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Nanomaterials for Healthcare Biosensing Applications

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Nanomaterials for Healthcare Biosensing Applications sensors Review Nanomaterials for Healthcare Biosensing Applications Muqsit Pirzada and Zeynep Altintas * Technical University of Berlin, Straße des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 7 November 2019; Accepted: 27 November 2019; Published: 2 December 2019 Abstract: In recent years, an increasing number of nanomaterials have been explored for their applications in biomedical diagnostics, making their applications in healthcare biosensing a rapidly evolving field. Nanomaterials introduce versatility to the sensing platforms and may even allow mobility between different detection mechanisms. The prospect of a combination of different nanomaterials allows an exploitation of their synergistic additive and novel properties for sensor development. This paper covers more than 290 research works since 2015, elaborating the diverse roles played by various nanomaterials in the biosensing field. Hence, we provide a comprehensive review of the healthcare sensing applications of nanomaterials, covering carbon allotrope-based, inorganic, and organic nanomaterials. These sensing systems are able to detect a wide variety of clinically relevant molecules, like nucleic acids, viruses, bacteria, cancer antigens, pharmaceuticals and narcotic drugs, toxins, contaminants, as well as entire cells in various sensing media, ranging from buffers to more complex environments such as urine, blood or sputum. Thus, the latest advancements reviewed in this paper hold tremendous potential for the application of nanomaterials in the early screening of diseases and point-of-care testing. Keywords: nanomaterials; carbon allotrope-based nanomaterials; inorganic nanomaterials; organic nanomaterials; healthcare biosensors; molecular machines 1. Introduction The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) defines a biosensor as, “a device that uses specific biochemical reactions mediated by isolated enzymes, immunosystems, tissues, organelles or whole cells to detect chemical compounds, usually by electrical, thermal or optical signals” [1]. This definition facilitates an insight into what a biosensor entails. Biosensors have three imperative constituents [2]: 1. A receptor that specifically binds to an analyte; 2. A transducer that generates a signal following the binding event; 3. A detection system to quantify the signal and transform it into utile information. These detection methods may be electrochemical, optical, or piezoelectric in nature. In contrast to conventional screening techniques, such as enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), biosensors can be fully automated, show enhanced reproducibility, allow real-time and rapid analysis, and often show a possibility for re-use as a result of surface regeneration [3]. Biosensing plays a key role in a multitude of fields, such as medical diagnostics [2,4], food toxicity [5], fermentations [6], environmental safety [7], biodefense [8], and plant biology [9]. Ischaemic heart disease, lung cancer, cirrhosis, and similar infectious diseases are the leading causes of death worldwide [10]. Successful and inexpensive remedies are impeded by a lack of early diagnosis. Sensors 2019, 19, 5311; doi:10.3390/s19235311 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors SensorsSensors 20192019,, 1919,, 5311x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 ofof 5654 providing user-friendly, economical, reliable, and rapid sensing platforms [2]. Biosensing technology Biosensorshas considerable have thus merits gained in comparison prominence to in theconventiona field of healthcarel detection diagnostics techniques by involving providing spectroscopy user-friendly, economical,or chromatography. reliable, andThese rapid include sensing an elimination platforms [2 of]. the Biosensing need for technology skilled operating has considerable personnel, merits quicker in comparisonresponse times, to conventional portability, detectionand higher techniques sensitivity involving [3]. For spectroscopyinstance, the required or chromatography. detection time These of includepathoge anns eliminationsuch as anthrax of the has need reduced for skilled from operating 2–3 days personnel,to 5 min with quicker the help response of modern times, portability,biosensors and[11].higher sensitivity [3]. For instance, the required detection time of pathogens such as anthrax has reducedMaterials from 2–3 with days at least to 5 minone withof their the helpdimension of moderns measuring biosensors 1–100 [11 ].nm are termed nanomaterials [12]. MaterialsDue to their with small at least size, one most of their of their dimensions constituent measuring atoms or 1–100 mol nmecules are termedare located nanomaterials on