Using Educational Learning Models to Inform and Guide the Design of a Virtual

Learning Environment

A Thesis

Submitted to the Faculty

of

Drexel University

by

Monique Woodard

in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree

of

Master of Science in Digital Media

August 2018 c Copyright 2018 Monique Woodard. All Rights Reserved. ii

Dedications

This thesis is dedicated to my grandmother, Dorothy Woodard, whose advice, support, and encouragement has lead me to places farther than I ever imagined. iii

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank my advisor Glen Muschio, and my committee members, Aroutis Foster and

Delia Solomons, for their constructive feedback and guidance throughout this project.

I would also like to give special thanks to my friends and family for their endless support and encouragement. iv

Table of Contents

List of Figures ...... v

Abstract ...... vi

1. Introduction ...... 1

1.1 Introduction...... 1

1.2 , Women, Sex, and Domesticity ...... 5

1.3 Research Statement ...... 6

2. Gallery Labels and Literature Review ...... 7

2.1 Gallery Labels ...... 7

2.2 Learning Environments ...... 15

2.3 Literature Review ...... 16

3. Methodology ...... 18

3.1 Design...... 18

3.2 Procedure...... 19

4. Discussion ...... 21

4.1 Discussion...... 21

4.2 Reflection...... 22

4.3 Summary ...... 23

4.4 Limitations & Future Work...... 24

Bibliography ...... 26 v

List of Figures

1.1 Martha Rosler, Vacuuming Pop Art Pop Art, 1966-1972...... 4

1.2 Richard Hamilton, Just what is it that makes today’s homes so different, so appealing, 19565

1.3 Axell and Ramos...... 6

2.1 Kiki Kogelnik, Woman’s Lib, 1971...... 7

2.2 Kiki Kogelnik, Fly Me to the Moon, 1963...... 8

2.3 Marisol, Hand and Purse, 1965...... 9

2.4 Marisol, Paris Review, 1967...... 10

2.5 Martha Rosler, Vacuuming Pop Art Pop Art, 1966-1972...... 11

2.6 Idelle Weber, Bride and Groom, 1963...... 12

2.7 Idelle Weber, Munchkins I, II, & III, 1964...... 13

2.8 Idelle Weber, Woman with Jump Rope, 1964-5 ...... 14 vi

Abstract

Using Educational Learning Models to Inform and Guide the Design of a Virtual Learning Environment

Monique Woodard Advisor: Glen Muschio, Ph.D.

This MS thesis project sets out to explore the implementation of learning models in the design and construction of an interactive 3D virtual reality (VR) learning environment. The intent of the environment is to introduce visitors to women pop artists who have long been overlooked and ignored in the history of the pop art movement and to provide information about the importance of their participation. For the purpose of this project, Martha Rosler’s Vacuuming Pop Art (Woman with a Vacuum) (1966-1972) is recreated as the interactive 3D (VR) learning environment, based on the learning models of Fowler, Chen, and Mishra et al. The visitor will perform tasks, such as collecting objects and manipulating pieces, as (s)he navigates through the environment. The project demonstrates and discusses the feasibility of implementing learning theories in the design and construction of an interactive 3D VR learning environment.

1

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Introduction

Women artists, as far back as the Renaissance, have been largely overlooked despite their artistic contributions. In the 17th and 18th centuries, artists such as Judith Leyster and Marie Denise

Villers sometimes remained anonymous while male artists were given credit for their works [1;2].

Those two artists are rare cases due to the restricted formal training and art education during that time period [3]. In more recent times, women began to be recognized for craft works such as quilt- making and , which were deemed appropriate for their domestic roles [3]. In the 1840s, quilts were displayed and sold in art galleries. Contrarily, men, such as painter Joseph Foxcroft, were regarded as artistic geniuses while women’s practices were demoted to “mere craft [3].” In the

1960s - 70s, women began to reclaim and revalue this practice of utilizing domestic forms in their works. This MS thesis project focuses on women artists connected to the Pop Art Movement of the mid and late 20th century. The Pop Art Movement was a reaction to consumer culture, which was produced by corporate entities following the Second World War. During this period there are distinct differences between the perspectives of male and female pop artists. While many male artists focused on consumerism; female artists went beyond mere consumerism to examine and critique the depiction of women in the emerging consumer society. Even with this unique perspective, female artists continued to be given short shrift, if not totally ignored [4].

While there is a growing awareness about women pop artists, their works had been initially undervalued by feminist and pop scholars since the style was associated with mechanical reproduction and consumer objects [5]. Women pop artists, however, created their works by hand and focused on the human figure, rather than consumer objects. Pop artist, Jann Harworth, uses latex, cloth, sequins, and other craft materials to reclaim the aforementioned “mere craft [4].” Her works engage with and call attention to the marginalization she experiences as a woman artist. Harworth asserts that her choice of materials constitutes “a female language” to which her contemporary male artists 2 did not have access [4].

