӧဩᄃજ˧ 79ޢ઼ޙᄋΟ ϤᛂᓑٺѐĂᄋΟ˘ۡ఍ 1990 זĄଂ 1921 ѐڱ఼࿅˞ௐ˘ొጳ֭ Вய͹ཌྷ߆ᝋ˭Ąд 1989 ѐࡌ͇׶ 1990 ѐߋ؞ĂᄋΟฟؕ۞ڼ௚ ለВய͹ཌྷ߆ᝋϞྋĄ1990 ѐ 3ڌຐሗ߹Ąᛂᓑᄃޥڼ΍னາ۞߆ ୢВய͹ཌྷĂٸϔ͹ࢭ׻ጱ࡭ᄋΟ۞عâಞͽ඗ࢴԩᛉଯᖙ߆͡ ׶ξಞགྷᑻĄڱĂາጳטጱШ˞кᛨ ᄋ˞ܬѐˢ 1919 ٺ൒૟γᄋΟෛࠎ׎̚˘ొ̶Ă̪֭عήĶ઼̚߆˘ 1924 זۡ˘ĂޢΟķ྽Ⴝ˞జ΁઼ᜦࣝ۞ೌݖĄଂ 1921 ѐ۞ᄋΟࢭ׻ᘕ൴ ᄋΟ˘ۡߏᛂᓑ۞઼᜕ܲĄ1921 ѐ፾ϲ۞ޢѐᄋΟˠϔВ׶઼۞јϲĂѩ ᛂᓑϞྋயϠາזѐĄۡ 70 ˭غдᛂᓑܢĂݒֶܬᄋΟ௲ᗓ˞઼̚۞ˢ۞ ԊࢬĄྋវ݈۞ᛂᓑੵ˞ 15 ࣎ΐ༖В׶઼̝γĂᔘѣధк۞኎ߐ઼ĂΒ۞ ለڌለ઼छͽ̈́дֲ߷۞ᄋΟ׶ഈᔿĄᄋΟд̚ለ׶ڌ߁රՒ̳ࡗ௡ᖐ۞ छјࠎᛂᓑ኎ߐ઼۞݈ 20 ѐӈ̏ߏ኎ߐ઼Ăߏᛂᓑдֲ߷۞ௐ˘࣎኎ߐ઼ ઼ĞWikipedia, 2020bğĄ જྻି؟ᛂᓑԬങ۞ᄋΟ߆ᝋǕᄋΟˠϔࢭ׻ᛨĂдͅצѐ΃Ă 1930 ᑅ࢝঎ሗ̚୭च˞ј˼˯༱ˠĄॡЇᄋΟˠϔࢭ׻ᛨ̚δ؎ࣶົ۞ڼ׶߆ ଯҖ۞Вய͹ཌྷགྷᑻ߆ඉ۞ܐ३੃ॲ൳ĞPeljidiin Gendenğјࠎ 1930 ѐ΃ ঐռѣЋຽĂᙯౕъᇁ֭פะវ̼Ăטଯજ۰̝˘Ă఺ֱ߆ඉΒ߁ૻޢ၌ ͤ̚΄˭ߏ͔੓Ϥಋဗᅳጱ۞Ķͅࢭ׻ķĄం೻ࡊڍ՟ќҢି۞ੑயĄ׎ඕ ѐ 5 ͡ૠ୭˞кҜྏဦĶ࿅ѝķଯซВய 1932 ٺ߆ඉĂ֭ͷ۞عᄋΟ߆˞ צ͹ཌྷନ߉۞ᄋΟˠϔࢭ׻ᛨᅳጱˠĞWikipedia, 2020cğĄॲ൳ྴ࿅˘Ӄ֭ ڒࢋՐॲ൳ঐໝྍ઼෹࿅ 100,000 ЩజΫ྿ڒΫ྿ޢ೩٥ࠎᓁநĄᐌڒΫ྿ ο˞ҋ̎۞ᙸ୕Ǖކѐ̳ฟ 1933 ٺჍࠎĶ̰ᄋΟ۞ᇲˠķǕಋဗĄॲ൳ ЈĄం೻ࡊ૟ॲ൳ၣᖚĂགྷᆶܫķĂ̯֭ధಋဗ̳ฟ၁ኹۋү੽ି؟Ķ̙ᄃ ѐ 11 ͡ 26 ͟дం 1937 ٺٚᄮᄃĶ࡚ٛͅજࠁķ׶Ķ͟ώมᏗķВᏖĂੈ ႳႬĞAnandyn Amarğܠ࢕ְ؎ࣶົ఍ՙĄ΁۞ᚶٚ۰ੰڱ೻ࡊజᛂᓑ౵੼ ѐдజ఍ՙĂ΁ 1941 ٺᛂᓑĂ֭ـϺͽĶࠎ͟ώଂְมᏗ߿જķజॏĂਖ਼ ѐ 3 ͡ 7 ͟۞ົᛉ˯ă̈́ 1941 ѐ 7 ͡ 10 ͟дᆶҿ࿅඀̚൴֏ 1939 ٺҾ̶ ĞWikipedia, 2020dğĈ ăௐ 4 ഇĞ2020/΋؞ཱིğס Įέ៉઼ᅫࡁտ؞Ώįௐ 16 80 ᄋΟᑕྍિؠгјࠎ˘࣎፾ϲ۞઼छĄܫĂҭԧՀ࠹ି؟Јдܫԧ۞ ԧ۞ٺ఺ߏԧ۞ְຽĄԧ̏གྷதАᚥ֗ځԧຑԧ۞য়઼Ąԧ̏གྷܑ Ꮠீϫ༜ҋ̎జჍࠎݔवĂٺয়઼۞൴णĂ҃΄ԧ͕༤۞ߏĂԧ௣ ࡳయĄזצ֭ ᓁநᑕعᄋΟˠϔВ׶઼ߏ˘࣎ৌϒ۞፾ϲ઼छĂ֤ᆃ΁۞߆ڍт ߏงॏ׶ܮलᆶҿĄ༊˘࣎ૻᝋതϔ˘઼࣎̈ॡĂ׏ݭڱ༊జᄋΟ Ąޘᛂᓑ၆ᄋΟಶߏ఺ᇹ۞ၗ˞ځ࢝च׎ᅳጱˠĄԧ࣎ˠ۞གྷរܑ ఺ಞҕབྷ̂ૠ୭ጱ࡭ಕ͐̋ĞKhorloogiin ChoibalsanğјࠎᓁநĂ΁జ ચᛂᓑдֲ߷۞Ӏৈࠎϫ۞1Ąಕ͐̋ڇķĂ֭ឰҋ̎ͽڒჍࠎĶᄋΟ۞Ϋ྿ ϲ̚රˠϔВ׶઼̝ޙѐ 1949 ٺĂд઼̚Вயᛨڱԓ୕௚˘ፋ࣎ᄋΟ۞ຐ ࠎᄃ̚В̓рĂ̙ົ͚޺ݑΔᄋΟ௚˘Ą1950ڒՀࠎૻধĄ൒҃ĂΫ྿ޢ ѐ༊፨൳͐ႬĞYumjaagiin TsedenbalĂഅЇᄋΟᓁநğ೶ܳಕ͐̋૲ᅳᄋ ຐĂޥΟΐˢᛂᓑĂజಕ͐̋ᚑᆖϋయĄಕ͐̋ѣ඾ૻধ۞ᄋΟϔ୉͹ཌྷ ం೻ࡊĞWikipedia, 2020eğĄಕ͐̋۞ᚶЇ۰፨൳͐Ⴌٺڢѐ 1952 ٺ౵௣ дೠᝋҌ 