the surface [12]. Dueof such to their materials small size,, giving most rise of their to remarkable constituent atomsdistinction or molecules in their are fundamental located on the physicochemical surface of such materials,properties giving from the rise bulk to remarkable of the same distinction materials. in Another their fundamental factor causing physicochemical significant difference propertiess in from the thecharacteristics bulk of the of same nanomat materials.erials Another is the quantum factor causing effects arising significant from differences discontinuous in the behaviour characteristics because of nanomaterialsof the quantum is confinement the quantum of effects delocalised arising electrons. from discontinuous Since the number behaviour of becauseatoms on of the the surface quantum of confinementthese nanoparticles of delocalised is much electrons. higher than Since the the bulk, number they of show atoms less on thebinding surface energy of these, thu nanoparticless exhibiting isa muchlower highermelting than point. the The bulk, shape they of show these less particles binding is energy,crucial thusto their exhibiting properties. a lower For instance, melting point. nanorods The shapemay have of these significantly particles different is crucial properties to their properties. to nanospheres For instance, of the nanorodssame material may have[2]. The significantly increased differentsurface area properties per unit to nanospheres mass also ofresul thets same in materialan approximately [2]. The increased 1000-fold surface increase area per in unitthe masschemical also resultsreactivity in an[13] approximately. Synthetic nanostructures 1000-fold increase such in theas chemicalquantumreactivity dots rely [13 on]. Syntheticthe exploitation nanostructures of the suchquantum as quantum effects dotsobserved rely on thein nanoparticles. exploitation of theThey quantum act as effects artificial observed atoms in, nanoparticles.since their electronic They act asbehavio artificialur atoms,is very sincesimilar their to electronicthat of small behaviour molecules is very or similarindividual to that atoms of small, as the molecules spatial orconfinement individual atoms,of electrons as the at spatial nanoscale confinement generates of electronsa quantised at nanoscale energy spectrum. generates Similarly, a quantised owing energy to spectrum.multiple Similarly,unpaired electron owing to spins multiple from unpaired hundreds electron of atoms, spins nanoparticles from hundreds posses ofs atoms,magnetic nanoparticles moments, showing possess magnetictheir bestmoments, performance showing at 10 their–29 nm best sizes performance because of at 10–29supermagnetism nm sizes because, and are of supermagnetism,therefore suitable and as arecontrast therefore agents suitable in m asagnetic contrast resonance agents in imaging magnetic (MRI) resonance [12–15] imaging. Due (MRI)to all [these12–15 ].factors, Due to there all these are factors,various therepossible are variousclassifications possible of classifications nanomaterials. of On nanomaterials. the basis of chemical On the basis constitution, of chemical nanomaterials constitution, nanomaterialscan mainly be can classified mainly beinto: classified (1) carbon into: allotrope (1) carbon-based allotrope-based nanomaterials nanomaterials consisting consisting of only ofcarbon only carbonatoms, (2) atoms, inorganic (2) inorganic nanomaterials nanomaterials made up made of metallic up of metallicor non-metallic or non-metallic constituents constituents such as Au, such Ag, as Au,SiO2 Ag,, and SiO (3)2, and organic (3) organic nanomaterials nanomaterials majorly majorly comprising comprising of ofpolymeric polymeric nanomaterials. nanomaterials. Based Based on structuralstructural differences,differences, eacheach of of these these nanomaterials nanomaterials can can be be further further categorised categorised into into several several subtypes, subtypes as, shownas shown in Figurein Figure1. 1. Nanomaterials Organic • Nanofilms • Nanogels • Dendrimers • Hyperbranched polymers • Molecular machines • Polymer nanocomposites • NanoMIPs Inorganic • COF • Quantum dots • Magnetic nanoparticles • Gold nanoparticles • Silver nanoparticles • Nanoshells, nanowires Carbon-allotrope and nanocages based • Fullerene • Nanotubes • Graphene and derivatives • Carbon dots • Nanodiamonds Figure 1. Various kinds ofof nanomaterials discussed in this review. Sensors 2019, 19, 5311 3 of 56 Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 54 Nanomaterials can be engineered by following two main approaches—top-down and bottom-up approaches.Nanomaterials In the top-down can be engineered approach, by a macroscale following two machine main isapproaches designed— andtop controlled-down and to bottom fabricate- anup exact approaches. replica of In itself, the top but-down
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