There has been a recent surge of exhibitions on women pop artists - Seductive Subversion, Power

Up, and Pop Impact [4;5]. This surge is a valuable influence for audiences to be exposed to women pop artists in physical museum environments. This project is a contribution to the raising awareness as it offers an accessible and affordable method for audiences to view their works. At the time of this writing there are a small number of major museums that have begun to place the works of women pop artists on in their collection galleries (ex: Marisol’s Love at MoMA). However, most works by important women pop artists rest in storage, unable to be seen by the public. This project displays works such as Paris Review (MoMa), Hand and Purse (Art Institute of ), Munchkin

I, II, III () and Woman with a Jump Rope (Los Angeles County Museum of Art) in order to bring together these works and others in one VR learning environment that is easily accessible to a wider audience. It must be noted that VR does not seek to take the place of the original works. However, it provides an opportunity for the artworks to reach a wider audience which may not have physical access to them. Virtually reality also allows for the works to be altered in ways which is not possible in reality. In this project, for example, the original hallway from

Martha Rosler’s Vacuuming Pop Art is extended, enabling for the user to view additional works by the artists. Furthermore, three of the works are transformed from static images to animations, thus encouraging the audience to actively engage with the artists and seek out her works.

This thesis project features the works of three women pop artists embedded within Martha

Rosler’s piece, Vacuuming Pop Art (Woman with a Vacuum), as an interactive 3D VR learning environment. Her photomontage is an effective piece for this project because it purposely critiques the depiction of women as ideal housewives in American consumer society, which was a role she rejected as a working artist. This piece is ideal for this project because it includes artworks within an artwork, and it provides enough space for a user to comfortably navigate in. Her piece asks the audience to examine the stereotypical depiction of women in advertisements including being domestic and docile while simultaneously sexual and objectified [6]. Rosler’s body of work is not limited to pop art and includes photography, video installation, photomontage, and performance [7].

Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Introduction 3

Rosler’s photomontage is chosen because she deliberately causes the viewers to “consider the con- tradiction found in stereotypes of women, such as being domestic and docile . . . [6].” In Vacuuming

Pop Art, the woman is smiling as she vacuums a hallway whose walls are covered with works by mostly male artists, including Marcel Duchamp. In her works, Rosler combined images from Life and House Beautiful magazines [6]. By combining images from household magazines and advertise- ments, Rosler creates a different meaning which causes the viewer to closely study the piece. In

Vacuuming Pop Art, the woman with a vacuum has a smile on her face as if she is thrilled with her tasks. Her smile is ironic because she is cleaning a hallway filled with works by male artists. She is showing the “mysterious fulfillment” of vacuuming the hallway floor—her work is the type that goes unnoticed while the work of her male counterparts hangs on the walls.

According to society’s expectations of that time, the woman with the vacuum cleaner is content with fulfilling her duty as a housewife [8]. However, as Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique has taught readers since 1963, women yearned for experiences, stimuli, and learning beyond the confines of the home. Women that felt unhappy with their lives were told that there was something wrong with their marriage or with them. They were ashamed to express their dissatisfaction with their expected lifestyle, “What kind of a woman was she if she did not feel this mysterious fulfillment of waxing the kitchen floor? [8].” There was barely a life outside of the home. The women that fulfilled the happy housewife role isolated themselves and suffered in silence because that is what society expected them to do. By turning Rosler’s piece into an immersive learning environment, the housewife is empowered as she is unsilenced and provides information to the contemporary viewers who are enabled to explore the piece with motivation to discover and perform tasks, such as collecting objects, listening to information about an artifact or artwork, and manipulating works.

For the purpose of this project, Martha Rosler’s Vacuuming Pop Art is reimagined and produced as an interactive 3D virtual reality learning environment using Maya, Unity, and After Effects software. The environment is viewed in Google Cardboard. In order to introduce viewers to the works of multiple women artists, a VR gallery hallway was constructed featuring the works of Kiki

Kogelnik, Marisol, and Idelle Weber. These three artists are chosen because they are not very well

Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Introduction 4 known among the general public, yet they are important figures who developed powerful signature pop styles and who made significant contributions to the women’s rights movements and other political historical moments of the 1950s, 60s, and 70s. Kogelnik often used scissors as a tool for her works to create stencils and silhouettes. The tool was also depicted in her works it represents her own power to manipulate figures and images by cutting them out [9]. Secondly, Marisol gained recognition for her , although she was formally trained as a painter [10]. She integrates herself in her works as she addresses the issues surrounding gender roles that she and other women spurned [11]. Finally, the subjects portrayed in Weber’s works cover a range of social norms - from weddings to cooperate culture [12]. The anonymity in her silhouettes requires the viewers to carefully examine the subjects’ body language and attire as they engage in everyday life. Three of the artworks by these artists playfully animate when the viewer returns missing objects to the work.

