Upper-Body Kinematics in Team-Handball Throw, Tennis Serve, and Volleyball Spike
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Scand J Med Sci Sports 2014: 24: 345–354 © 2012 John Wiley & Sons A/S. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2012.01503.x Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd Upper-body kinematics in team-handball throw, tennis serve, and volleyball spike H. Wagner1, J. Pfusterschmied1,M.Tilp2, J. Landlinger1, S. P. von Duvillard3, E. Müller1 1Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Rif, Salzburg, Austria, 2Institute of Sport Science, University of Graz, Graz, Styria, Austria, 3Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway Corresponding author: Herbert Wagner, PhD, Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Rifer Schlossallee 49, A-5400 Hallein/Rif, Austria. Tel: +43 662 8044 4887, Fax: +43 662 8044 615, E-mail: [email protected] Accepted for publication 15 June 2012 Overarm movements are essential skills in many different target. Significant differences (P < 0.05) between the three sport games; however, the adaptations to different sports overarm movements were found in 17 of 24 variables. The are not well understood. The aim of the study was to order of the proximal-to-distal sequencing was equal in analyze upper-body kinematics in the team-handball the three analyzed overarm movements. Equal order of throw, tennis serve, and volleyball spike, and to calculate the proximal-to-distal sequencing and similar angles in differences in the proximal-to-distal sequencing and joint the acceleration phase suggest there is a general motor movements. Three-dimensional kinematic data were pattern in overarm movements. However, overarm move- analyzed via the Vicon motion capturing system. The ments appear to be modifiable in situations such as for subjects (elite players) were instructed to perform a throwing or hitting a ball with or without a racket, and team-handball jump throw, tennis serve, and volleyball due to differences at takeoff (with one or two legs). spike with a maximal ball velocity and to hit a specific Overarm movements are essential skills in different sport In previous studies, it was found that a transfer of games. In team handball and water polo, players use momentum from proximal to distal is important to maxi- different throwing techniques to score goals; in volley- mize performance in javelin (Whiting et al., 1991), base- ball, beach volleyball, and fistball, players hit the ball to ball (Hong et al., 2001), team-handball throw (Van den score points; in baseball, softball, and cricket, the Tillar & Ettema, 2009), and tennis serve (Marshall & pitcher/baller will throw the ball at different speeds Elliott, 2000), whereas Wagner et al. (2012) found sig- and/or locations to confuse the hitter; in American foot- nificant differences in the proximal-to-distal sequence of ball, the quarterback throws the ball over long distances the maximal joint movements (angular velocities) among to his receivers to gain yards; and in tennis, badminton, different skill levels in team-handball throwing. A posi- and squash, serves and/or smashes are used to induce tive influence of pelvis, trunk flexion and rotation, shoul- pressure on the opposing player to score points. These der internal rotation, as well as elbow extension to the ball different overarm techniques for throwing or hitting velocity was shown in the baseball pitch (Fleisig et al., (with or without a racket) differ either because of the 1999; Hong et al., 2001; Stodden et al., 2001), team- rules of each sport, ball size, and weight or uncontrolled handball throw (Van den Tillar & Ettema, 2004, 2007; attack strategies of the opposing defensive players. Wagner et al., 2010), volleyball spike (Coleman et al., However, these overarm movements may also be similar, 1993), and tennis serve (Elliott et al., 1995; Marshall & especially in the upper-body kinematics between throw- Elliott, 2000). However, the shoulder internal rotation ing and hitting a ball (with or without a racket). If there angular velocity was identified as the major contributor to are similarities in these different overarm movements, it the ball velocity and racket speed (Escamilla & Andrews, may be possible to identify general motor patterns of 2009). Kinematic comparisons between overarm move- overarm movements that can be adapted to the different ments in different sports were made between baseball sports. The answer to these questions could add impor- pitching and football passing (Fleisig et al., 1996), as well tant information to understanding of the transfer of as between team-handball throwing and volleyball movements in the motor learning process and to provide spiking (Bergun et al., 2009). It was found that the differ- a reference point that is reasonable to practice different ent movements were similar but not identical (Fleisig overarm movements especially for adolescent or prepu- et al., 1996; Bergun et al., 2009). However, in the study of bescent