1984 ѐ۞Їഇ̚Ăഅ೩΍̣Ѩͽ˯Ķ૟ᄋΟৼˢᛂᓑķ۞ࢋՐĂ ߏĂᛂ۞וᛂᓑᅳጱˠ۞١඗ĞWikipedia, 2020fğĄᏝזҭ఺ֱ೩ᛉᓁߏዎ ం೻ࡊщ൒ੜЃĄѩᓝϤـᓑ౵௣ՙؠд 1984 ѐ૟፨൳͐ႬၣᖚĂ૟΁ਖ਼ ༊ॡӈ૟˯Ї۞͖͐ݵ͈ĞMikhail Gorbachevğ͹ጱĂొ̶ࣧЯߏ፨൳͐ Ⴌ۞ͅර៍ᕇ݇ऴ˞ం೻ࡊ၆ԼචᄃΔִᙯܼ۞ӀৈĞRadchenko, 2020ğĄ Ϊߏᛂᓑ۞ޢ༊ᛂᓑΞͽၣೱᄋΟᅳጱˠॡĂ̙ᙱຐညᄋΟдҽጼ݈ Б൒่ߏ࣎౱ᐻĂቁ̷ܧ֭˵ᛂᓑĄ̙࿅ĂᄋΟٺ࣎ഗ̄Ăͷ఍఍᝘׻˘ ҋ֗ӀৈĄ༊̚ᛂ̓рॡĂ׌࣎ዐ઼פᄲĂιྼ֕д઼̚ᄃᛂᓑ̝มᏖֽ ຐٛᘇᄋΟĂᄋΟд઼̚ᄃᛂᓑ۞೯ӄ̚ᒔӀć༊̚ᛂѣ๻ᅩॡĂᄋΟౌ :ฟ͚ؕ޺ᛂᓑĂ֭ͷд෸ጼă̚Оᙝࠧ኏ࡎඈᛉᗟ˯͚޺ᛂᓑĞRahul, 1978 ზߏ˘࣎ԛटෟĄ઼࡚ᓁ௚઼छщБᜪયᘲұপ‧๸「ڒĂॡҌ̫͟Ă「Ϋ྿ޢкѐͽ 1 ܕᚶٚˠĄ௫۞ڒπߏ݈ᛂᓑ፾෗۰Ϋ྿ܕοᏥाĞRobert O’BrienğჍ̚Вᅳጱˠ௫ ăטຐଠޥրЕҖજĈͅჺĞ୻߾ğăะᝋĞ፾෗ğăଯซ࣎ˠૣ޵ăΐૻ˘۞ޢπ˯έ ۞ڒඈĂ൑˘̙ពϯ΁ᚶٚ˞Ϋ྿טχᑅளᛉˠ̀ăͅҘ͞ăࠤҌᆧΐ઼छ၆གྷᑻ۞ଠ җ௦Ğ઼࡚̝ࢰĂ2020ğĄ γϹ߆ඉ۞ӧဩᄃજ˧ 81ޢ઼ޙᄋΟ 659ğĄ1946 ѐॡᄋΟᄃᛂᓑᘪࢎĺ̓р̢ӄ୧ࡗĻĞTreaty of Friendship and Mutual Aid with the Soviet Unionğć1949 ѐ̚රˠϔВ׶઼јϲॡĂᄋΟд ᛉĻם༊ѐ 10 ͡ 16 ͟ӈٚᄮ઼̚ć1952 ѐᄃ઼̚ᘪࢎĺགྷᑻ̼͛Ъү ĞAgreement of Economic and Cultural Corporation with ChinağĄ1950 ѐ΃۞ ,үࠎ઼̚ᄃᛂᓑ̝ม۞፜ሇĂ֭ᄃᗕᙝܲ޺̓рᙯܼĞBatbayarٺᄋΟሄ 2003: 953ğĄ ဳ၆Вய͹ཌྷ઼छ۞ۋ޽యᛂᓑᅳጱߏ࣒ϒ͹ཌྷĂ׌઼ڌѐͨ፨ 1961 ᝋĂ60 ѐ΃̚ഇ༊̚ᛂ̶ෘॡĂᄋΟᏴፄ͚޺ᛂᓑĄ1966 ѐᄋΟᄃంטଠ ೻ࡊᘪཌ ĺᗕᙝ୧ࡗĻĞTreaty of Friendship, Corporation and Mutual Assistance Between the USSR and the Mongolian People's RepublicğĞBatbayar, 2003: 953ğĄ ௐ 5 ୧ ቙ࡗᗕ͞૟೩ֻ̢ӄĂቁܲ׌઼д઼֨͞ࢬ۞ሕ˧Ăਕ੨Ъۤົ͹ થԾᙯঘ̈́׌઼םཌྷะဥ̙ᕝૻ̼۞઼֨˧ณЇચĂࢎࡗ͞૟࠹̢ Ӏৈă׶πᄃ઼ᅫӀৈЪү۞ࢦࢋ઼ᅫયᗟĂ֭ώ඾։р็௚۞ჟ υࢋନ߉ĂΒ߁࢕ְନ߉ĂפৠĂͽ̈́ᓑЪ઼௡ᖐ۞ጳౢĂᓑЪଳ ቁܲ׌઼۞щБ፾ϲ드˿ԆፋĄ ௐ 10 ୧ ѩ୧ࡗჯ޺ 20 ѐѣड़Ă઄నᘪࡗᗕ͞Ї˘͞д୧ࡗഇ႕݈ 12 ࣎͡ ѐĄ 10 ܜୢ̝ຍĂՏ˘Ѩ଀ҋજؼٸϏܑ྿ Ķ࢕ְନ߉ķĂᛂᓑΞͽдᄋΟዸ௛࢕ฤͽ̈́ొפፂѩࡗѣᙯᓑЪଳֶ ഇ̖εΝ˞үޢѐ΃ 1980 זۡ˘ཌࢳᇅૄгĂᄋΟߏ̚ᛂ኏ࡎ۞౵݈ቢĂ ,ࠎᛂᓑ኎ߐ۞гҜĂд׌઼̝࣎̂γ൴णᄃҘ͞۞ᙯܼүࠎπᏊĞGanbat நវրĂᓝҖ˞ؠഇᏴڼϲ˞ઉБ۞ϔ͹ޙ92ğĄ1990 ѐ΃۞ᄋΟᔘ :2012 ğĂֳѣ֏ኢҋϤĂะົҋϤ׶ඕۤҋϤĂטតј׌ᛨ̏˯ޘ඀̂ޝᓝĞд ၆ͧĄ۞ځ఺ᄃᄋΟ۞׌࣎ૻᝋዐ઼ԛј˞ᔿ ăௐ 4 ഇĞ2020/΋؞ཱིğס Įέ៉઼ᅫࡁտ؞Ώįௐ 16 82 參、蒙古外交政策的動力 