These animations create a new afterlife for the works to bring in a new audience through the use of a VR learning platform.

Figure 1.1: Martha Rosler, Vacuuming Pop Art Pop Art, 1966-1972

Ultimately, this project investigates the feasibility of implementing learning models as a guide to build an interactive VR learning environment intended to actively engage audiences in the process of knowledge acquisition regarding a little-known subject. The project offers, for examination, access to a collection of works by women Pop artists to a new audience unfamiliar with

Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Introduction 5 the contribution of woman artists via a new learning platform.

1.2 Pop Art, Women, Sex, and Domesticity

Originating in London in the 1950s, the Pop Art movement came to America around 1962

[13]. In his collage-style piece Just what is it that makes today’s homes so different, so appealing? well-known Pop art artist Richard Hamilton reveals the “yearning of the severely deprived British people following WWII for the consumer utopia they saw pictured in American glossy magazines and Hollywood films” [13]. Similar to other American advertisements during that time period,

Hamilton’s collage objectified women by showing a topless woman on the couch and a woman in a red dress on the stairway vacuuming. The stereotypical representation of women in Hamilton’s piece is examined in Rosler’s Vacuuming Pop Art. She combined images of the domestic household with politics to disrupt the “visual pleasure” of readers of advertisements and consumer magazines

[6].

Figure 1.2: Richard Hamilton, Just what is it that makes today’s homes so different, so appealing, 1956

It is important to note the difference between the way male and female pop artists depict women in their pieces. Artists such as Evelyn Axell, Kiki Kogelnik, Martha Rosler, Marisol, and

Rosalyn Drexler “were more critically concerned with the fetishist treatment of the body, the matrix- like manifestations of the female, and pop-cultural treatment of the woman as a consumer item”

Chapter 1: Introduction 1.2 Pop Art, Women, Sex, and Domesticity 6

[4].

(a) Evelyne Axell, Ice Cream, 1964 (b) Mel Ramos, A.C. Annie, 1971

Figure 1.3: Axell and Ramos

In Axell’s Ice Cream (1964), the woman is not disempowered nor depicted as an object.

Instead, the focus is on her sexual activity and enjoyment [14]. In contrast, artists such as Mel

Ramos used products to comment on the pin-ups. The spark plug is used as a device to insinuate that the woman sparks desire, whereas in Axell’s piece, the ice cream is secondary to the woman as she is taking control of her sexuality. In his piece, A.C. Annie, a pin-up poses against a sparkplug, insinuating that the woman sparks desire. The titular figure in Ramos’ piece behaves exactly like a centerfold, as she is inciting desire rather than displaying her power to the male viewers [13]. The way in which the art is created plays an important role in how women are viewed in art; for instance, in the piece, Marilyn Monroe, Warhol strips away Monroe’s individuality by copying twenty-five times a single screenprints of her, showing that the image is cheap and can be mass produced [15]. Women artists have used sex differently in their works compared to men to take control of their sexuality.

Instead of representing themselves as objects or housewives, they become an empowered subject.

1.3 Research Statement

This project examines the usefulness of learning models as described by Mishra et al,

Fowler, and Chen to inform and guide the design of a Virtual Reality Learning Environment intended to introduce the visitor to and increase the visitor’s knowledge about women pop artists

Chapter 1: Introduction 1.3 Research Statement 7

Chapter 2: Gallery Labels and Literature Review

2.1 Gallery Labels

Kiki Kogelnik, Woman’s Lib, 1971, acrylic on paper, 14.25 x 11in, location unknown

As part of her series titled Woman’s Liberation, Kogelnik created a printed self-portrait.

She is seen standing in a commanding, frontal posture over cutout bodies. For this piece, Kogelnik decided not to wear her one of her typical ornamented, exuberant outfits, but instead is dressed in a stark trench coat, sunglasses, and hat [16]. She holds a pair of oversized scissors, which she called

“superscissors” [9]. The scissors cut away the misogyny and violence that Kogelnik frequently ad- dresses in her works [16]. The scissors represent Kogelnik’s prominent technique—the cutouts—and is a reference to S.C.U.M (Society for Cutting up Men), a radical feminist group organized by Valerie

Solanas [16].

