UCL Institute of Archaeology

ARCL0099 Archaeological Glass and Glazes

15 credit module in Term II, 2019-20 Lectures Mondays 09.00-11.00, Room B13 Optional museum visits on specified Thursday mornings

Assessment submission deadlines 28 February, 20 April Assessment return target dates: 16 March, 14 May

Co-ordinator: Ian Freestone [email protected] 020 7679 (2)7498 Office Hours: Monday 13.30-16.00, Room 210

Please see the last page of this document for important information about submission and marking procedures, or links to the relevant webpages. ARCL0099 Archaeological Glass and Glazes

1 OVERVIEW

Short description

The module outlines the development of the production of glass and glazes from the Bronze Age through to the early modern period, with examples from a wide range of periods and cultures. All aspects of glass production are considered from raw materials through to the fabrication of beads, vessels and windows. Attention is drawn to the relationship between form and technology and the development of glassmaking ingredients over time. Particular emphasis is placed upon the chemical composition of glass, how and why it changes with time, and how it can be used to address problems such as provenance and dating. The course is well illustrated with examples of glass working from the literature, experimental archaeology and ethnographic observations. While archaeometric analyses form a key element of the course they are introduced in a user friendly way so that they are understandable by participants with an arts/humanities background.

2 ARCL0099 Course Schedule (Term 2, 2019-20, Mondays 09.00-11.00)

Week Title Contents 1. 13 January Nature and Atomic Structure. Raw materials and composition. Melting, fluxes, Properties of Glass properties. Terminology. Colour. Corrosion. Glassmakers of Herat video (Corning Museum of Glass).

2. 20 January Late Bronze Age Early vitreous materials, Egyptian Blue and faience. Early glazed pottery. vitreous materials Origins of glass. Late Bronze Age glass. Core-forming. Colour and opacity. Egypt, Mesopotamia. Thursday 23rd January Petrie session 1 3. 27 January Pre-Roman glass – LBA long distance movement of glass; trace elements. Iron Age Glass. trade and Continuity and change from the LBA. technological change Early natron glass. Hellenistic glass, slumping, canework.

4. 3 February The Roman glass Glass blowing. Roman glassmakers video*. Roman glass. Colour, industry decolourants, opacifiers.

Tank furnaces. Primary and secondary production. Trade in raw glass. Interpreting natron glass through chemical compositions. Glass groups. Isotopes and provenance. The structure of the Roman glass industry Wednesday 5th February SEM demonstration. 5. 10 February Byzantine, Decline of the Roman glass industry. Continuity in the East. Parthian and Sasanian and Sasanian glass. The change from natron to plant ash in the early Islamic Islamic glass period. Tin-opacification. Gold and glass. Cutting. Lustre decoration. Enamelling Gold glass beads video (James Lankton)* Issue of data analysis exercise (assessment 1) Thursday 13th February– Petrie Session 2 Reading week 17-21 February NO TEACHING 6. 24 February Ceramic Glazes Clay glazes, alkaline and lead glazes. Islamic glazed wares: stonepaste bodies, tin opacification and the spread of tin-glaze technology. Lustre decoration. Overglaze and underglaze decoration.

7. 2 March Far eastern glass, Faience in China. Early Chinese glass, Han Blue, Han Purple. Parallels glazes and vitreous and contrasts between China and West. pigments Far eastern high temperature glazes; porcelain development India, raw glass, beads and mirrors; compositions and trade Papanaidupet video (Marie-Dominique Nenna)* 8. 9 March Recycling. Early Recycling and re-use of Roman glass. Trace elements. Anglo-Saxon medieval glass. glass. Enamels on metalwork.

9. 16 March Medieval Europe Early soda plant ash glass in northwestern Europe. Potash-lime glass industry. Stained glass windows.

Answers to data analysis exercise

10. 23 March Renaissance and Crystal glass and vitrum blanchum. Venetian, English, Bohemian crystal. later glass Compositional change. Solvay process; saltcake glass. Windows and portable XRF.

Please note: The details of this schedule (third column) may be adjusted as the course progresses. Videos marked with an asterisk (*) depend upon the time available

3 Basic and Introductory texts

The following books are good starters: Freestone, I., 1991. Looking into Glass, in Science and the Past, (ed. Bowman, S.), 37-57, London: British Museum Press. Somewhat out of date but gives a readable introduction Paynter S. and Dungworth D., 2018. Archaeological Evidence for Glassworking. Historic England. Very useful well illustrated survey, downloadable from: https://historicengland.org.uk/images- books/publications/glassworkingguidelines/ (or via electronic reading list) Tait, H., 2004. Five Thousand Years of Glass. British Museum Press, London. A very well illustrated and well written collection of chronological chapters, see especially the chapters on glass working techniques at the back of the book.

Methods of assessment

The course is assessed by an essay of 2850-3150 words (worth 75% of the total mark) plus a data interpretation exercise of 950-1050 words (worth 25%). Essay titles are given below; the data assessment exercise will be provided in week 5.

If you are unclear about the nature of an assignment, please contact the Course Co-ordinator. PLEASE NOTE: unless otherwise agreed with the course coordinator, essays MUST address the title given. You should not choose an alternative without obtaining my agreement. If you wish to discuss essay topics or prepare a brief (single-page maximum) outline of how you intend to approach the essay prior to writing it, I will be happy to discuss, drop me an email for an appointment.

Please note that in order to be deemed to have completed and passed in any course, it is necessary to submit all assessments.

Teaching methods

The course is taught primarily through the lectures delivered in the Monday sessions. As the course contains significant numerical and graphical information, an assessed data interpretation exercise is set to ensure engagement with these types of data. Where appropriate and available, video recordings of ethnographic and/or archaeological work will be shown to illustrate the concepts covered in the course. Optional visits to the Petrie and British Museum will allow further opportunity to familiarise students with the course subject matter.

Workload

There will be 20 hours of lectures for this course. Students will be expected to undertake around 80 hours of reading for the course, plus 50 hours preparing for and producing the assessed work. This adds up to a total workload of some 150 hours for this course.

4 Optional visits and demonstrations

These sessions require arrangement with the respective museums and it is not possible to timetable them so that they are convenient to everyone. Therefore I have made them optional. While they will enhance your understanding of glass and glaze, they are not a requirement. Please note it is essential that you keep to the time slot that you sign up for as spaces are limited.

Optional museum visits take place on Thursday mornings for 50-60 minutes as follows:

Thursday 23 January: Late Bronze Age vitreous material handling session in the Petrie Museum – meet outside the entrance of the museum at your allocated time (10.00 or 11.00).

Thursday 13 February: Later glass handling session in the Petrie Museum – meet outside the entrance of the museum at your allocated time (10.00 or 11.00).

For course participants who have no experience of analysis using scanning electron microscopy – energy dispersive X-Ray analysis, there will be demonstrations between 14.00 and 16.00 on Wednesday 5 February. Meet in basement corridor of the Institute of Archaeology outside Room B4 (SEM lab) at your allocated time

The class will be divided into two groups and I will issue sign-up sheets for these in the week before each visit.

2 AIMS, OBJECTIVES AND ASSESSMENT

Aims

The course aims to provide an understanding of the broad development and spread of glass, glazes and vitreous pigments in their archaeological and historical contexts from the Late Bronze Age up to the early modern period. It will introduce the technologies of glassmaking and glazing and their development over time. The course aims to illustrate how the production and use of glass in society is related to its chemical composition and properties and how these relationships changed over time. To do this the course strives to convey some of the basic chemical and physical processes relevant to the making, working and scientific analysis of glass and other vitreous materials such as glazes and synthetic pigments, following a broad chronological outline. A critical approach is encouraged by the inclusion of current research topics where there may be no universally accepted opinion, and where thinking is in flux as progress is being made.

Objectives

On successful completion of the course students will:

 Have a general understanding of glass as a material, glass raw materials and glass production

 Have a general understanding of the chronological development of glass forms and their relationship to technology and cultural context

 Have developed an understanding of compositional data on glass in tabular and graphical forms and be able to interpret the general technological and chronological significance of individual glass compositions (assessment 1)

5  Be able to read, critically evaluate and synthesise evidence on early glass production from a range of approaches, including archaeometric analysis (assessment 2)

 Be able to recognise relevant evidence such as moils, industrial ceramics and other production waste.

Information for intercollegiate and interdepartmental students

Students enrolled in Departments outside the Institute should obtain the Institute’s coursework guidelines from Judy Medrington (email [email protected]), which will also be available on Moodle.

Coursework

The two pieces of assessed work required for this course are given below. If you are unclear about the nature of an assignment, please contact the Course Co-ordinator. If you wish to discuss essay topics or prepare a brief (single-page maximum) outline of how you intend to approach the essay prior to writing the essay, I will be happy to comment on this.

Word counts

All submitted work should include a word-count. The following should not be included in the word- count: title page, contents pages, lists of figure and tables, abstract, preface, acknowledgements, bibliography, lists of references, captions and contents of tables and figures, appendices..

Penalties will only be imposed if you exceed the upper figure in the range. There is no penalty for using fewer words than the lower figure in the range: the lower figure is simply for your guidance to indicate the sort of length that is expected.

In the 2019-20 session penalties for overlength work will be as follows:

 For work that exceeds the specified maximum length by less than 10% the mark will be reduced by five percentage marks, but the penalised mark will not be reduced below the pass mark, assuming the work merited a Pass.

 For work that exceeds the specified maximum length by 10% or more the mark will be reduced by ten percentage marks, but the penalised mark will not be reduced below the pass mark, assuming the work merited a Pass.

Coursework submission procedures

 All coursework must normally be submitted both as hard copy and electronically unless instructed otherwise.  You should staple the appropriate colour-coded IoA coversheet (available in the IoA library and outside room 411a) to the front of each piece of work and submit it to the red box at the Reception Desk.  All coursework should be uploaded to Turnitin by midnight on the day of the deadline. This will date-stamp your work. It is essential to upload all parts of your work as this is sometimes the version that will be marked.

6  Instructions are given below. Please note that the procedure has changed for 2019-20, and work is now submitted to Turnitin via Moodle. 1. Ensure that your essay or other item of coursework has been saved as a Word doc., docx. or PDF document, Please include the module code and your candidate number on every page as a header. 2.. Go into the Moodle page for the module to which you wish to submit your work. 3. Click on the correct assignment (e.g. Essay 1), 4. Fill in the “Submission title” field with the right details: It is essential that the first word in the title is your examination candidate number (e.g. YGBR8 Essay 1), Note that this changes each year. Please add an abbreviated essay title following the number, e.g. YGBR8 Roman windows. This really helps track down missing essays, late submissions etc. 5. Click “Upload”. 6 Click on “Submit” 7 You should receive a receipt – please save this. 8 If you have problems, please email the IoA Turnitin Advisers on ioa- [email protected], explaining the nature of the problem and the exact module and assignment involved. One of the Turnitin Advisers will normally respond within 24 hours, Monday- Friday during term. Please be sure to email the Turnitin Advisers if technical problems prevent you from uploading work in time to meet a submission deadline - even if you do not obtain an immediate response from one of the Advisers they will be able to notify the relevant Module Coordinator that you had attempted to submit the work before the deadline

General policies and procedures concerning courses and coursework, including submission procedures, assessment criteria, and general resources, are available in your Degree Handbook and on the following website: http://wiki.ucl.ac.uk/display/archadmin. It is essential that you read and comply with these.