athletes. Bergun et al. (2009), kinematics were determined using 345 Wagner et al. two cameras, measuring with 50 fps which is insufficient takeoff from the left leg (right-handed player) or the right leg to analyze such dynamic movements to calculate angles (left-handed player). The jump throw was selected because this or angular velocities. Although studies exist that analyze throwing technique is the most frequently applied throwing tech- nique (about 75%) during the game (Wagner et al., 2008). To kinematics and performance in team-handball throw (Van confirm that the jump throw was a vertical jump throw, the hori- den Tillar & Ettema, 2004, 2007; Wagner et al., 2010), zontal difference between takeoff and landing may not exceed tennis serve (Elliott et al., 1995; Marshall & Elliott, more than 2 m. The subjects were instructed to throw the ball (International Handball Federation Size 3) at a target from an 8-m 2000), and volleyball spike (Coleman et al., 1993), 2 studies comparing these movements in detail (angles, distance, and to hit the center of a 1 ¥ 1m at about eye level (1.75 m), with maximum ball velocity. The subsequent evaluation angular velocities, and their timing) under similar condi- was used only for those throws that hit the target. Each subject had tions (game specific movements of elite players on offi- to continue to throw until five valid jump throws were achieved. cial courts) are missing. Team handball, tennis, and Because the distance between the center of the ball and the hand volleyball were selected because they represent typical increases abruptly at the ball release (Van den Tillar & Ettema, overarm movements of throwing or hitting a ball (with or 2007; Wagner et al., 2010), to determine the moment of ball release, the distance between the center of the ball and the hand without a racket) and where ball velocity is the main (head of the second metatarsal) was calculated. performance determining variable and because these sports are played (mostly professionally) all over the world and are part of traditional Olympic Games. Tennis serve The aims of the study were: (a) to analyze upper-body After a general warm-up, the subjects could perform as many three-dimensional (3D) kinematics (trunk flexion practice strokes and services as needed to familiarize themselves and rotation, shoulder flexion and internal rotation, as with the testing requirement. To enable optimal conditions, the subjects used their own rackets. During testing, the subjects were well as elbow flexion) and pelvis rotation in the team- instructed to serve the ball (flat serve) from left to right into the left handball jump throw, tennis serve, and volleyball spike side of the service field, with maximum ball velocity. Only those of elite players; and (b) to compare the differences in the serves that hit the service field were used for the analysis. Each proximal-to-distal sequence of the maximal joint move- subject had to continue to serve until five flat serves were achieved. ments (angular velocities) as well as maximal angles and Ball contact was defined as the point where the first ball–racket contact occurred. This point was identified with a Basler digital angular velocities (their timing) between the different high-speed camera (100 fps) and verified with racket head coor- overarm movements. We hypothesized there would be dinate data (Landlinger et al., 2010). The racket head horizontal differences in maximal angles, angular velocities, and acceleration decreased abruptly at ball–racket contact. their timing, but similar proximal-to-distal sequencing between the team-handball throw, tennis serve, and the Volleyball spike volleyball spike. Following a general and volleyball specific warm-up of 20 min, subjects performed the required volleyball spikes. To maintain Materials and methods constant testing conditions, the ball was suspended on a rope from Subjects the ceiling via an apparatus that held and released the ball when spiked and to allow for similar repeated movement conditions to Ten male elite team-handball players [mean Ϯ standard deviation accommodate players of different jumping height during testing (SD) for age: 23 Ϯ 3 years; height: 1.87 Ϯ 0.06 m; weight: (Wagner et al., 2009). Every subject performed up to three spikes 85 Ϯ 10 kg; training experience: 12 Ϯ 3 years; 3 wings, 6 back- before testing. During testing, subjects were instructed to jump as court players, 1 pivot, 9 right- and 1 left-handed players], 10 tennis high as possible and to hit the ball as fast and hard as possible into players (mean Ϯ SD for age: 20 Ϯ 4 years; height: 1.88 Ϯ 0.07 m; a3¥ 3 m corridor on the volleyball court. The subsequent assess- weight: 77 Ϯ 10 kg; training experience: 14 Ϯ 3 years, 9 right- ment was used only for those spikes that hit the corridor. Subjects and 1 left-handed players), and 10 volleyball players (mean Ϯ SD had to continue to spike the ball until five hits per subject were for age: 24 Ϯ 4 years; height: 1.91 Ϯ 0.06 m; weight: 82 Ϯ 8 kg; achieved.