Inspired by the Women’s Liberation Movement, the series is about gender roles and the ways in which women were objectified in art and in society [16]. Kogelnik empowers herself both in the piece and in actuality. She stated, “I feel that when I have ‘taken’ someone, that I own the shape – not the person – and that I can do what I want with this shape” [16]. It is evident in this self-portrait that Kogelnik takes the figures and empowers herself as she stands over the cut outs.

Figure 2.1: Kiki Kogelnik, Woman’s Lib, 1971 8

Kiki Kogelnik, Fly Me to the Moon, 1963, oil and acrylic on canvas, 96.06 x 72.83 in, Kogelnik

Foundation / New York

Fascinated by technology, the human figure, and rockets, Kogelnik created a series of space-themed works, including Fly Me to the Moon, which she named after the 1953 song Frank

Sinatra would popularize in 1964. The painting depicts two celestial, genderless bodies floating in space against a background of circles. Kogelnik also uses geometric shapes to form a rocket flying towards a hexagon created with primary colored circles, which represent planets in orbit. Unlike her contemporaries, Kogelnik was not interested in Coca-Cola; rather she stated that she is “involved in the technical beauty of rockets, people flying in space, and people becoming robots” [9].

In the mid 1960’s, Kogelnik was in New York as the atmosphere in America intensified due to the Vietnam War and the Space Race [9]. The figures in the painting are featureless, representing a “generalized humanity” awed by space and fearful of nuclear annihilation [9]. Her works during this period are a response to the exploration and violence occurring in the world. This piece potentially focuses on an ideal peace, as the bodies drift through space.

Figure 2.2: Kiki Kogelnik, Fly Me to the Moon, 1963

Chapter 2: Gallery Labels and Literature Review 2.1 Gallery Labels 9

Marisol, Hand and Purse, 1965, lithograph, 41.25 x 29.625 in., The

In Hand and Purse, Marisol depicts her own hand and purse which she carried to Universal

Limited Art Editions (ULAE) [11]. The shapes of the hand and purse are formed with the use of positive and negative space. The density of the lines that create the purse, fingers, and shadows are offset by the negative space, creating a balanced and almost symmetrical composition. Additionally, there are fingers on both sides of the hand that moving upwards, as if surrendering to consumerism.

The fingers extending away from the bag might imply her disinterest in the medium. In an interview with Cindy Nemser, Marisol expressed that she was never interested in prints – it was a process she was talked into [17]. Although Marisol did not choose this medium on her own, she shows her direct engagement with the process by depicting her own body and using her personal objects.

Figure 2.3: Marisol, Hand and Purse, 1965

Chapter 2: Gallery Labels and Literature Review 2.1 Gallery Labels 10

Marisol, Paris Review, 1967, silkscreen, 32.5 × 26 in, MoMA

Marisol designed this silkscreen for The Paris Review, a magazine that features art, inter- views, and original writing. The image depicts a woman forcefully drinking a bottle of cola, with a label that reads “Paris Review” on the bottle. It is unclear to whom the hands belong. This image could represent the woman drinking it herself or being given it by another. In the case of feeding herself, it can be interpreted that she has become a willing, enthusiastic consumer of mass products.

If she is being aggressively force-fed this popular consumer item by an unseen figure, the bottle’s phallic shape turns the scene into a site of male aggression and female submission. In Paris Review, and in many of her works, Marisol explores the nuances of gender roles and “treats her subjects with dignity, wit, sarcasm, brutality, or irony” [11].

Coca-Cola was considered to be the “symbol of American consumer economy,” and, there- fore, Marisol is commenting on the consumer culture which was flourishing in America [15]. She based this print off of one of her earlier sculptures, Love (1962) [13]. Although the is not considered a self-portrait, it contains a cast plaster mold of her face [13]. As Marisol integrates herself into this work, she explores the issue of prescribed gender roles that she and other women reject [11].

Figure 2.4: Marisol, Paris Review, 1967

Chapter 2: Gallery Labels and Literature Review 2.1 Gallery Labels 11

Martha Rosler, Woman with Vacuum, or Vacuuming Pop Art, c 1966-1972, Photomontage, 24 x 30 in., Mitchell-Innes & Nash

In Woman with a Vacuum or Vacuuming Pop Art, Rosler addresses the issues of marginal- ization of women pop artists [18]. This photomontage displays a well-groomed, content woman vacuuming a narrow corridor filled with works by prominent male artists such as Tom Wesslemann,

Marcel Duchamp, and Robert Indiana [6; 18]. The eponymous woman meets the viewer’s gaze and smiles while performing a task which was expected of women during the 1950s and 1960s [8]. In a male-dominated environment, the woman is smiling as though she is content with the supportive role of cleaning the gallery whose walls are lined by the works of male artists.