Assessment 1. Data Interpretation exercise

This will comprise a table of analyses of ten examples of ancient glass. You will be asked to produce a paper of 950-1050 words commenting on the likely raw materials, colour and chronology of each glass. The information needed to complete the exercise will be provided in the classes over weeks 1 -5. It is advisable to attend all the classes to optimize your result. There is no single source or textbook which deals with all of the issues. The exercise will be provided in Week 5 (4 February) and the submission date is Friday 28 February 2020. This exercise represents 25% of the assessment for the course.

Assessment 2. Essay

A 2850-3150 word essay comprises 75% of the assessment for this course. The deadline for submission via Turnitin and in hard copy is Monday 20 April 2020. You may choose from one of the titles listed below. Several references are provided as a starting point for your research into the topic. However, they may be neither the most recent nor the most pertinent research papers but simply pointers to the types of evidence or to the work of certain authors. You will need to research your essay using bibliographies and reference lists from books and articles as well as on- line tools such as Web of Science and Google Scholar. Academia.edu and Researchgate.net are useful sources of references from key authors such as Dungworth, Henderson, Jackson and Rehren. You are encouraged to register with those sites as the authors post pdf files of papers which are not available electronically elsewhere. You should design your searches carefully and

7 search for authors as well as topics. A good answer is likely to include a range of references to the up-to-date literature as well as to older publications which set the topic in context. A range of evidence is expected to be drawn upon which, dependent upon topic, might include archaeological, historical, archaeometric, experimental, materials science or ethnographic sources. Maps, graphs and tables are useful as they condense a great deal of information into a single item which is not part of the wordcount. I would expect to see the use of graphic or tabulated evidence in answers to most of the essay questions. Each should have a caption and be numbered sequentially as Fig 1, Fig 2…. or Table 1, Table 2 ……. Photographic images, plans and line drawings should also be labelled and captioned as Figs. and in the same series as figures. The sources of the images should be credited in the captions.

Essay Titles

1.Discuss the evidence for the independent production of glass from its raw materials versus its importation in Late Bronze and early Iron Age Europe (including Italy and Greece). Artioli, G. and Angelini, I., 2013. Evolution of vitreous materials in Bronze Age Italy. Modern methods for analysing archaeological and historical glass, 1, pp.355-368. Conte, S., Matarese, I., Vezzalini, G., Pacciarelli, M., Scarano, T., Vanzetti, A., Gratuze, B. and Arletti, R., 2019. How much is known about glassy materials in Bronze and Iron Age Italy? New data and general overview. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 11(5), pp.1813-1841.

Venclová, N., Hulínský, V., Henderson, J., Chenery, S., Šulová, L. and Hložek, J., 2011. Late Bronze Age mixed-alkali glasses from Bohemia. Archeologické rozhledy, 63(4). Downloadable from www.arup.cas.cz/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/AR4_2011_lr.pdf#page=5

Varberg, J., Gratuze, B., Kaul, F., Hansen, A.H., Rotea, M. and Wittenberger, M., 2016. Mesopotamian glass from late bronze age Egypt, Romania, Germany, and Denmark. Journal of Archaeological Science, 74, pp.184-194.

2. Explain how cobalt pigment varies in composition in ancient glass and glaze and, explain how its composition has been used in investigations of its provenance. Use examples from different periods, cultures and regions.

Giannini, R., Freestone, I.C. and Shortland, A.J., 2016. European cobalt sources identification in the production of Chinese Famille Rose porcelain. J. Archaeol. Sci., 80, pp.27-36.

Gratuze, B., Pactat, I. and Schibille, N., 2018. Changes in the Signature of Cobalt Colorants in Late Antique and Early Islamic Glass Production. Minerals, 8(6), p.225.

Shortland A.J., Tite M.S., Ewart I. (2006) Ancient Exploitation and Use of Cobalt Alums from the Western Oases of Egypt, Archaeometry, 48, 153-168.

Wen, R. and Pollard, A.M., (2016) The Pigments Applied to Islamic Minai Wares and the Correlation with Chinese Blue‐and‐White Porcelain. Archaeometry, 58(1), pp.1-16.

3. Outline the evidence for the occurrence, use and fabrication method(s) of glass windows in the Roman Empire.

8 Allen D (2002) Roman Window Glass. In Aldhouse-Green, M and Webster, P. Artefacts and Archaeology: aspects of the Celtic and Roman World, Cardiff pp 102-111. DeLaine J (1997). The Baths of Caracalla. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplement (Book) Ring J W (1996) Windows, Baths, and Solar Energy in the Roman Empire American Journal of Archaeology, 100, 717-724

4. Summarise and discuss the evidence for the composition, provenance and technology of glass and glass beads found in sub-Saharan Africa Koleini, F., Prinsloo, L.C., Biemond, W., Colomban, P., Ngo, A.T., Boeyens, J.C., van der Ryst, M.M. and van Brakel, K. (2016). Unravelling the glass trade bead sequence from Magoro Hill, South Africa: separating pre-seventeenth-century Asian imports from later European counterparts. Heritage Science, 4(1), p.43. Lankton, J., Ige, A. & Rehren, Th. (2006). Early primary glass production in southern Nigeria. Journal of African Archaeology 4, 111-138. Wood, M. (2016) Glass beads from pre-European contact sub-Saharan Africa: Peter Francis's work revisited and updated. Archaeological Research in Asia, 6, pp.65-80.

5. Why was “crystal glass” desirable and what were the main approaches to its production in Europe in the fifteenth to eighteenth centuries? To what extent was “English” lead crystal glass an English innovation? Brain, Colin and Brain, Sue (2016) The development of lead-crystal glass in London and Dublin 1672–1682: a reappraisal. Glass Technology-European Journal of Glass Science and Technology Part A 57, no. 2 (2016): 37-52. [Available in a book: Brain C, and Brain S (2016) The development of English and Irish crystal glass 1642-1682. 2 copies in IoA library – 1 available from issue desk]. Dungworth D & Brain C (2009) Late 17th-Century Crystal Glass: An Analytical Investigation. Journal of Glass Studies 51, 111-137. Kunicki-Goldfinger, J. J. (2019) Identification of glass objects susceptible to crizzling. The case of central European Baroque potassium glass. Annual Report of the Institute for Nuclear Chemistry, Warsaw, p 79-80. McCray, W.P. (1998) Glassmaking in renaissance Italy: The innovation of Venetian cristallo. JOM Journal of the Minerals, Metals and Materials Society, 50(5), pp.14-19. Verità, M., 2013. Venetian soda glass. In (K. Janssens, ed) Modern methods for analysing archaeological and historical glass, 1, John Wiley & Sons. pp.515-536.

6. How was kelp produced? Explain the evidence for its use in glass making. Dungworth, D., 2009, March. Innovations in the 17th-century glass industry: the introduction of kelp (seaweed) ash in Britain. In Innovations in glass making and their evolution from Antiquity to the 21st century Colloque International de L’Association Verre et Histoire. www.verre-histoire.org/colloques/innovations Dungworth, D, Degryse P, and Schneider J (2009) Kelp in historic glass: the application of strontium isotope analysis. Isotopes in Vitreous Materials (eds P Degryse, J Henderson and G Hodgkins) 113-130. McErlean T C (2007) Archaeology of the Strangford Lough Kelp Industry in the Eighteenth- and Early- Nineteenth Centuries. Historical Archaeology, Vol. 41, 76-93 Rymer L (1974) The Scottish kelp industry, Scottish Geographical Magazine, 90:3, 142-152

9 7. What is understood by the term “unstable glass”? What causes this phenomenon and in which types of glass is it most commonly encountered? What storage environment is advisable to inhibit this form of deterioration and why? Fearn, S., McPhail, D.S. and Oakley, V., 2003. Investigation of the corrosion of seventeenth century façon de Venise glass using advanced surface analysis techniques. Annales du 16e Congrès de l’Association Internationale pour l’Histoire du Verre, London 2003, pp.375-379.

Koob, S.P., van Giffen, N.A., Kunicki-Goldfinger, J.J., & Brill, R.H. (2018). Caring for glass collections: the importance of maintaining environmental controls. Studies in Conservation., 63, Suppl. 1: Preventive Conservation. The State of the Art, S146-S150.

Kunicki-Goldfinger, J.J., 2019. Identification of glass objects susceptible to crizzling. The case of central European baroque potassium glass. Annual Report of the Institute for Nuclear Chemistry, Warsaw, p 79-80. Verità, M., 2013. Venetian soda glass. In (K. Janssens, ed) Modern methods for analysing archaeological and historical glass, 1, John Wiley & Sons. pp.515-536.

3. SYLLABUS AND READING. An online reading list is available for this course and is essential. It will inevitably be more up to date than the readings given in this handbook.

Introductory readings for each lecture have frequently been supplemented by videos, showing aspects of ancient glassmaking and replication. Links are through the on-line reading list and they should be viewed before the appropriate lecture.

Please note that according to the digital licence, on-line readings are only available to our own students and staff. Intercollegiate students taking the course should contact Judy Medrington to be registered for a college IS username and password. This should be done when students register for the course.

Suggested reading of relevance throughout the course:

The journal Journal of Archaeological Science regularly has good-quality articles on glass and related topics, as do Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, Journal of Archaeological Science Reports and Archaeometry. Heritage Science and Journal of Cultural Heritage increasingly publish articles on glass. The conference proceedings of the Association Internationale pour l’Histoire du Verre (AIHV) (see web address below) are another good way to keep on top of current developments, and to research about all things glassy. Finally, the Journal of Glass Studies is the trade journal of the academic glass history profession, and offers archaeological, art historical and scientific papers on the subject. You should also be familiar with Google Scholar, reached through the “More” dropdown menu on the Google search page. Use of appropriate keywords will take you to the majority of current literature in the area that you are researching. Follow up on a particular paper by looking at who has cited it recently and reading the most recent contributions.

10 Many authors now post their publications in on-line repositories such as Academia.edu or Research Gate. These are good places to find book chapters and articles from conference proceedings which aren’t fully available in on-line form. *A major collection of papers, covering a range of topics is: Janssens K. (2013) Modern Methods for Analysing Archaeological and Historical Glass. Wiley. Available on line through UCL Library. [Over 700 pages and 30 chapters focussing on the scientific aspects of glass, many of which are pertinent to the course and by well-known researchers. Available on-line through the library. Even so, take care. Books of this nature are not always comprehensively refereed and may not be fully representative. You should always find a second source to confirm what you read. In the essays we will be looking for the use of primary research papers as references, rather than textbooks.]