ለ۞ڌୢ၆ٸለۤົ͹ཌྷ઼छ࠹ᚶݲέĂᛂᓑڌѐ΃ϐഇĂᐌ඾ 1980 Җͽ̈́ௐ˘࣎ͅ၆ᛨྼރĄ1989 ѐᛂᓑฟؕଂᄋΟၣ࢕ĂᄋΟ΍னϯטଠ ܝѣ׌჌ᓏࢰĂߏӎࢋт઼͇̚щొ̰عůᄋΟϔ͹ᓑ༖Ąѩॡ۞ᄋΟ߆ ለ઼छซҖԼࢭĄॲፂᄋΟ݈Вᛨᓁ३੃ڌІਠ΍һᗉᑅĂԺٕߏтְ ࢋឰ၆͞ᆄ̄߹ҕ۞гՎĞCampi, 2019: 4ğĄזJamba BatmonkhĈԧࣇᔘ՟ ᛨ༰Ă઼ЩԼٸঐ˘ᛨ૞߆Ăϒёฟפ౵௣ĂᄋΟᏴፄԼࢭĂซҖ࣒ጳĂ ٺĂ༰ͤγ઼࢕ְ˧ณዸ௛˭ڶଐ۞ޠڱఢቑдϏ࿴οڱࠎĶᄋΟ઼ķĄጳ ᄋΟ઼ᅳ˿ĞGinsburg, 1995: 462-67ğĄ HelbigĞ2015: 2-3ğᄮࠎᄋΟ઼γϹ߆ඉ۞ႊ̼Ă͹ࢋѣα̮࣎৵Ă̶ ͵˯ĄܜҾߏϔ͹̼ă͹જ᎕ໂ۞γϹăჯ޺׶πొฤ۞ٚᏚͽ̈́གྷᑻј ׌צᄃགྷᑻ۞ԼࢭΞͽᆧΐᄋΟ۞፾ϲّĂഴ͌ڼ߆ܫࡔ 90 ѐ΃۞ᄋΟ࠹ Ҝҁ࣯̂۞ϲӈᇆᜩĄ͹જ᎕ໂ۞γϹࢉϠ΍Ķௐˬዐ઼߆ඉķĄ҃ଂ 1999 ѐᄃᓑЪ઼ᘪࢎ˞நྋ౯ԞᐂĞmemorandum of understandingğ̝ޢĂᄋΟ ᎕ໂણᄃჯ޺׶πЇચĂΒ߁ᓑЪ઼ăΔࡗͽ઼࡚̈́ٙᅳጱ۞ჯ޺׶π઼ ӛ͔γ઼ۡତԸྤ۞౵͹ࢋϫ۞ᔘߏԓ୕ᄃܻᘲ೻ă઼̚ăௐٺЇચĄҌ ˬዐ઼มܲ޺ඈ෼Ą ౵̂۞Լតߏ઼Щ۞តՀĂଂֽࣧ۞ĶᄋΟˠϔВ׶ڱѐ۞າጳ 1992 ķԼࠎĶᄋΟВ׶઼ķĂᕚ௲ۤົ͹ཌྷ઼छ౵ૻአ۞ĶˠϔВ׶઼ķ۞઼઼ ϲ઼छĂ֭ͷٚᏚૻޙૻአ౅࿅ۤົ͹ཌྷڱЩĞKrishna 2014: 69ğĄᖞ۞ጳ ,݋ૻአ઼छӀৈͽ̈́ચ၁۞၁ϡ͹ཌྷĞSoniڱᅫВய৩ԔĄາ۞ጳ઼̼ າᎸ፾ֲ̚ڦᛂᓑॡഇপҾᙯޢ34ğĄഅགྷߏᛂᓑ኎ߐ઼۞ᄋΟĂд :2018 ă؃ă๰Рҹ೻؃ăРႬР೻೻؃ă˿ऱત೻؃ϲ۞ 5 ̰࣎ౙ઼Ğݣᖠҹ೻ ğд઼ᅫ˯۞൴णӧဩĂᄋΟ૟઼छщБჸ൏дБ஧ăડાă؃নਬҾҹ೻ Ѩડાͽ̈́ዐ઼۞ᙯܼĞKrishna, 2014: 70ğĄ1994 ѐᄋΟ൴ܑ˞׌࣎ࢦࢋ ͛ІĂ΃ܑ׎̰ăγ߆ඉ֕ШĂ̶Ҿߏĺ઼छщБၹຐĻăĺγϹ߆ඉၹຐĻĄ дĺ઼छщБၹຐĻ̚Ă઼छщБΒ߁˞ᄋΟхд۞щБăۤົ৩Ԕ׶઼ γϹ߆ඉ۞ӧဩᄃજ˧ 83ޢ઼ޙᄋΟ щБă̳ϔᝋӀ׶ҋϤ۞ܲᅪăགྷᑻщБăࡊԫщБăྤੈщБă۞ޘטछ щБăˠ˾۞щБ̈́ૄЯऱĞ޽ઉ૵ᒖဩğăϠၗщБඈ۞ځᄋΟˠϔ͛ Ğ“Concept of National Security of Mongolia.” 1995ğĂ׎࠹ᙯ୧͛т˭Ĉ 13 國家安全可以透過單邊、雙邊和多邊措施的結合得到保障和強化。 23.5 嚴格禁止使用蒙古的領土與其他國家為敵。確保蒙古在國際上是 非核武器地位，通過政治手段實現該國的安全。追求中亞進入非 核武器區政策。 27.2.2 優先處理與兩個鄰國的關係，並堅持與他們建立平衡關係的原則。 保持平衡的關係並不意味著彼此之間保持等距他們或在所有問題 上持相同立場……兩國之間的爭端應保持中立和不參與的政策， 除非爭端影響蒙古的重大國家利益； 27.2.3 奉行開放的外交政策。 35.3.8 確保蒙古在國際法律規範下有出入海洋的權利。 ८гҜăܧѐ۞ĺ઼छщБၹຐĻѣೀ࣎ࢦࢋ͞ШĈቁܲᄋΟ۞ 1994 γϹ߆ඉͽ̈́ቁܲ΍۞ٸბܲ޺̚ϲ׶̙ણᄃăฟۋၹкᙝᙯܼăዐ઼ޙ ˢঔ߶۞ᝋӀ׶࿅ဩҋϤĄүࠎ˘̰࣎ౙ઼छĂᄋΟυืࢦෛ΍ˢঔ߶۞ WorldsApaRT ణય צDamdin Tsogtbaatar дତ ܜᝋӀĄ2018 ѐᄋΟγϹొ ᄲĈᄋΟᄃ઼̚ăܻᘲ೻൴णπᏊᙯܼĂܜ΍ˢঔ߶۞ᝋӀĄγזॡĂϺ೩ ྍтңࢬٺᏥࠎૄᖂ۞ᙯܼĄҌܫᄃ఺׌઼࣎छѣඉரူҡᙯܼĂ֭ͷߏͽ ఢؠĂ̰ౙ઼छᑕѣᝋ΍ˢ۞ڱঔ߶ٺૄזপҾ೩ܜ၆̰ౙ઼छ۞ӧဩĉγ ࠹ᙯఢؠт˭Ĉڱঔ߶ăᑕѣ࿅ဩҋϤĞWorldsApaRT, 2018ğĄঔ߶ ௐ 125 ୧Ğ΍ˢঔ߶۞ᝋӀ׶࿅ဩҋϤğ ˘ă ČČ̰ౙ઼ᑕѣᝋ΍ˢঔ߶Ąࠎѩϫ۞Ă̰ౙ઼ᑕֳѣӀϡ˘ Ꮾ̍׍఼࿅࿅ဩ઼ᅳ˿۞࿅ဩҋϤĄྻ̷ ă Җֹ࿅ဩҋϤ۞୧І׶͞ёᑕϤ̰ౙ઼׶ѣᙯ࿅ဩ઼఼࿅ᗕᙝă˟ ؠ̟ͽᛉؠĄםડાٕડા̶ ѐ۞ĺγϹ߆ඉၹຐĻѣೀ࣎ࢬШĞ“Concept of Mongolia’s 1994 ҃ Foreign Policy,” 1995ğĈ ăௐ 4 ഇĞ2020/΋؞ཱིğס Įέ៉઼ᅫࡁտ؞Ώįௐ 16 84 ඕ༖߆ඉĄι૟Ӆ˧ᔖҺ࿅̶ֶᏥֶٕᏥЇ̙ٸᄋΟᑕ؇Җฟ .3 ңপؠ઼छĄ ᄋΟдેҖ׎γϹ߆ඉॡĂᑕͽͽ˭ࠎ޽ጱĈ .12 a. ᄃܻᘲ೻ᓑ֣׶̚රˠϔВ׶઼ܲ޺̓рᙯܼ૟јࠎᄋΟ઼γ.12 Ϲ۞ᐹА͞ШĄι̙ᑕଳϡЇң˘઼࣎छ۞ྮቢĂ҃ᑕдࣧ݋ ˯ᄃ΁ࣇࣂܲ޺πᏊĄ ൴྿۞઼छ൴ण̓рᙯܼĂּтޘăҘ͞੼ڌb. ௐ˟࣎͞Шߏᄃ.12 ă؂ăᔹ઼ă঍઼ăາΐޘ઼࡚Ă͟ώ׶ᇇ઼ĄТॡĂι૟ᄃО ᜋă๸гӀă༄׏׶༄̀ඈĂ੠Րܳ܆׎ă̜౪ăఈᜋă҅˿ ซ̓рᙯܼ۞߆ඉĄ c. ௐˬ࣎͞Шߏΐૻ׎дֲ߷۞гҜĄ.12 ፟ၹ۞ЪүĄܝd. ௐα͞ШߏܳซᄃᓑЪ઼௡ᖐ̈́׎૞.12 ፾ϲ۞઼छ۞̓ܕe. ௐ̣࣎͞Ш૟ߏ൴णᄃ݈ۤົ͹ཌྷ઼छ̈́າ.12 рᙯܼĄ ϲ̓рᙯܼ֭ᄃιࣇЪүĄޙf. ௐ̱࣎͞Ш૟ߏᄃ൴ण઼̚छ.12 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  • Poisoned Oasis

    Poisoned Oasis

    POISONED OASIS THE PERSECUTION OF CHIMED SAIKHANBILEG AND THE FUTURE OF DEMOCRACY IN MONGOLIA Table of Contents Executive Summary �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � i I� Mongolian Political Context �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �1 A. Major Parties and Historical Context� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �1 B. Factionalism � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �2 II. Oyu Tolgoi �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �5 A. Discovery of Oyu Tolgoi � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �5 B. 2009 Investment Agreement �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �5 C. 2012 Parliamentary Elections and