The vacuuming housewife was used a decade earlier by Richard Hamilton in his well-known collage, Just what is it that makes today’s homes so different, so appealing? [19]. In his work, the woman is hidden in the corner of the photomontage as she vacuums a set of stairs with a Hoover vacuum. The significance of the brand of the vacuum plays into Rosler’s piece as well, as the woman is using a Eureka vacuum, which is the rival of Hoover. The term “Eureka” is commonly used when a person has a breakthrough or great idea, which the audience might experience upon closer look at this piece. The viewer might have a “Eureka” moment as he or she notices the irony of the housewife’s smile as she carries on with her role. Rosler’s housewife creates a sense of unrest as she emphasizes the way in which the world of Pop art depended on the conventional idea that women are only recognizable by their chores, or the supportive roles they play for men.

Figure 2.5: Martha Rosler, Vacuuming Pop Art Pop Art, 1966-1972

Chapter 2: Gallery Labels and Literature Review 2.1 Gallery Labels 12

Idelle Weber, Bride and Groom, 1963, Oil and acrylic on linen, 77 x 61in., location unknown

In Bride and Groom, a silhouette of a newlywed couple is depicted against a solid blue background—which is interpreted by scholars as the trademarked Tiffany blue, known in their ad- vertising and packaging, and even recognized by those who cannot afford the products [5; 12]. In this painting, Weber explores the themes of social rituals and gender roles, specifically weddings. At the time of this painting, she received an influx of wedding invitations and was inspired by seeing couples walking out of the cathedral on Fifth Avenue [12].

Through reducing the subjects to silhouettes, the audience focuses on the couple’s body language, attire, and social status. As the bride looks straight ahead, her groom holds onto her as he looks at her. The bride is following suit of what is expected of her during at midcentury – getting married and living a domestic life [8]. The background color hints towards the luxurious status of the Tiffany gifts that may be given to them for completing this social ritual.

Figure 2.6: Idelle Weber, Bride and Groom, 1963

Chapter 2: Gallery Labels and Literature Review 2.1 Gallery Labels 13

Idelle Weber, Munchkins I, II, & III 1964, acrylic on linen, 72 x 214 in., Chrysler Museum of Art

Representing corporate culture and gender roles, Munchkins I, II, & III is Weber’s largest and most significant piece of the 1960’s [12]. Silhouettes of businessmen are shown ascending and descending along escalators against a black and yellow grid background. The direction of the es- calators against the yellow background “mimics the bright illumination of the architectural atrium environment [12].” The background also breaks up the space and adds implied movement to the still

figures.

The grid background is similar to a commercial product, Zipatone, which was used by graphic artists during the 1960s [5; 12]. Using this commercial product, Weber affiliates herself with other Pop Artists’ preference for mass-production techniques, notably ’s invocation of Benday dots [12]. The title refers to the size of the businessmen compared to the escalators and is a reference to the film, Wizard of Oz, as they are engulfed in the environment [12]. Similar to the

Munchkins, these men are dressed in similar attire and are interchangeable; however, in contrast to the lively filmic characters, these men display a monotonous demeanor as they are on their way to and from their offices.

Figure 2.7: Idelle Weber, Munchkins I, II, & III, 1964

Chapter 2: Gallery Labels and Literature Review 2.1 Gallery Labels 14

Idelle Weber, Woman with Jump Rope, Plexiglas and neon ca. 1964-5, 93 x 48 x 18 in., Los Angeles

County Museum of Art

During her involvement with Experiments in Art and Technology (EAT), Weber produced one of her most popular Pop sculptures, Woman with Jump Rope [12]. Along with the assistance of an engineer, the sculpture is made of a Plexiglas with less static in order to keep her sculptures dust free [12]. The rope is lit by neon, instead of ultraviolet light to due to the fear of damaging the audience’s eyes, as suggested by a sign maker [12]. The sculpture is a silhouette of woman jumping with a neon yellow rope. As the black and yellow contrast, the yellow rope follows the contours of the woman’s body.

The playful action, jumping rope, contrasts the woman’s stark silhouette. The piece draws similarities to Munchkins I, II, III, as it uses the same color palette, black and yellow. However, unlike the aforementioned piece, the subject is lifesize (nearly eight feet tall) and is not engulfed by a background but rather exists in real space. The act of jumping rope is freeing for the subject, as she is not performing a monotonous task, nor trapped in a corporate environment. Weber does not marginalize the woman as she did the business men in Munchkins I, II, III.