11 Session 1. Introduction; Nature and properties of Glass In this session we discuss glass as a material – how does it differ from other materials and what are its special properties? What are the essential components of glass and why does glass have such a characteristic range of compositions? Why are some glasses clear and transparent, others coloured and some opaque? Why does glass corrode and how does it affect our archaeological understanding? We will watch a video about a traditional glass workshop in Afghanistan and discuss what it tells us about the raw materials, the chaîne opératoire, the workshop and the working conditions of the craftspeople. We will also introduce some of the basic methods of chemical analysis.

Essential reading

Brill RH (1962) A note on the scientists definition of glass. Journal of Glass Studies. 4 127-138 http://www.cmog.org/library/note-scientists-definition- glass?search=scientific_research%3A72862f7247bd24fef289dc3b57cc9c2e&page=81 Freestone, I. (1991) Looking into glass. In: Bowman, S., Ed, Science and the Past, p. 37-56. Pollard, M. & Heron, C., (2008) Archaeological Chemistry, Chapter 5: The chemistry and corrosion of archaeological glass.

Bibliography Freestone, I (2001). Post-depositional Changes in Archaeological Ceramics and Glasses. In: Don R. Brothwell and A. Mark Pollard, eds. Handbook of Archaeological Sciences. Chichester: Wiley, 615-625. Ponting, M. (2004) The scanning electron microscope and the archaeologist. Physics Education vol 39 issue 2 pp 166-170 Schalm, O. and Anaf, W. (2016) Laminated altered layers in historical glass: Density variations of silica nanoparticle random packings as explanation for the observed lamellae. Journal of Non- Crystalline Solids, 442, pp.1-16. Turner, W.E.S. (1959) A study of the opalising agents in ancient opal glass throughout three thousand four hundred years. Glasstechnische Berichte 32K, VIII 17-VIII 28 (see me for a copy). Weyl, W. (1976), Coloured glasses. Sheffield, Society of Glass Technology. Zanotto, E.D. (1998) Do cathedral glasses flow? Am. J. Physics 66, 392-395.

12 Session 2 Bronze Age Vitreous Materials There are a number of Near Eastern precursors to glass in the strict sense. These so-called vitreous materials are made from essentially the same components as glass but combined in different proportions using different production technologies. The best known of these are Egyptian blue and faience and they will be discussed in the present session. We will then move on to the first glass vessels in the Late Bronze Age, core-forming techniques and colourants.

Essential: Before the lecture read (at least) one of these: Nicholson, Paul T. (2009) Faience Technology. In Willeke Wendrich (ed.), UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, Los Angeles. Download pdf from: http://escholarship.org/uc/item/9cs9x41z Nicholson, P. & Peltenburg, E. (2000) Egyptian faience. In: P. Nicholson & I. Shaw, Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. Cambridge University Press. Chapter 7: 177—194. Spencer A. J. and Schofield L. (1997) Faience in the ancient Mediterranean world. Pp 104-109 in Freestone, I.C & Gaimster, D. Pottery in the Making, London: British Museum Press and Washington: Smithsonian Institution.

Other useful background reading:

Shortland, A. (2012). Lapis Lazuli from the Kiln: Glass and Glassmaking in the Late Bronze Age. Leuven University Press. Tait, H., (1991), Five Thousand Years of Glass. British Museum Press, London. See the chapter at the end by Gudenrath for glass-working techniques Tite, M.S. (1987) Characterisation of early vitreous materials. Archaeometry 29, 21-34.

Bibliography specific to the lecture: Duckworth, C. N. (2012). Imitation, Artificiality and Creation: the Colour and Perception of the Earliest Glass in New Kingdom Egypt. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 22(03), 309-327. Hatton G.D., Shortland A.J., Tite M.S. (2008) The production technology of Egyptian blue and green frits from second millennium BC Egypt and Mesopotamia. Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 1591-1604 Nicholson, P.T. (1993) Egyptian Glass and Faience. Aylesbury: Shire. Nicholson, P. T. (2012). " Stone... That Flows": Faience and Glass as Man-Made Stones in Egypt. Journal of Glass Studies, 11-23. Paynter, S and Tite, M S, 2001, The evolution of glazing technologies in the ancient Near East and Egypt, in The Social Context of Technological Change ed. Shortland, A J, Oxbow Books, Oxford, 239-254. Peltenburg E (1987) Early faience: recent studies, origins and relationships with glass. In Bimson M. and Freestone I. C. (eds.) Early Vitreous Materials. British Museum: Occasional paper 56, 5-29. Rehren T 1997 Ramesside glass colouring crucibles. Archaeometry 39/2, 355-368 Rehren, Th. & Pusch, E. 2005. Late Bronze Age Egyptian glass production at Qantir-Piramesses. Science 308, 1756-1759. Sheridan, A., Eremin, K., & Shortland, A. (2004) Understanding Bronze Age Faience in Britain and Ireland. In Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology VII. Materials Research Society Proceedings Vol. 852, pp. OO7-2.

13 Shortland A J (2002) The use and origin of antimonate colourants in early Egyptian glass. Archaeometry 44, 517-530. Smirniou, M. and Rehren, Th. (2011) Direct evidence of primary glass production in Late Bronze Age Amarna, Egypt. Archaeometry 53, 58–80 Tite, M.S., Bimson, M. and Cowell, M.R., 1987. The technology of Egyptian blue. In Bimson M and Freestone I (eds) Early vitreous materials (pp. 19-47). British Museum. Tite, M., Freestone, I. & Bimson, M., 1983, Egyptian faience: an investigation of the method of production. Archaeometry 25, 17-27 Tite, M S, Shortland, A J and Paynter, S, (2002), The beginnings of vitreous materials in the Near East and Egypt, Accounts of Chemical Research, 35, 585-593. Tite, M.S. and Bimson, M. (1989) Glazed steatite: an investigation of the methods of glazing used in ancient Egypt. World Archaeology 21, 87-100.

14 Session 3: Late Bronze Age Trade; Iron Age glass: the introduction of natron

A few years ago, we had only a limited understanding of the sources of Late Bronze Age glass and the movement and trade of this material. However, improvements in analytical methods and our understanding of production have allowed significant advances to be made in this area. At some point in the late second- early first millennium BC, a major change in flux type occurred and glass makers began to move from the use of plant ash to natron. In addition, the use of sand as a source of silica slowly replaced the use of crushed quartz pebbles. These changes permitted the massive expansion in glass production which was to occur in the Hellenistic and Roman periods.

Essential Varberg, J., Gratuze, B., & Kaul, F. (2015). Between Egypt, Mesopotamia and Scandinavia: Late Bronze Age glass beads found in Denmark. Journal of Archaeological Science, 54, 168-181. Shortland A, Schachner L, Freestone I and Tite M (2006) Natron as a flux in the early vitreous materials industry –sources, beginnings and reasons for decline. Journal of Archaeological Science 33, 521-530.

Bibliography Late Bronze Age: Provenance Jackson, C. and Nicholson, P. (2010) The provenance of some glass ingots from the Uluburun shipwreck. Journal of Archaeological Science 37, 295-301. Kaczmarczyk, A. (1986): The source of cobalt in ancient Egyptian pigments. in ‘‘Proceedings of the 24th International Archeometry Symposium’’, J.S. Olin & M.J. Blackman, eds., Smithsonian Institution press, Washington, 369–376. Nicholson PT, Jackson CM and Trott KM (1997) The Ulu Burun glass ingots, cylindrical vessels and Egyptian glass. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 83, 143-153 Rehren, Th. 2016: Another order for glass – or, how much glass does Pharaoh need? In: H. Franzmeier, Th. Rehren, R. Schulz (eds), Mit archäologischen Schichten Geschichte schreiben. (=Forschungen in der Ramses-Stadt 10), Hildesheim, 255-267. Shortland A.J., Tite M.S., Ewart I. (2006) Ancient Exploitation and Use of Cobalt Alums from the Western Oases of Egypt, Archaeometry, 48, 153-168. Shortland A, Rogers N, Eremin K (2007) Trace element discriminants between Egyptian and Mesopotamian Late Bronze Age glasses Journal of Archaeological Science 34, 781-789

Shortland, A.J., Kirk, S., Eremin, K., Degryse, P. and Walton, M., 2017. The Analysis of Late Bronze Age Glass from Nuzi and the Question of the Origin of Glass‐Making. Archaeometry. onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/arcm.12332/pdf.

Varberg, J., Gratuze, B., Kaul, F., Hansen, A.H., Rotea, M. and Wittenberger, M., (2016). Mesopotamian glass from Late Bronze Age Egypt, Romania, Germany, and Denmark. Journal of Archaeological Science.

Venclová, N., Hulínský, V., Henderson, J., Chenery, S., Šulová, L. and Hložek, J., 2011. Late Bronze Age mixed-alkali glasses from Bohemia. Archeologické rozhledy, 63(4). Downloadable from www.arup.cas.cz/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/AR4_2011_lr.pdf#page=5

15 Walton, M., Eremin, K., Shortland, A., Degryse, P. and Kirk, S., 2012. Analysis of Late Bronze Age glass axes from Nippur—a new cobalt colourant. Archaeometry, 54(5), pp.835-852.

Iron Age Glass to early Roman glass; Natron Blomme, A., Elsen, J., Brems, D., Shortland, A., Dotsika, E. and Degryse, P., 2016. Tracing the primary production location of core-formed glass vessels, Mediterranean Group I. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 5, pp.1-9. Conte, S., Arletti, R., Mermati, F. and Gratuze, B., 2016. Unravelling the Iron Age glass trade in southern Italy: the first trace-element analyses. European Journal of Mineralogy, p.ejm2516_pap_gsw. Fletcher P J, Freestone I and Geschke R (2008) Analysis and conservation of a weeping glass scarab. British Museum Technical Research Bulletin 2, 45-48. Freestone I C and Stapleton C P (2015) Composition of mosaic glass vessels of the early Imperial period. In Bayley J, Freestone I C, and Jackson C J, (eds) Glass of the Roman World, 62-77. Grose, D. F., (1989) Early ancient glass: core-formed, rod-formed, and cast vessels and objects from the late Bronze Age to the early Roman Empire, 1600 B.C. to A.D. 50, Hudson Hills Press in association with the Toledo Museum of Art, New York. Reade, W., Freestone, I.C. and Simpson, St J. (2005) Innovation or continuity? Early first millennium BCE glass in the Near East: the cobalt blue glasses from Assyrian Nimrud’, in Annales du 16e Congres de l’Association Internationale pour l’Histoire du Verre 23–27. Reade W, Freestone I C and Bourke S (2009) Innovation and continuity in Bronze Age and Iron Age glass from Pella in Jordan, Annales 17th Congress AIHV 47-54 Sayre E V and Smith R W (1961). Compositional categories of ancient glass. Science 133, 1824- 1826 Schlick-Nolte, B. and Werthmann, R., ‘Glass vessels from the burial of Nesikhons’, Journal of Glass Studies 45 (2003) 11–34. Tatton-Brown, V. (2004), Hellenistic and non-blown Roman glass. In: H. Tait, 5000 Years of Glass, British Museum Press, 47-61.