Rio Tinto Takeover of Ivanhoe � � � � � � � � � � � �7 D. New State Policy on Minerals (2014-2025) �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �8 E. Prime Minister Saikhanbileg Takes Office and the 2015 “Dubai Agreement”� � � � �8 F. International Project Financing � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 10 G. Failed Vote of No Confidence � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 10 H. Oyu Tolgoi Since 2016 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 11 III. Erdenet Mine �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �
  • SCO Brief May 2019.Pdf

    SCO Brief May 2019.Pdf

    Ministry of External Affairs [Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) Division] ***** BRIEF ON SCO The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) is a eight-member multilateral organization, established on 15 June 2001 in Shanghai, China by the leaders of China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. These countries, except for Uzbekistan, had been members of the Shanghai Five group, formed on 26 April 1996 with the signing of the Treaty on Deepening Military Trust in Border Regions. In 2001, during the annual summit in Shanghai, the five member nations first admitted Uzbekistan in the Shanghai Five mechanism (thus transforming it into the Shanghai Six). Thereafter, on 15 June 2001 the Declaration of Shanghai Cooperation Organization, was signed and in June 2002 the heads of the SCO Member States signed the SCO Charter which expounded on the organization’s purposes, principles, structures and forms of operation, and established it in international law. At the July 2005 Astana Summit, India, Iran and Pakistan were granted Observer status. In July 2015 in Ufa, Russia, the SCO decided to admit India and Pakistan as full members. India and Pakistan signed the memorandum of obligations in June 2016 in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, thereby starting the formal process of joining the SCO as full members. On 9 June 2017, at the historic summit in Astana, India and Pakistan officially joined SCO as full-fledged members. The SCO has established relations with the United Nations in 2004 (where it is an observer in the General Assembly), Commonwealth of Independent States in 2005, Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 2005, the Collective Security Treaty Organization in 2007, the Economic Cooperation Organization in 2007, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime in 2011, the Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia (CICA) in 2014, and the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific in 2015 (ESCAP), United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) in 2018.
  • Parliamentary Elections (2004): Jammu and Kashmir K

    Parliamentary Elections (2004): Jammu and Kashmir K