Figure 2.8: Idelle Weber, Woman with Jump Rope, 1964-5

Chapter 2: Gallery Labels and Literature Review 2.1 Gallery Labels 15

2.2 Learning Environments

In this project, VR is used to provide a hands-on immersive experience that enables users to interact with and manipulate the environment in order to be introduced to and learn about women pop artists. The use of VR also affords the visitor opportunities to explore the learning environment and learn through experience [20]. As the user experiences a Virtual Reality Learning

Environment (VRLE), his or her motivation to learn increases [20]. By taking advantage of their increased motivation, users of my interactive learning environment are introduced to a task – find and return objects to appropriate artworks which must be performed so as to gain further knowledge and information about Women Pop Artists. This task is informed by Chen, as she notes that objectives are required for users to be motivated enough to continue in the environment [20]. Once the objects are returned, the artworks then animate, which fosters an active learning environment for the user.

The animations also provide positive feedback to the user, which allows them to know whether or not they returned the piece to the correct artwork.

When using VR in education, students are motivated and engaged in the topic they are learning. Virtual reality also enables learners to transfer the information they learned from the virtual environment to the real world with ease [21]. This is valuable because the acts of discovery and exploration allow the environment to implement scaffolding as a teaching technique. Scaffold learning gives information to the users piece by piece, rather than all at once. The Technological

Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework is introduced by Mishra et al for educators to effectively create learning experiences. This framework is to be used as a guide when creating learning experiences. Content knowledge is the information about the topic, pedagogical knowledge is the process of how the information will be taught, and technology knowledge refers to knowledge about the advanced and standard technologies [22].

Learning experiences have been described by Chris Fowler in three ways, two of which will be broken down. The first is that a learner will be introduced to new information, which creates the “opportunity for a new concept to be created”. The second characterization is that in order for learners to explore and manipulate the environment, they must first perform actions that provide

Chapter 2: Gallery Labels and Literature Review 2.2 Learning Environments 16 feedback. Secondly, Fowler describes Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO), which is the content that the users are expected to know and understand after the learning experience. It is important for the ILO’s to be predetermined and effectively communicated to the users in order for them to not misunderstand the environment [23]. As Fowler suggests, these objectives had been established before creating the environment. In my project, the user is informed about what they are going to learn through the introduction, which is provided by the virtual agent.

2.3 Literature Review

When analyzing the game Roller Coaster Tycoon 3 (RCT3), Foster, Mishra, and Koehler applied the TPACK framework to examine the “technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge affordances of the game for learning” [24]. The technology knowledge of this game includes the players’ ability to navigate and the use visual tools to assist him or her. The pedagogy in RCT3 is the feedback system. The players are not given immediate feedback when they make mistakes, thus requiring them to problem solve and explore. Information is scaffolded to the players in order to prevent them from being overwhelmed.

James Katz and Daniel Harpon performed a study in order to determine the effectiveness of

3D immersive environments used to attract new visitors. They focused on creating their environment to provide the audience with a sense of telepresence, which is the sense of feeling as though being

“in” the environment [25]. Telepresence provides the users with the perception of being in the environment. In their study, telepresence proved to play an important role in engaging their audience in their immersive museum.

While virtual reality technology advances, the study of how art can be implemented in a virtual reality environment has been on the rise as well. Franz Fischnaller, Yesi Maharaj Sinh, and Martin Reed recreated Leonardo de Vinci’s The Last Supper (1490s) in an immersive real- time virtual environment. The Last Supper Interactive (LSI) is a virtual reality piece that allows users to enter Leonardo’s painting and explore the environment of the painting and its historical context. For instance, the users are able to learn more about the architecture during the time period and experience “the perspective from Jesus Christ’s viewpoint.” [26] Telepresence again plays vital

Chapter 2: Gallery Labels and Literature Review 2.3 Literature Review 17 role in LSI: with the help of sound, the audiences experienced a sense of “presence” because they used multiple senses. The goal of LSI was to combine meaningful entertainment with cultural and historical reference to enlighten audiences to the arts and culture [26]. The audience was not only learning, they were also entertained by the environment. They were not experiencing just one event, they were experiencing the architecture, the scene, and the art itself.

Not only is virtual reality used for exploring museums and artwork, but it is also used for learning the sciences. Damian Schofield created and implemented a virtual reality interactive learning environment (VRILE) in order to expose chemical engineering students to “real” process equipment [27]. These students were taught theories in the classroom but were not aware of the physical chemical engineering plants. Schofield noticed that question and answer sessions revealed that the undergraduate students were unfamiliar with the engineering plants but were also unable to identify elements of the plants which were taught in class [27]. The environment allowed the students to experiment and manipulate the plants, and the educators were also able to set tasks in the environment. After using the VRILE, the students were able to understand the material.