16 Session 4. The Roman glass industry Natron-based glass was used West of the Euphrates River to the virtual exclusion of plant-ash based glass through most of the first millennium AD. For many years we were unable to determine the origins of this material but from the late 1990s, archaeological discoveries, advances in chemical analysis, and ethnographic work in India gave rise to a new model, which emphasises the division of production between a few primary workshops which made the glass, and a large number of secondary workshops which worked the glass. Most researchers are careful to distinguish the terms “glass making” and “glass working”, which refer to distinct types of activity. As part of our understanding of these developments, we will discuss the use of chemical analyses to distinguish quite subtle differences between production centres. We will also discuss the developments in isotopic studies which are allowing advances in our understanding of glass origins and provenance.

Essential Tatton-Brown, V. (1991), The Roman Empire. In: H. Tait, 5000 Years of Glass, British Museum Press, 62-97. Freestone I C, Ponting M and Hughes M J (2002) Origins of Byzantine glass from Maroni Petrera, Cyprus. Archaeometry 44, 257-272. Read the Introduction

Bibliography The introduction of blowing Grose, D. F. (1986) Innovation and Change in Ancient Technologies: The Anomalous Case of the Roman Glass Industry. In: W. D. Kingery (ed.), High-Technology Ceramics: Past, Present, and Future - The Nature of Innovation and Change in Ceramic Technology. Westerville, American Ceramic Society, 65-79. Israeli, Y., (1991) The invention of blowing. in: Newby M. and Painter K. (eds.) Roman glass: two centuries of art and invention. London, The Society of Antiquaries of London, 46-55. Israeli, Y. and Katsnelson, N., (2006). ‘Refuse of a glass workshop of the second Temple Period from area J’. in: Avigad, N. Jewish Quarter excavations in the Old City of Jerusalem, 1969-1982, vol. III: area E and other studies. Jerusalem, Israel Exploration Society, 411-460. Liardet F (2009) Learning by hand: artefact consistency and craft tradition. Annales 17 Congress AIHV (2006) 184-188.

Production, exchange, archaeometry Degryse P. (2014) Glassmaking in the Roman World. Leuven University Press. Open access book, available from: http://www.oapen.org/search?identifier=513796 Freestone I C (2006) Glass production in Late Antiquity and the Early Islamic period: a geochemical perspective. Geomaterials in Cultural Heritage M. Maggetti and B. Messiga (eds) Geological Society of London Special Publication 257, 201-216. http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/257/1/201 Freestone I (2008) Pliny on Roman glassmaking. In Martinon-Torres M and Rehren Th (eds) Archaeology, History and Science: Integrating Approaches to Ancient Materials. University College London: Institute of Archaeology Publications, Left Coast press, Walnut Creek CA; 77-100. Freestone, I., Gorin-Rosen, Y. & Hughes, M., 2000, Primary glass from Israel and the production of glass in Late Antiquity and the Early Islamic Period. In: M.-D. Nenna (ed), La Route du Verre, 65- 83. http://www.persee.fr/doc/mom_1274-6525_2000_act_33_1_1874

17

Freestone I C, Leslie K A, Thirlwall M and Gorin-Rosen Y (2003) Strontium isotopes in the investigation of early glass production: Byzantine and early Islamic glass from the Near East. Archaeometry 45, 19-32 Ganio, M., Boyen, S., Fenn, T., Scott, R., Vanhoutte, S., Gimeno, D., & Degryse, P. (2012). Roman glass across the Empire: an elemental and isotopic characterization. Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry, 27(5), 743-753. Gorin-Rosen Y (2000) The ancient glass industry in Israel: summary of finds and new discoveries. In La Route du Verre: Ateliers primaires et secondaires de verriers du second millinaire av. J.-C. au Moyen-Age, M.-D. Nenna (ed.), Travaux de la Maison de l'Orient Méditerranéen no. 33, 49-64. Nenna, M.D., 2015. Primary glass workshops in Graeco-Roman Egypt: preliminary report on the excavations of the site of Beni Salama, Wadi Natrun (2003, 2005-9). In Bayley J, Freestone I and Jackson C (eds) Glass of the Roman World. Oxbow Books, Oxford, pp.1-22. Price, J. (2005) Glass-working and Glassworkers in Cities and Towns. In Roman Working Lives and Urban Living. (MacMahon, A. & Price, J. eds) Oxford: Oxbow Books. 167-190.. Stern E M (1999) Roman glassblowing in a cultural context. American Journal of Archaeology 103, 441-484 Wardle A (2015). Glass Working on the Margins: Excavations at 35 Basinghall Street, City of London. London: Museum of London Archaeology [Book: well illustrated account of archaeological evidence for Roman glass-working] Colour in Roman glass Foster H. E. & Jackson C. M. (2005) A whiter shade of pale’? Chemical and experimental investigation of opaque white Roman glass gaming counters Glass Technology 46 327-333 Freestone, I., Meeks, N., Sax, M. and Higgitt, C. (2007) The Lycurgus cup—a roman nanotechnology. Gold Bulletin, 40(4), pp.270-277. Jackson, C.M., (2005) Making colourless glass in the Roman period. Archaeometry 47 (4), 763- 780 Sayre, E. V. (1963) 'The intentional use of antimony and manganese in ancient glasses'. In F. R. Matson and G. E. Rindone (eds.) Advances in Glass Technology, Part 2 New York: Plenum Press, 263-282. Schreurs, J. & Brill, R., (1984), Iron and sulphur related colors in ancient glasses. Archaeometry 26, 199-209.

18 Session 5: Byzantine, Sasanian and Islamic glass While Roman glass was based upon the use of natron as a flux, east of the Euphrates, in the regions of the (Persian) Parthian and Sassanian Empires, glass continued to be made from plant ash, and compositions are not so different from those of the Bronze Age. Following the Arab expansion in the early seventh century CE, natron use continued but around 850 CE in Egypt, and at about the same time in the Levant, there was a switch back to plant ash. We will then discuss some of the compositions and technologies that are particularly associated with later Byzantine and Islamic glass focusing especially upon opaque glasses, enamelling and gold glass.

Essential

Shortland, A., Schachner, L., Freestone, I. & Tite, M., 2006. Natron as a flux in the early vitreous materials industry: sources, beginnings and reasons for decline. Journal Archaeological Science 33, 521-530. [outlines the issues but see Phelps et al 2016, for where we are now] Pinder-Wilson, R., 1991, The Islamic Lands and China. In: H. Tait, 5000 Years of Glass, British Museum Press, 112-143. Gudenrath W (2006) Enameled Glass Vessels, 1425 BCE–1800: The Decorating Process. Journal of Glass Studies 48, 23-70. Read especially pp. 23-27; 43-47.

Bibliography Ceglia, A., Cosyns, P., Nys, K., Terryn, H., Thienpont, H. and Meulebroeck, W., (2015). Late antique glass distribution and consumption in Cyprus: a chemical study. Journal of Archaeological Science, 61, pp.213-222. Entwistle, C. and James, L. eds., (2012). New light on old glass: recent research on Byzantine mosaics and glass. London: British Museum. [Good collection of papers, especially on coloured glass in mosaics; note the views expressed in the paper by Lierke are controversial] Freestone I C (2006) Glass production in Late Antiquity and the Early Islamic period: a geochemical perspective. Geomaterials in Cultural Heritage M. Maggetti and B. Messiga (eds) Geological Society of London Special Publication 257, 201-216. http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/257/1/201 Freestone I, Meeks N, Sax M and Higgit C (2008) The Lycurgus Cup – A Roman nanotechnology. Gold Bulletin 40, 1-8. Freestone, I.C., and Stapleton, C.P. (1998) Composition and technology of Islamic enamelled glass of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, in Gilded and Enamelled Glass from the Middle East, (ed. Ward, R.), vol. 1, 122-8 + figs, plates, London: BMP. Greiff S and Schuster J (2008) Technological study of enamelling on Roman glass. Journal of Cultural Heritage 9, e27-e32. Keller, D., Price, J. and Jackson, C. eds., 2014. Neighbours and Successors of Rome: Traditions of Glass Production and use in Europe and the Middle East in the Later 1st Millennium AD. Oxbow Books. [a good collection of pertinent papers] Simpson St J (2014) Sasanian glass: an overview. In Keller D. et al (eds) Neighbours and Successors of Rome, 230-231. Downloadable from (note at the moment there are two entries with this title on the webpage, you need the second one): https://britishmuseum.academia.edu/StJohnSimpson

19 Nenna, M.-D., 2014. Egyptian glass abroad: HIMT glass and its market. In: D. Keller, J. Price and C. Jackson (eds), Neighbours and successors of Rome – Traditions of glass production and use in Europe and the Middle East in the later 1st millennium AD. Oxbow Books, 177-193.

Neri, E. and Verità, M., (2013). Glass and metal analyses of gold leaf tesserae from 1st to 9th century mosaics. A contribution to technological and chronological knowledge. Journal of Archaeological Science, 40(12), pp.4596-4606.

Phelps M, Freestone I C, Gorin-Rosen Y and Gratuze B (2016) Natron glass production and supply in the late antique and early medieval Near East: the effect of the Byzantine-Islamic transition. Journal of Archaeological Science, 75, 57-71. Verità, M., Santopadre, P., 2010. Analysis of Gold-Colored Ruby Glass Tesserae in Roman Church Mosaics of the Fourth to 12th Centuries. J. Glass Studies, 52, 1-14. Zorn B and Hilgner A (eds) (2010) Glass Along the Silk Road. Mainz: RGZM. Good collection of papers, many very pertinent.

20 Session 6: Ceramic Glazes A glaze is a coating of glass on a ceramic body. While early glazes are compositionally related to the glass of contemporary vessels, marked difference develop later. An understanding of glazes cannot be attained without an understanding of the constraints placed by the firing of the ceramic body. In this session we will take a chronologically-based survey of ceramic glazes, from the Bronze Age to the Islamic period. Topics to be covered include alkali glazes, lead glazes and tin- glazes with an introduction to Chinese glazes.

Essential Freestone, I.C & Gaimster, D. (1997) Pottery in the Making, London: British Museum Press and Washington: Smithsonian Institution. Chapters 10, 16, 17, 18. Vandiver, P.B. (1990) Ancient glazes, Scientific American, 262, 106-113.