    ISSN 0971-9318 HIMALAYAN AND CENTRAL ASIAN STUDIES (JOURNAL OF HIMALAYAN RESEARCH AND CULTURAL FOUNDATION) NGO in Special Consultative Status with ECOSOC, United Nations Vol. 8 Nos.2-3 April - September 2004 Afghanistan and Central Asia: Differentiated Challenges and Priorities in the Twenty First Century Vijay Kapur Challenges to Democratization: Peace and Stability in Afghanistan Apratim Mukarji Problems and Prospects of Constitutional Government in Afghanistan Uma Shankar Afghan Presidential Election: Light at the End of Tunnel? Ramtanu Maitra Parliamentary Elections (2004): Jammu and Kashmir K. Warikoo Democracy at Work: Parliamentary Elections in Mongolia Sharad K. Soni The United Nations Commission on Human Rights (57th Session): A Report Sharad K. Soni HIMALAYAN AND CENTRAL ASIAN STUDIES Editor : K. WARIKOO Assistant Editor : SHARAD K. SONI © Himalayan Research and Cultural Foundation, New Delhi. * All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means, electrical, mechanical or otherwise without first seeking the written permission of the publisher or due acknowledgement. * The views expressed in this Journal are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the opinions or policies of the Himalayan Research and Cultural Foundation. SUBSCRIPTION IN INDIA Single Copy (Individual) : Rs. 150.00 Annual (Individual) : Rs. 400.00 Institutions : Rs. 500.00 & Libraries (Annual) OVERSEAS (AIRMAIL) Single Copy : US $ 15.00 UK £ 10.00 Annual (Individual) : US $ 30.00 UK £ 20.00 Institutions : US $ 50.00 & Libraries (Annual) UK £ 35.00 The publication of this journal (Vol.8, Nos.2-3, 2004) has been financially supported by the Indian Council of Historical Research.