Schofield notes that narrative in virtual reality can be nonlinear [27]. Unlike books, non- linear storylines provide the users with a sense of control: the VRILE is a dynamic and user-oriented model of learning that prompts the user to make decisions which will then affect the tasks that are presented to them. In order to provide a nonlinear storyline, the users’ decisions need to be antici- pated before implementing the environment. Before creating the environment, a script needs to be made which will contain the narrative and the outcomes of the decisions that are presented to the user.

The key design features used in the above three studies are telepresence, interactivity, and motivation. Telepresence is a critical component in my piece. These features will be present in my environment, as guided by the models presented by Chen, Fowler, and Misrha et al.

Chapter 2: Gallery Labels and Literature Review 2.3 Literature Review 18

Chapter 3: Methodology

3.1 Design

Researchers have noted that learning theories are commonly absent from the design and development of VR applications for education [28]. This project makes use of the learning theories of Mishra et al [22], Fowler [23], and Chen [20] to inform and guide the design of a VRLE intended to introduce visitors to women pop artists who remain little known. The learning experience provides information about the importance how specific women pop artists contributed to the art world, critiqued 1960s’ norms, and engaged with exciting cultural advances.

This project is informed by the Technological, Pedagogical, and Content Knowledge

(TPACK) framework (Mishra et al) focusing on technology, pedagogy and content. The TPACK framework is used as a guide to create and design this learning experience. Content knowledge refers to the information that will be covered in the experience, pedagogical knowledge is the manner in which the information is presented to the learner, and lastly the technology knowledge is the de- signer’s and visitor’s knowledge about the technology being used [22]. Google Cardboard, worn as a set of goggles, has been selected as the delivery device for the 3D environment because it is afford- able for schools, the intended user for the learning environment. Using Google Cardboard enables the visitor to navigate and interact with the 3D virtual environment unencumbered by wires and accessories. The interactive learning environment constructed for this project was built to offer a low learning curve. The use of Google Cardboard is consistent with the design of the environment since the device is simple and has one button for operations. With the simplicity of this device, the users will not need to spend time becoming accustomed to the technology. A low learning curve is important because it enables the user to fluently use the technology and reduces the chances of overwhelming him or her [28]. The focus of this environment is on the content, not necessarily the mechanics of how to navigate. Pertinent information about the works of art and the artists, are provided by the virtual agent, the woman with the vacuum, who shares her knowledge with visitors. 19

3.2 Procedure

The experience begins by placing the visitor in a virtual art gallery that features works by male artists, including , Marcel Duchamp, and Robert Indiana. There is a set of gold stanchion posts with red velvet rope preventing visitors from freely exploring the gallery. The stanchions create tension, in effect, confining the visitor to the traditional understanding of pop art as an Anglo-American male phenomenon. They also represent the exclusive club of pop art and how only art historians and museum goers are recently becoming aware of women pop artists. In order for a new concept to be introduced—in this case, the important role of women artists in the pop movement—the learner must encounter an explanation that enables the formation of the new concept [23].

Through the use of a Text-to-Speech system, the virtual agent, Martha Rosler’s woman with a vacuum cleaner, verbally introduces the visitor to the environment. While acknowledging the works of male artists exhibited in the virtual space, she states women pop artists played an important role and are hardly recognized in the history of the movement. Following the explanation, the original works are replaced by those of women pop artists, and the stanchion posts and red velvet rope disappear, enabling the visitor to move freely toward a new understanding. Once the stanchions disappear, the viewers are given access to their works which were previously hindered. The virtual agent also explains that there are objects that need to be collected: a Coke bottle, bowler hat, and a pair of scissors. She informs the visitors that these artists are largely ignored, therefore it is the visitors’ objective to help the artists complete their pieces. The visitors encounter these objects when exploring the gallery space. By matching the found objects to appropriate by Kogelnik,

Weber, and Marisol the visitor receives information about the painting and the artist. To interact with the objects a visitor must gaze at an object for 3 seconds. This action animates the object enabling the visitor to direct it to the appropriate painting with his or her gaze.

The purpose of involving visitors in the act of collecting is to motivate them to scrutinize and interrogate the works. The tasks are informed by Chen, as she states that learners in VR environments need objectives in order to be motivated to continue in the environment. Additionally,

Chapter 3: Methodology 3.2 Procedure 20

Chen notes that information needs to be scaffolded in the learning environment [20]. Therefore, the virtual agent provides only a small amount of information about the artists and works at a time, in order to not overwhelm the visitor. The information provided is about consumerism, the style and technique used in the artwork, and the subject the artists addresses in the work.