Bibliography Bernsted, A.M.K. (2003) Early Islamic Pottery: Materials and Techniques, Archetype Publications Freestone I (2000) The Science of Early British porcelain http://www.haughton.com/system/files/articles/2010/01/27/92/icf_s_2000_2nd.pdf Holakooei, P. (2013). A Technological Study of the Elamite Polychrome Glazed Bricks at Susa, South-Western Iran. Archaeometry 56, 764-783. Holakooei, P., Ahmadi, M., Volpe, L. and Vaccaro, C., 2016. Early Opacifiers In The Glaze Industry Of First Millennium bc Persia: Persepolis And Tepe Rabat. Archaeometry 59(2), pp.239-254.. doi: 10.1111/arcm.12255. Mason, R B and Tite, M S, 1994, The beginnings of Islamic stonepaste technology, Archaeometry, 36, 77-91. Mason, R B and Tite, M S, 1997, The beginnings of the tin-opacification of pottery glazes, Archaeometry, 39, 41-58, Matson, F. R. (1986). Glazed Brick from Babylon-Historical Setting and Microprobe Analyses. In W.D. Kingery (ed) Technology and Style (Ceramics and Civilization Vol. 2, pp. 133-156). The American Ceramic Society, Inc.. Paynter, S. (2009). Links between glazes and glass in mid-2nd millennium BC Mesopotamia and Egypt. In Shortland A, Freestone I and Rehren Th (eds) From mine to microscope: advances in the study of ancient technology, 93-108. Pradell, T., Molera, J., Smith, A.D., Climent-Font, A. and Tite, M.S., 2008. Technology of Islamic lustre. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 9, pp.e123-e128. Pradell, T., Molera, J., Smith, A.D. and Tite, M.S., 2008. The invention of lustre: Iraq 9th and 10th centuries AD. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35(5), pp.1201-1215. Tite, M S, Freestone, I, Mason, R, Molera, J, Vendrell-Saz, M and Wood, N, 1998, Lead glazes in antiquity - methods of production and reasons for use, Archaeometry, 40, 241-260. Tite, M.S., Shortland, A.J., Schibille, N. and Degryse, P., 2016. New Data on the Soda Flux Used in the Production of Iznik Glazes and Byzantine Glasses. Archaeometry, 58(1), pp.57-67. Tite, M., Watson, O., Pradell, T., Matin, M., Molina, G., Domoney, K. and Bouquillon, A., 2015. Revisiting the beginnings of tin-opacified Islamic glazes. Journal of Archaeological Science, 57, pp.80-91. Walton, M. S., & Tite, M. S. (2010). Production technology of Roman lead-glazed pottery and its continuance into late antiquity. Archaeometry, 52(5), 733-759. 21

Chinese Glazes Fang, Lili (2011) Chinese Ceramics. Cambridge. Giannini, R., Freestone, I.C. and Shortland, A.J., 2016. European cobalt sources identification in the production of Chinese Famille Rose porcelain. J. Archaeol. Sci., 80, pp.27-36. Kingery, W.D. & Vandiver, P.B., 1986. The eighteenth-century change in technology and style from the famille-verte palette to the famille-rose palette. In Technology and style: proceedings of a symposium on ceramic history and archaeology at the 87th annual meeting of the American Ceramic Society, 6 May 1985, Cincinnati. pp. 363–381. Medley, 1989. The Chinese Potter: a practical history of Chinese ceramics 3rd ed., London and New York. Sato M (1981) Chinese Ceramics. 1st English edition, New York and Tokyo. Wood, Nigel (1999). Chinese Glazes. London: Black. Vainker, S.J., 1989. Chinese pottery and porcelain, London: British Museum. Wen, R. et al., 2007. The chemical composition of blue pigment on Chinese blue-and-white porcelain of the Yuan and Ming dynasties (AD 1271-1644). Archaeometry, 49(1), pp.101–115. Yin, M., Rehren, T., & Zheng, J. (2011). The earliest high-fired glazed ceramics in China: the composition of the proto-porcelain from Zhejiang during the Shang and Zhou periods (c. 1700–221 BC). Journal of Archaeological Science, 38(9), 2352-2365.

22 Session 7. Far eastern vitreous materials This session covers some of the remarkable ethnographic evidence from India for early techniques; the different compositions of Indian glasses; and the very different trajectory of vitreous materials development in China. Essential Henderson, J., An, J. and Ma, H., 2018. The archaeometry and archaeology of ancient Chinese glass: a review. Archaeometry, 60(1), pp.88-104. Abraham, S.A., 2016. Glass beads and glass production in early South India: Contextualizing Indo- Pacific bead manufacture. Archaeological Research in Asia, 6, pp.4-15

Bibliography Chinese glass and vitreous materials An Jiayao (1991) The early glass of China. In Brill and Martin (eds) pp. 1-19. Braghin C. ed., (2002) Chinese Glass: Archaeological Studies on the Uses and Context of Glass Artefacts from the Warring States to the Northern Song period. Firenze: Orientalia Venetiana XIV. Brill R H . and J. H. Martin, eds. (1991) Scientific Research in Early Chinese Glass New York, Corning Museum of Glass Curtis, E. B. (1993). European Contributions to the Chinese Glass of the Early Qing Period. Journal of Glass Studies, v. 35, 97. Curtis, E.B., 2009. Glass exchange between Europe and China, 1550-1800: diplomatic, mercantile and technological interactions, Farnham, England: Ashgate. Gan Fuxi, 2009. Origin and evolution of ancient Chinese glass. In Ancient glass research along the Silk Road, pp.1-40. Gan Fuxi, Li Qinghui, Henderson J, 2016. Recent advances in the scientific research on ancient glass and glazes. World Scientific Publishing. Gan Fuxi, Brill R and Tian Shouyun (eds) 2009. Ancient Glass Research along the Silk Road. World Scientific. Kwan, S., 2013. Early Chinese Faience and Glass Beads and Pendants. BEADS: Journal of the Society of Bead Researchers, 25(1), p.4. Michaelson C. (1999) Han dynasty glass plaques in the British Museum. Trans Oriental Ceram Soc 63, 45-64. Wiedemann, H.G., Bayer, G. & Reller, A., (1998), Egyptian blue and Chinese blue. Production technologies and applications of two historically important blue pigments. In: S. Colinart & M. Menu (eds.), La Couleur dans la peinture et l'emaillage de l'Egypte Ancienne, 195-203. Lei, Y. and Xia, Y., 2015. Study on production techniques and provenance of faience beads excavated in China. Journal of Archaeological Science, 53, pp.32-42.

India and South Asia Dussubieux L, Gratuze B, Blet-Lemarquand M (2010) Mineral soda alumina glass: occurrence and meaning. Journal of Archaeological Science 37, 1646–1655

Dussubieux, L., Kusimba, C. M., Gogte, V., Kusimba, S. B., Gratuze, B., & Oka, R. (2008). The trading of ancient glass beads: new analytical data from South Asian and East African soda– alumina glass beads. Archaeometry, 50, 797-821. 23 Francis, P Jr 2002. Asia’s Maritime Bead Trade 300 BC to the Present, Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press.

Gill, M. S., & Rehren, T. (2011). Material characterization of ceramic tile mosaic from two 17th‐ century islamic monuments in northern India. Archaeometry, 53(1), 22-36.

Gill, M. S., Rehren, T., & Freestone, I. (2014). Tradition and indigeneity in Mughal architectural glazed tiles. Journal of Archaeological Science, 49, 546-555. Kock, J. and Sode, T., 1994. Glass, glassbeads and glassmakers in Northern India. Thot Print. Kock, J., & Sode, T. (2002). Medieval glass mirrors in southern Scandinavia and their technique, as still practiced in India. Journal of Glass Studies, (44), 79-94. Kreuger, I (1993) Glass-mirrors in medieval times. Annales du 12e Congrès de l'Association International pour l'histoire du Verre, 319-332. Lankton J W and Dussubieux L (2006) Early Glass in Asian Maritime Trade: A Review and an Interpretation of Compositional Analyses. Jour Glass Studies 48, 121-144 Nakai, I. and Shindo, Y. 2013. Glass trade between the Middle East and Asia. In: Janssens, K. (ed) 2013, Modern Methods for Analysing Archaeological and Historical Glass, Wiley and Sons, 445- 457. Pinder-Wilson, R., 1991, The Islamic Lands and China. In: H. Tait, 5000 Years of Glass, British Museum Press, 112-143. Sode, T. and Kock, J., 2001. Traditional raw glass production in northern India: the final stage of an ancient technology. Journal of Glass Studies, pp.155-169. Wood, M. 2011. A glass bead sequence for southern Africa from the 8th to the 16th century AD. Journal of African Archaeology 9 (1), 67–84. Wood, M., Panighello, S., Orsega, E.F., Robertshaw, P., van Elteren, J.T., Crowther, A., Horton, M. and Boivin, N., 2017. Zanzibar and Indian Ocean trade in the first millennium CE: the glass bead evidence. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 9(5), pp.879-901.

24 Session 8: Early Medieval Glass, Re-use and Recycling. Enamels on Metal, Where was glass obtained when the Romans left northern Europe in the fifth century? To what extent was a reservoir of old Roman glass recycled, as opposed to the importation of fresh material? In this session we will look at recycling in some detail. There are interesting examples from the craft of enamelling, which produced some of the most beautiful objects of the medieval period. Essential Freestone I C (2015) Re-use and Recycling of Roman Glass: Analytical Approaches. Journal of Glass Studies 57, 29-40. Freestone I.C., (1992) Theophilus and the Composition of Medieval Glass, in Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology III, vol. 267, 1992, p. 739-745.

Bibliography Recycling and re-use Bidegaray, A.I. and Pollard, A.M., 2018. Tesserae recycling in the production of medieval blue window glass. Archaeometry. Jackson, C.M. and Paynter, S., 2016. A great big melting pot: exploring patterns of glass supply, consumption and recycling in Roman Coppergate, York. Archaeometry, 58(1), pp.68-95. Paynter S and Jackson C M (2016) Re-used Roman rubbish: A thousand years of recycling Roman glass. European Journal of Post-Classical Archaeologies 6, 31-52. Schibille, N., Sterrett-Krause, A., & Freestone, I. C., 2017. Glass groups, glass supply and recycling in late Roman Carthage. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 9, 1223-1241 Schibille, N., & Freestone, I. C. (2013). Composition, Production and Procurement of Glass at San Vincenzo al Volturno: An Early Medieval Monastic Complex in Southern Italy. PloS one, 8(10), e76479. Schibille, N., Neri, E., Ebanista, C., Ammar, M.R. and Bisconti, F., 2018. Something old, something new: the late antique mosaics from the catacomb of San Gennaro (Naples). Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 20, pp.411-422. Silvestri, A. and Marcante, A., 2011. The glass of Nogara (Verona): a “window” on production technology of mid-Medieval times in Northern Italy. Journal of Archaeological Science, 38(10), pp.2509-2522. Van Wersch, L., Loisel, C., Mathis, F., Strivay, D. and Bully, S., 2015. Analyses of Early Medieval Stained Window Glass From the Monastery of Baume‐Les‐Messieurs (Jura, France). Archaeometry. Wolf S and Kessler C (2010) Early medieval window glass from Switzerland and a brief history of glass production in Europe in the first millennium AD. Pp 29-37 in Zorn B and Hilgner A (eds) Glass Along the Silk Road. Mainz: RGZM Wolf S and Kessler CM, Stern W B, Gerber Y (2005) Early medieval glass from Sion, Sous-le-Scex (Valais, Switzerland) – Roman glass-making traditions or innovative craftsmanship? Archaeometry 47, 363-382.