  • Mongolia: Issues for Congress

    Mongolia: Issues for Congress

    Mongolia: Issues for Congress Susan V. Lawrence Specialist in Asian Affairs September 3, 2014 Congressional Research Service 7-5700 www.crs.gov R41867 Mongolia: Issues for Congress Summary Mongolia is a sparsely populated young democracy in a remote part of Asia, sandwiched between two powerful large neighbors, China and Russia. It made its transition to democracy and free market reforms peacefully in 1990, after nearly 70 years as a Soviet satellite state. A quarter of a century later, the predominantly Tibetan Buddhist nation remains the only formerly Communist Asian nation to have embraced democracy. Congress has shown a strong interest in Mongolia since 1990, funding assistance programs, approving the transfer of excess defense articles, ratifying a bilateral investment treaty, passing legislation to extend permanent normal trade relations, and passing seven resolutions commending Mongolia’s progress and supporting strong U.S.-Mongolia relations. Congressional interest is Mongolia has focused on the country’s story of democratic development. Since passing a democratic constitution in 1992, Mongolia has held six direct presidential elections and six direct parliamentary elections. The State Department considers Mongolia’s most recent elections to have been generally “free and fair” and said that in 2013, Mongolia “generally respected” freedoms of speech, press, assembly, and association. It raised concerns, however, about corruption and lack of transparency in government affairs. On the economic front, Mongolia’s mineral wealth, including significant reserves of coal, copper, gold, and uranium, offers investment opportunities for American companies. Foreign investors and the U.S. government have criticized Mongolia’s unpredictable investment climate, however. In the fall of 2013, Mongolia passed a new investment law and, after years of negotiations, signed a transparency agreement with the United States.
  • Mongolia Country Report BTI 2014

    Mongolia Country Report BTI 2014

    BTI 2014 | Mongolia Country Report Status Index 1-10 6.47 # 40 of 129 Political Transformation 1-10 7.15 # 34 of 129 Economic Transformation 1-10 5.79 # 59 of 129 Management Index 1-10 6.24 # 25 of 129 scale score rank trend This report is part of the Bertelsmann Stiftung’s Transformation Index (BTI) 2014. It covers the period from 31 January 2011 to 31 January 2013. The BTI assesses the transformation toward democracy and a market economy as well as the quality of political management in 129 countries. More on the BTI at http://www.bti-project.org. Please cite as follows: Bertelsmann Stiftung, BTI 2014 — Mongolia Country Report. Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2014. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. BTI 2014 | Mongolia 2 Key Indicators Population M 2.8 HDI 0.675 GDP p.c. $ 5462.2 Pop. growth1 % p.a. 1.5 HDI rank of 187 108 Gini Index 36.5 Life expectancy years 67.1 UN Education Index 0.726 Poverty3 % - Urban population % 69.3 Gender inequality2 0.328 Aid per capita $ 93.1 Sources: The World Bank, World Development Indicators 2013 | UNDP, Human Development Report 2013. Footnotes: (1) Average annual growth rate. (2) Gender Inequality Index (GII). (3) Percentage of population living on less than $2 a day. Executive Summary Mongolia made headlines in major media outlets around the world during the review period (2011–2013) for one reason in particular – the country’s unprecedented economic growth. Fueled by a mining boom, the Mongolian economy has becoming one of the fastest-growing in the world subject to considerable investments.
  • Modelling Gas Supply Systems with a High Role of Autonomous Consumers (The Case of Mongolia)

    Modelling Gas Supply Systems with a High Role of Autonomous Consumers (The Case of Mongolia)

    E3S Web of Conferences 209, 05010 (2020) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202020905010 ENERGY-21 Modelling gas supply systems with a high role of autonomous consumers (the case of Mongolia) Darya Maksakova1,*, and Sergei Popov1 1Melentiev Energy Systems Institute of Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Department of Complex and Regional Problems in Energy, 664033 130 Lermontov St., Irkutsk, Russia Abstract. The paper presents a tool to optimize gas infrastructure systems and analyses some aspects of modelling related to autonomous gas consumers. A model of national gas infrastructure creation in Mongolia is proposed. The model is linked with the model of the regional Northeast Asian gas market and the financial models of gas infrastructure facilities. The model determines the optimal design of the national gas infrastructure system, i.e. the number of the facilities, their capacities, locations and the transport modes for connecting the consumption centres. The role of autonomous consumers is considered by introducing the demand for liquefied natural gas separately from the demand for pipeline gas. The scope of the model application is demonstrated by an illustrative example. The results show the rational natural gas import and distribution patterns. The need for expanding the energy cooperation between Mongolia and the other Northeast Asian countries to create gas industry in Mongolia is highlighted. Keywords. Mongolia, Northeast Asia, gas supply infrastructure, modelling. 1 Introduction at the sessions of the Northeast Asian Natural Gas & Pipeline Forum (NAGPF). As a result of the researches Mongolia has rich coal, crude oil, solar and wind energy conducted by the NAGPF, the demand for gas in resources.