Glass on metal Biron I, Dandridge P and Wypyski M T (1996) Techniques and materials in Limoges enamels. In Tauburet-Delahaye E and Drake-Boehm B. Enamels of Limoges 1100-1350. Metropolitan Museum of Art 48-62.

25 Brun N. and Pernot M. (1992) The opaque red glass of Celtic enamels from continental Europe. Archaeometry 34, 235-252 Dandridge (P.), Wypuski (M.T.), “Preliminary Technical Study on Medieval Limoges Enamels” in Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology III, vol. 267, 1992, p. 817-826. Freestone, I.C. 1993, Compositions and origins of glasses from Romanesque champleve enamels, in Catalogue of Medieval Enamels in the British Museum. Volume II Northern Romanesque Enamel, (ed. Stratford, N.), 37-45, London: British Museum Press Freestone I.C., (1992) Theophilus and the Composition of Medieval Glass, in Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology III, vol. 267, 1992, p. 739-745. Helfenstein, Eva, Katherine Eremin, Richard Newman, Glenn Gates, Terry Drayman-Weisser, Cathy Selvius DeRoo, Philip Klausmeyer, and Ian Freestone (2012). Technical examination of enamels from the Botkin collection. Studies in Conservation 57, Supplement 1 (2012): 147-156. Henderson (J.), Technological Characteristics of Roman Enamels. Jewellery Studies, vol. 5, 1991, p. 65-76. Joyner L, Freestone I and Robinson J (2006) Crowning glory: the identification of gems on the head reliquary of St Eustace from the Basle Cathedral Treasury. J Gemmology 30, 169-182. Röhrs, S., Biron, I., Stege, H., 2009. About Limoges painted enamels – chronological evolution of the glass chemical composition. Annales du 17e congrès de l’AIHV, Anvers, 500-509. Verità, M., Cagnini, A., Galeotti, M., Cavalca, N. and Porcinai, S., 2013. Compositional Analysis of 14th–15th Century Enamels from the Altar of San Giovanni in Florence: an Integrated Study by Portable X‐Ray Fluorescence and Electron Probe Microanalysis. Archaeometry, 55(6), pp.1048- 1066.

26 Session 9 Medieval Europe: Potash-lime glass and stained glass windows New coloured and opaque glasses were introduced to northern Europe as the reservoir of old Roman glass declined and demand increased. Plant ash glass from the Mediterranean appears in the form of high quality vessels. Coloured window glass represents the major output of medieval glasshouses in northern Europe and was an important material in medieval buildings. How was it made and how did it develop? To what extent was it a “new” technology and to what extent derived from earlier practices? Archaeological approaches can tell us a good deal about this technology, which has been traditionally the domain of art historians.

Essential Freestone I (2014) New Light on Stained Glass through Scientific Analysis Glass Circle News Issue 134 Vol. 37 No. 2 (on Moodle) Freestone I.C., (1992) Theophilus and the Composition of Medieval Glass, in Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology III, vol. 267, 1992, p. 739-745.

Bibliography

Soda glass Freestone, I.C., Bimson, M., 1995. Early Venetian enamelling on glass: technology and origins. in Vandiver P.B., Druzik J.R., Madrid J.L.G., Freestone I.C., Wheeler G.S. (Eds.), Material issues in art and archaeology IV. Mater.Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. 352, 415-431. Jacoby D. (1993) Raw Materials for the Glass Industries of Venice and the Terraferma, About 1370 - About 1460, J. Glass Studies, 1993, 35, 65-90 Verità, M., 1995. Analytical investigation of European enamelled beakers of the 13th and 14th centuries. J. Glass Studies, 37, 83-98. Verità, M., 1998. Analyses of early enamelled Venetian glass: a comparison with Islamic glass. in R. Ward editor., Gilded and enamelled glass from Middle East, British Museum Press, London, 29- 134; 212.

Potash glass: stained glass windows

Barrera, J., Velde, B., 1989. A study of French medieval glass composition. Archéologie Médiévale, XIX, 81-127. Cable, M., 1998, The operation of wood-fired glass-melting furnaces. In: P. McCray & D. Kingery (eds.), The Prehistory and History of Glassmaking Technology, 315-330. Cox, G. A., Heavens, O. S., Newton, R. G., & Pollard, A. M. (1979). A study of the weathering behavior of medieval glass from York Minster. Journal of glass studies, 21, 54-75. Freestone, I., Kunicki-Goldfinger, J., Gilderdale-Scott, H., & Ayers, T. (2010). Multi-disciplinary investigation of the windows of John Thornton, focusing on the Great East Window of York Minster. The Art of Collaboration: Stained-Glass Conservation in the Twenty-First Century, 151-58. Hunault, M.O., Vinel, V., Cormier, L. and Calas, G., 2017. Thermodynamic insight into the evolution of medieval glassworking properties. Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 100(6), pp.2363-2367. Jackson, C.M. and Smedley, J.W. 2008. Medieval and post-medieval glass technology: the chemical composition of bracken from different habitats through a growing season. Glass Technology: European Journal of Glass Science and Technology Part A., 49(5), 240–245.

27 Jackson, C.M. and Smedley, J.W. (2008) Theophilus and the use of beech ash as a glassmaking alkali. in M. Martinón-Torres and Th. Rehren (eds). Archaeology, History and Science. Integrating approaches to ancient materials. 117-130. California: Left Coast Press Kunicki-Goldfinger, J. J., Freestone, I. C., McDonald, I., Hobot, J. A., Gilderdale-Scott, H., & Ayers, T. (2014). Technology, Production and Chronology of Red Window Glass in the Medieval Period– Rediscovery of a Lost Technology. Journal of Archaeological Science 41, 89-105. Marks, R. (1993). Stained glass in England during the Middle Ages. Routledge. Pradell, T., Molina, G., Murcia, S., Ibáñez, R., Liu, C., Molera, J. and Shortland, A.J., 2016. Materials, techniques, and conservation of historic stained glass “grisailles”. International Journal of Applied Glass Science, 7(1), pp.41-58. Smedley, J. W. & Jackson, C.M. 2002. Medieval and post medieval glass technology: A review of the use of bracken in glassmaking. Glass Technology 43(6), 221–224. Smedley, J.W. and Jackson, C.M. 2002. Medieval and post-medieval glass technology: Batch measuring practices. Glass Technology 43(1), 22-27. Wedepohl K H and Simon K (2010) The chemical composition of medieval wood ash glass from Central Europe Chemie der Erde 70, 89-97 Welch C. (2012) Medieval and early post-medieval glassworks. Historic England. Downloadable from: https://historicengland.org.uk/images-books/publications/iha-glassworks/

28 Session 10 Renaissance and later glass From the Renaissance, the glass industries undergo more rapid change. The search for clear, colourless “crystal” leads to the development of several diverse formulations and close attention to the purity of raw materials. Eventually, industrially produced chemicals and new colourants such as chromium and uranium lead to glass which is broadly similar to earlier materials but very different in detail. Recent work on window glass has shown major changes in composition between the fifteenth and twentieth centuries which can be clearly linked to broader technological change.

Biron, I., & Verità, M. (2012). Analytical investigation on Renaissance Venetian enamelled glasses from the Louvre collections. Journal of Archaeological Science 39, 2706 – 2713. Brain C, and Brain S (2016) The development of English and Irish crystal glass 1642-1682 / a collection of papers by Colin & Sue Brain. Available in IoA library Cable M and Smedley I W (1987) Liquidus temperatures and melting characteristics of some early container glasses. Glass Technology 28, 94-98. Crossley, D 1972 ‘The performance of the glass industry in sixteenth-century England’. The Economic History Review, 25 (1972), pp. 421–433 Crossley, D., 1998, The English glassmaker and his search for raw materials in the 16th and 17th centuries. In: P. McCray & D. Kingery (eds.), The Prehistory and History of Glassmaking Technology, 167-179 De Raedt, I., Janssens, K., and Veeckman, J., 1999. Compositional distinctions between 16th century façon de Venise and Venetian glass vessels excavated in Antwerp, Belgium. J. An. Atom. Spectr. 14, 493-498. Dungworth D (2011) The value of historic window glass. Historic Environment 2, 21-48 Dungworth, D. (2012). Historic Window Glass-The Use of Chemical Analysis to Date Manufacture. Journal of Architectural Conservation, 18(1), 7. Dungworth, D. (2012). Historic windows: investigation of composition groups with nondestructive pXRF. Glass Technology-European Journal of Glass Science and Technology Part A, 53(5), 192- 197. Dungworth D (2012) Three and a half centuries of bottle glass manufacture. Industrial Archaeology Review, 34, 37–50. Janssens, K., Cagno, S., De Raedt, I., & Degryse, P. (2013). Transfer of Glass Manufacturing Technology in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries from Southern to Northern Europe: Using Trace Element Patterns to Reveal the Spread from Venice via Antwerp to London. Modern Methods for Analysing Archaeological and Historical Glass, Volume I, 537-562. Lopes, F., Lima, A., de Matos, A.P., Custódio, J., Cagno, S., Schalm, O. and Janssens, K., 2017. Characterization of 18th century Portuguese glass from Real Fábrica de Vidros de Coina. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 14, pp.137-145. McCray, W.P., 1998. Glassmaking in renaissance Italy: The innovation of venetian cristallo. JOM, 50(5), pp.14-19. McCray, W.P., 1999. Creating networks of skill: technology transfer and the glass industry in Venice. Journal of European Economic History, 28(2), p.301. Verità, M., 2013. Venetian soda glass. In Janssens K (ed) Modern Methods for Analysing Archaeological and Historical Glass, Volume I, pp. 515-536.

Verità, M., 2014. Secrets and innovations of Venetian glass between the 15th and the 17th centuries: Raw materials, glass melting and artefacts. Study Days on Venetian Glass, approximately 1600’s, 172, pp.53-68. 29 4 ONLINE RESOURCES

An online reading list is available for this course. Please note that according to the digital licence, these readings are only available to our own students and staff. Intercollegiate students taking the course should contact Judy Medrington to be registered for a college IS username and password. This should be done when students register for the course. Useful websites include: http://www.theglassmakers.co.uk. Masses of material about glassworking techniques and furnaces, a large amount of material on Roman glassworking techniques http://archeoglas.glasofenexperiment.de German-English website focusing on experimental archaeology and reproduction www.cmog.org Corning Museum of Glass. Search the collection on-line; on-line glass dictionary; “underwater archaeology” video on the Ulu Burun wreck; Timeline of glass; Catalogue of the Rakow Research Library. See some of the helpful information and videos in the “Research” section of the site. http://www.afaverre.fr/acteurs_bibliographie.php French Association for the Archaeology of Glass has lists of publications of many of those active in the field. On-line copies of Bulletin which has some very useful short articles. http://www.aihv.org/en/aihv_publications.html l’Association Internationale pour l’Histoire du Verre has downloadable copies of its 15th (2001, pub 2003) and 16th (2003, pub 2006) congresses available here. https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/collection/the-british-museum?f.text=glass&v.view=grid This fine collection of British Museum objects may be seen on the website of the Google Cultural Institute. It used to be available on the BM website, and its move may prompt us to reflect upon the nature of cultural imperialism in a globalised market economy. http://www.historyofglass.org.uk/index.html. The British Association for the History of Glass (AHG). Produces a Newsletter and holds one or two meetings per annum. Also provides grants for glass researchers (including students) to attend conferences and complete projects. www.academia.edu Many researchers (e.g. Julian Henderson, Caroline Jackson, Thilo Rehren) have their own pages and upload their research papers to this site which are freely downloadable. Search on the author names. (NB. You may have to register to access the site, do so as a “graduate student” and put your course or module coordinator down as supervisor). http://www.beadresearch.org Excellent resource on beads, including glass beads. Downloadable annotated bibliographies of various aspects of beads, including technology and archaeometry. https://scholar.google.co.uk. Use of the appropriate keywords and author names will produce a far more focussed result than a normal Google web search. http://www.verre-histoire.org/colloques/innovations On-line proceedings of a conference in 2009, mainly in French but with some very useful articles in English, notably by Dungworth and Verita. (Carré A.L., Lagabrielle S., Maitte C. et Philippe M. (dir.), Les Innovations verrières et leur devenir, Actes du deuxième colloque international de l'association Verre & Histoire, Paris, Association Verre & Histoire, 2011) Google images. For pictures of glass vessels.

30 5 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION Important Collections of Early Glass and Ceramics in London: The British Museum – has the best collection of ancient glass in the world, spread through its galleries, as well as arguably the best ceramics collection. The Percival David Gallery of Chinese ceramics has the best porcelain and stoneware you are likely to see anywhere The Victoria and Albert Museum – has an excellent gallery devoted to glass, including pull out display cases allowing the reserve collection to be viewed. Also excellent ceramic galleries The Museum of London – Excavated material from London’s Roman glass workshops and a good range of glass and ceramic artefacts through the galleries The Petrie Museum - Material from excavations in Egypt, in archaeological context

31 APPENDICES: SUPPORTING MATERIAL

G111 Glass and Glazes: Some chronological terms used in the course East Mediterranean Mesopotamia Western Europe China

1500 BCE Late Bronze Age Late Bronze Age Late Bronze Age Shang

Iron Age Iron Age 1000 BCE Iron Age Zhou

500 BCE Achaemenid Warring States

Hellenistic Hellenistic Parthian Han Dynasty

CE-BCE Roman Roman

Sasanian

Byzantine 500 CE Early Medieval Tang Dynasty Islamic Islamic

1000 CE Song High Medieval

Yuan Renaissance Ming 1500 CE Post-medieval

(Early modern) Qing

2000 CE

Health Warning: this table is to allow those unfamiliar with archaeological chronologies to more-or-less fit things together; it should not be considered definitive in any way

32 ARCL0099: Simplified Chart of Chinese Dynastic Periods and Glass and Ceramic Development

Xia 2100-1600 Shang 1600-1046 First ash glazes Zhou 1046-256 Western Zhou 1046-771 Imported faience Chinese faience (potassic flux) Proto-porcelain well developed Eastern Zhou 770-256

Spring and Autumn 770-476 Imported eye beads period Chinese Blue and Purple pigments Proto-porcelain well developed Warring States period 475-221 Coloured glazed beads and pigment coated vessels Qin Dynasty 221-206 Terracotta warriors Han Dynasty 202 BCE – 220 CE Low-fired lead glazed ceramics Glass funerary suits Yue celadons emerged in the end of this period

Three Kingdoms 220-265 Yue celadons well developed Jin 265-420 Yue celadons well developed Northern and 420-589 Celadons popular Southern Dynasties

Sui Dynasty 581-618 White porcelain Tang Dynasty 618-907 Pattern of Southern Celadons and Northern White Xing & Ding porcelaneous ware Sancai (3 colour) lead glazes Five Dynasties & Ten 907-960 Kingdoms Northern Song 960-1127 Guan, Ge, Ding, Ru &Jun, the so-called five major kilns Southern Song 1127-1279 Qingbai porcelain Longquan celadon Yuan 1270-1368 Underglaze blue and white Ming 1368-1644 Copper “sacrificial” red monochrome glazes Polychrome porcelains

Qing 1644-1911 Jesuits help establish imperial glass workshop Enamelled ceramic wares: Famille Verte, Famille Rose, Famille Noire

Only use this table as a general guide. Both the dynastic chronologies and the materials development are very simplified. Only some of the major ceramic wares are mentioned

33 Main Compositional Types of Archaeological Glass (Mediterranean, West Asia and Europe)

Depend upon the flux used to lower the melting temperature of the silica:

(1) Natron from Egypt (soda-rich) (2) Plant ash from hot countries (soda-rich) (3) Wood ash from temperate Europe (potash rich)

Chronological ranges of main glass types:

BC AD

1500 1000 500 0 500 1000 1500

Plant ash Iraq and East

Natron ?

Potash

Glasses made from soda-rich plant ash and natron can be distinguished by their contents of potash and magnesia, which are higher in plant ash glass (plant ash has more impurities).

Natron Plant ash Wood ash

Na2O 17 16 2 soda CaO 8 6 15 lime SiO2 70 66 55 silica

K2O 0.5 3.5 17 potash MgO 0.5 5.0 6 magnesia

34 The use of opacifiers in glass through the ages

Taken from Rooksby H P (1962) Opacifiers in opal glasses through the ages. GEC Journal 29, 20- 26 Old now, but still more-or-less true.

35 Typical compositions of some natron glasses

Soda-lime-silica glasses characterized by low potassium and magnesium oxides, natron glasses nevertheless show significant variations in composition dependent on when and where they were made, as illustrated below. These may be in the presence of decolourisers such as Mn and Sb (columns 1 and 2), the concentration of minor elements such as Fe and Ti (higher in HIMT glass of the fourth century; column 3) or the total content of Na, which steadily decreases over time (column 4).

1 2 3 4 Rom-Mn Rom-Sb HIMT Levantine II Cent CE 2nd 2nd 4-5th 7-8th

SiO2 70.07 70.15 64.49 73.76

Na2O 16.00 19.75 19.07 12.10 CaO 7.69 4.81 6.22 7.42

Al2O3 2.52 1.98 2.88 3.58

K2O 0.57 0.42 0.41 0.45 MgO 0.61 0.36 1.23 0.69

Fe2O3 0.41 0.39 2.28 0.62

TiO2 0.08 0.07 0.49 0.12 MnO 0.65 0.02 2.02 0.02

Sb2O3 <0.06 0.84 <0.001 <0.03

P2O5 0.16 0.03 0.11 0.06

SO3 0.14 0.28 n.a. 0.04 Cl 1.18 1.44 n.a. 0.65

Note that in tables of analyses such as this, “n.a.” stands for “not analysed”; “<” means “less than”. i.e. the amount is below the ability of the instrument to analyse it or below detection sometimes shown as “b.d.”

36 Change in soda content of natron glass over time

Weight Percent Na2O

Egyptian glass Levantine glass

Century m sd m sd Data source 1st BCE 17.6 1.1 Jerusalem: Freestone unpub. Iulia Felix, Rom-Sb & Rom-Mn: 2nd-3rd CE 19.8 0.5 16.8 0.8 Silvestri et al 2008, 2009 4th CE 15.7 0.9 Jalame: Brill 1988

5th CE 19.1 1.4 HIMT: Foy et al 2003

6th CE 17.8 1.1 Foy 2.1: Cholakova et al 2015 Apollonia: Tal et al 2004, 6th-7th CE 14.4 1.2 Freestone et al 2000, 2008 7th CE 17.0 1.3 Egypt I: Ceglia et al 2015 Bet Eliezer: Freestone et al 7th-8th CE 12.5 1.5 2000, unpub Egypt II: Bimson & Freestone 8th-9th CE 15.0 0.5 1984, Freestone et al 2015

Note that these are average values and each group has a spread, as indicated by the standard deviation (sd – only about two thirds of the sample will occur within 1 standard deviation of the mean). THIS MEANS YOU CANNOT USE THE SODA CONTENT OF A PIECE OF GLASS TO DATE IT ACCURATELY – the table shows just a general trend.

Natron versus plant ash glass

Natron glass, typical of the Roman and Byzantine periods, has low K2O and MgO, while plant ash glass, typical of the Late Bronze Age, Sasanian and Islamic periods has higher contents. 37

Some Glaze Compositions

1 2 3 4 5 Alkali Lead Lead Feldspathic Salt Glaze Glaze Glaze Glaze Glaze

soda Na2O 14 0.5 1 0.5 11

potash K2O 4 0.5 5 5 2 lime CaO 6 0.5 1 15 2 lead PbO 0 60 30 0 0 silica SiO2 70 30 56 64 65

Al O alumina 2 3 2 5 3 15 20

1. Typical of pre-Roman Near Eastern pottery, Egyptian faience, and some later Islamic-period wares. Made by applying glass frit or a glaze mixture to the surface (in the case of some faience, by efflorescence). Low maturing range, around 900-1000oC. Corrodes easily, depending on lime content (sometimes lower than that shown here, especially in faience). Not a good fit to body, often crazed. 2. Typical of medieval wares in Britain and Europe. Forms as a reaction between galena (PbS), or lead oxide, and clay, while the pot is fired. Matures around 800-900oC. Alumina content is derived from the body. Often slightly corroded. 3. Typical of post-medieval wares, this is from 18th C English porcelain. Note lower lead content, matures around 1000-1100oC. The glaze is applied as a frit to the surface of the ware. 4. Typical of hard paste porcelains and stonewares, this is from Chinese celadon. The high alumina is derived from the use of clay in the glaze mixture. This means that the glaze has a high maturing temperature 1200-1350oC. The high alumina also makes the glaze very resistant to corrosion. 5. Salt glazes are formed by a reaction between alkali vapour and clay body. They are essentially clay plus soda and are fired at around 1150-1250oC. High alumina means very resistant to corrosion, so although they are very thin, they often come out of the ground looking good.

38 Compositions of some enamels on metalwork

Celtic opaque red enamel

Iron Age/ Early Romano-British Medieval

SiO2 silicon dioxide 41 17 CaO calcium oxide 3.9 0.7

Na2O sodium oxide 10.6 0.8 PbO lead oxide 32 53 CuO copper oxide 6.4 16.8

Al2O3 aluminium oxide 1.8 2.3 FeO iron oxide 0.6 0.6 MgO magnesium oxide 0.6 0.4

K2O potassium oxide 0.5 0.6

SnO2 tin oxide 0.4 6.4

Sb2O3 antimony oxide 1.1 <0.7

Comment – these are high lead glasses and easy to melt. The Iron Age glass was probably made by adding lead and copper oxide to a pre-existing soda-lime-silica glass base; the early medieval is a simpler copper-lead-silica composition. Both are opaque red due to the presence of dendritic crystals of cuprite, care is required to maintain the glass in a reduced state while heating.

Mosan enamel (Romanesque, 12th century, made in the Liège region)

Green Turquoise Mosan Roman Mosan Roman enamel mosaic enamel mosaic

Na2O 16.4 17.4 16.6 18.1 MgO 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.6

Al2O3 2.2 2.0 2.0 2.0

SiO2 63.6 65.6 65.7 66.2

K2O 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.6 CaO 5.5 6.2 5.3 6.0 FeO 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.5 MnO 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4 CuO 2.9 1.5 2.3 2.0 PbO 4.8 2.8 2.4 1.2

Sb2O3 1.0 0.6 1.5 1.5

Comment - These are soda-lime-silica glasses, made opaque by fine particles of lead antimonate (green) and calcium antimonate (turquoise). The medieval enamels are very similar in composition to analyses of Roman mosaics and it is generally accepted that the twelfth century author Theophilus was correct when he described the removal of glass tesserae from Roman wall mosaics to make enamels and coloured window glass. These compositions are stable in the museum environment, although, like many glasses, they will corrode in the soil.

39 Methods of Analysis The Scanning Electron Microscope - How it works…

1. The image

Scanning electron microscope – the column

Filament TV image - shades of grey electrons

Lens

Scanning coils

Lens Electron detector

Vacuum specimen pump

The SEM consists of a column which is kept under vacuum. Electrons are generated from a filament at the top of the column and pass down it due to a potential difference of thousands of volts. The electrons are focused on the object by “lenses” which are magnets. Scanning coils move the electron beam backwards and forwards across the sample (just like the cathode ray tube in an old TV or computer screen). When the electrons hit the surface of the object, more electrons are knocked out of the surface (“secondary electrons”). These are registered by the secondary electron detector, which interfaces with an amplifier to give a TV image of the sample.

Advantages over a light microscope:

Very high magnifications – can easily see features less than one thousandth of a millimetre. Hills and valleys in focus at the same time Very sharp images Features rich in heavy elements (metals such as copper, lead and iron) appear brighter than those rich in light elements – reveals the microstructure of alloys, ceramics etc.

40 2. Chemical analysis

Primary Beam

X-ray detector

Secondary Electron Detector X-rays

In addition to secondary electrons, X-rays are given off from the sample. These depend on the chemical elements present. The energies of the X-rays correspond to different elements and the amounts of the X-rays give the amounts of the elements.

So it is possible to get a chemical analysis of a single spot, or of an area being scanned.

Energy dispersive analysis in the SEM (SEM-EDXA) allows us to:  Analyse a small area of an artefact – e.g. a coating on metal or a glaze on pottery or a mineral inclusion  Analyse a very small sample – e.g. a tiny fragment of glass or a shaving of metal

Its main limitation is that it can only detect the major and some minor elements – those present at levels above about 0.1%. It can’t analyse trace elements.

Other limitations include the need for a flat sample for a good analysis; the need to coat the sample with a conductive material such as carbon

41 Other methods of analysis you will encounter in the Literature

Electron Microprobe (EPMA) – sophisticated type of SEM which uses wavelength rather than energy dispersive analysis (WDS vs EDS). Advantageous as it gives good analysis of minor elements, especially antimony and tin, elements which can be problematic with SEM-EDS. These methods require solid samples of only a few millimeters diameter

Inductively-Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) A good method for the analysis of trace elements. Usually coupled with EPMA for the major elements. Needs a sample to be dissolved in acid. However, laser ablation ICP-MS (LA-ICP-MS) is almost always used on glass, which requires removal of a minute sample (less than 1 mm across). It works by ablating the surface of the sample with a laser and sucking the ablated material up into the spectrometer. The technique can be used “non-destructively” for small artefacts such as beads, which will fit into the sample chamber. The best labs can use LA-ICPMS to analyse both major and trace elements and this is increasingly becoming the technique of choice for ancient glass.

Hand held or portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (pXRF or hhXRF). “Non-destructive” method which gives unreliable numbers in many cases because of the need for a flat sample and surface corrosion and dirt and because of limitations of the manufacturer’s correction programmes. Exceptions to this generalization are the work of the group under Prof Nakai from Japan where the results get pretty close to those of EPMA and David Dungworth’s work on post-medieval window glass where the windows are flat (naturally) and pretty well cleaned so there is not a surface layer of dirt and corrosion.

X-ray diffraction (XRD) This identifies crystalline compounds and therefore tells you the crystals (opacifiers) present in the glass, but glass itself is non-crystalline so it does not give the composition of the glass. Every year, somebody suggests the use of XRD for the analysis of glass chemistry in their essay. DON’T MAKE THIS MISTAKE!

Raman Spectroscopy. Capabilities a bit like XRD, in that it identifies the opacifiers present. Used in such a way, it can be a useful non-destructive method for glass. However, it does not give a chemical composition and is only occasionally used in glass studies. Again, you are unlikely to find papers using only Raman spectroscopy useful in the context of this course.

Isotope Analysis. Usually carried out using Thermal Ionisation Mass Spectrometry (TIMS) or a special form of ICP-MS called Multi-Collector ICPMS (MC-ICP-MS). These are highly expensive instruments and specialized techniques and access to specialist laboratories is needed to use them. Isotopic studies are very useful in the characterization and provenance of certain glass types.

42 Elements in Glass and Glazes

Major and minor elements

Element Name Oxide Informal Typically added as Symbol oxide name Si Silicon SiO2 Silica Sand Al Aluminium Al2O3 Alumina Sand Fe Iron FeO/Fe2O3 Sand (colourant) Mn Manganese MnO Colourant/decolourant Mg Magnesium MgO Magnesia Sand/flux Ca Calcium CaO Lime Sand/flux Na Sodium Na2O Soda Flux K Potassium K2O Potash Flux P Phosphorus P2O5 Phosphate Flux (plant ash) Pb Lead PbO Flux/colourant Sb Antimony Sb2O5 Opacifier/colourant Sn Tin SnO2 Opacifier Cu Copper Cu2O/CuO Colourant

Major element analyses are usually given as weight percent oxide, e.g. 71.3% SiO2

Some Trace Elements of interest

B Boron Co Cobalt Ni Nickel Cr Chromium Ti Titanium Ag Silver As Arsenic Au Gold Zr Zirconium Rb Rubidium Sr Strontium Ba Barium La Lanthanum Ce Cerium Nd Neodymium U Uranium Th Thorium

Trace element analyses are usually reported as parts per million, e.g. 33 ppm La. (Sometimes you will see this expressed as micrograms per gram (µg g-1) which is essentially the same number). 100% = 1,000,000 ppm 10% = 100,000 ppm 1% = 10,000 ppm 0.1% = 1,000 ppm 0.01%= 100 ppm

43 APPENDIX: POLICIES AND PROCEDURES 2019-20 (PLEASE READ CAREFULLY) This appendix provides a short précis of policies and procedures relating to modules. It is not a substitute for the full documentation, with which all students should become familiar. For full information on Institute policies and procedures, see the IoA Student Administration section of Moodle: https://moodle.ucl.ac.uk/ For UCL policies and procedures, see the Academic Regulations and the UCL Academic Manual: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/srs/academic-regulations ; http://www.ucl.ac.uk/academic-manual/

GENERAL MATTERS

ATTENDANCE: A register will be taken at each class. If you are unable to attend a class, please notify the lecturer by email. DYSLEXIA: If you have dyslexia or any other disability, please discuss with your lecturers whether there is any way in which they can help you. Students with dyslexia should indicate it on each coursework cover sheet.

COURSEWORK

LATE SUBMISSION: Late submission will be penalized in accordance with current UCL regulations, unless formal permission for late submission has been granted. The UCL penalties are as follows:  The marks for coursework received up to two working days after the published date and time will incur a 10 percentage point deduction in marks (but no lower than the pass mark).  The marks for coursework received more than two working days and up to five working days after the published date and time will receive no more than the pass mark (40% for UG modules, 50% for PGT modules).  Work submitted more than five working days after the published date and time, but before the second week of the third term will receive a mark of zero but will be considered complete.

GRANTING OF EXTENSIONS: Please note that there are strict UCL-wide regulations with regard to the granting of extensions for coursework. You are reminded that Module Coordinators are not permitted to grant extensions. All requests for extensions must be submitted on a the appropriate UCL form, together with supporting documentation, via Judy Medrington’s office and will then be referred on for consideration. Please be aware that the grounds that are acceptable are limited. Those with long-term difficulties should contact UCL Student Disability Services to make special arrangements. Please see the IoA website for further information. Additional information is given here http://www.ucl.ac.uk/srs/academic- manual/c4/extenuating-circumstances/ RETURN OF COURSEWORK AND RESUBMISSION: You should receive your marked coursework within one month of the submission deadline. If you do not receive your work within this period, or a written explanation, notify the Academic Administrator. When your marked essay is returned to you, return it to the Module Co-ordinator within two weeks. You must retain a copy of all coursework submitted. CITING OF SOURCES and AVOIDING PLAGIARISM: Coursework must be expressed in your own words, citing the exact source (author, date and page number; website address if applicable) of any ideas, information, diagrams, etc., that are taken from the work of others. This applies to all media (books, articles, websites, images, figures, etc.). Any direct quotations from the work of others must be indicated as such by being placed between quotation marks. Plagiarism is a very serious irregularity, which can carry heavy penalties. It is your responsibility to abide by requirements for presentation, referencing and avoidance of plagiarism. Make sure you understand definitions of plagiarism and the procedures and penalties as detailed in UCL regulations: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/current-students/guidelines/plagiarism

RESOURCES MOODLE: Please ensure you are signed up to the module on Moodle. For help with Moodle, please contact Charlotte Frearson ([email protected]) 44

ARCL0099 COURSE SCHEDULE (TERM 2, 2019-20, MONDAYS 09.00-11.00)

Week Title

1. 13 January Nature and Properties of Glass

2. 20 January Late Bronze Age vitreous materials

3. 27 January Iron Age and early Roman glass

4. 3 February The Roman glass industry

5. 10 February Byzantine, Sasanian and Islamic glass

Reading week 17-21 February

6. 24 February Ceramic Glazes

7. 2 March Far eastern glass, glazes and vitreous pigments

8. 9 March Early medieval (post-Roman) glass, glass enamels on metalwork.

9. 16 March Medieval Europe

10. 23 March Renaissance and later glass. Windows

ASSESSMENT DEADLINES:

Assessment 1 (data analysis) due Friday 28 February Assessment 2 (essay) due Monday 20 April

45