The VR learning environment produced offers the learner an opportunity to be motivated to complete these pieces and learn about the works of women pop artists. Learning is achieved through participation in a process that enables “a new concept to be created” [23]. The virtual gallery experience scaffolds the visitor’s transformation, from the traditional understanding of a male- dominated avant-garde to the more dynamic concept of a culture realized by male and female artists.

Simultaneously it offers the visitor an opportunity to experience the woman with a vacuum cleaner as an authority on the Pop Art movement, one who will guide the visitor to a new understanding about pop art.

Chapter 3: Methodology 3.2 Procedure 21

Chapter 4: Discussion

4.1 Discussion

The models presented by Chen [20], Fowler [23], and Mishra et al [22]. provide the guide- lines for the design of the learning environment. Actions the visitors are expected to perform are based on the authors’ theories and models. For example, the visitor is able to explore the environ- ment and animate the artworks because Chen acknowledges that the user needs to navigate and manipulate the environment in order to stay motivated. Additionally, the information presented to the user is scaffolded throughout the environment in order to not overwhelm him or her [20]. When the user looks at an object, such as a Coke bottle, the virtual agent provides information on its significance to the Pop Art Movement. Once the user places the object on the appropriate artwork, the virtual agent provides additional information regarding the piece and how it relates to the artist or work. The visitor also collects objects, which are a Coke bottle, bowler hat, and pair of scissors, as Chen notes that users need a task in order to stay motivated.

The introduction provided by the virtual agent follows Fowler’s pedagogy as the visitor is given the opportunity to explore the works of female pop artists and is introduced to the ILO

[23]. Upon entering the environment, the visitor becomes aware of the new concept, and is then motivated to further his or her understanding. Without the use of an introduction, the visitor would be unaware about what he or she could learn or should be doing.

Finally, we are also looking at the affordances of the technology, pedagogy, and content as discussed by Mishra et al. The technology chosen is Google Cardboard because it fits the needs of the audience and the environment. The pedagogy refers to the actions the visitors perform in the environment as suggested by Fowler and Chen. The content is the information regarding the women pop artists, such as their core themes and styles, as well as their art historical marginalization.

The use of voice to provide information instead of textboxes prevents the user from being distracted by the artworks. Rather than dividing attention between the artwork and object labels, 22 the voiceover allows the visitors to closely examine the artwork as they listen to the information provided by the virtual agent. The user’s sense of presence is expected to be strengthened since the information is provided in a variety of ways, labels for the paintings and voiceovers of information from the virtual agent [28].

4.2 Reflection

Upon entering the environment, the user sees works by Robert Indiana, Marcel Duchamp, and Tom Wesslemann, as they appear in Martha Rolser’s original piece. After the user gazes at one of the works or the woman with the vacuum, she will introduce the user to the issues surrounding women pop artists’ marginalization, instruct him or her on how to navigate in the environment, and inform him or her about finding missing objects which belong to some of the artworks. Before the virtual agent completes her introduction, a set of stanchions prevents the user from navigating throughout the gallery. The introduction is informed by Fowler as he states it is necessary for the user to be informed on what he or she will learn in the experience. Once the introduction is complete, the stanchions disappear, and the works on the walls are replaced by the works by Kiki

Kogelnik, Marisol, and Idelle Weber, which are Fly me to the Moon, Hand and Purse, and Woman with a Jump Rope, respectively. The switch from artworks made by male artists to art works made by female artists opens a new universe to the user. He or she may be familiar with artists such as

Tom Wesslemann or Duchamp, however the visual change from male to female artists enables the user to notice the difference between style and subject.

Once the stanchions disappear, the user has the ability to navigate throughout the en- vironment, collect objects, and view and interact with the artworks on the walls. The ability to navigate motivates the user to continue in the environment, as informed by Chen [20]. Information is provided to the user through audio and visual cues when he or she gazes at an artwork. The user is therefore using more than one sense to gain knowledge from the environment as he or she is learning naturally [20]. When a user examines an artwork, such as Fly Me to the Moon, a title card appears next to the work, and the virtual agent informs the user about Kogelnik’s style and disinterest in consumerism. The environment is designed to scaffold information to the user in order

Chapter 4: Discussion 4.2 Reflection 23 to avoid overwhelming them [20].

The virtual agent also provides information about the missing objects when the user collects them. For example, when the user picks up the cola bottle, the virtual agent states the significance of consumerism during the 1960’s. After the user places the bottle on Paris Review, the user is provided with additional information regarding consumerism and the artwork. When the user looks at any of the seven pieces of artwork in the environment, an object label will appear with information including the title of the piece, the artist, and the year it was made.

Objects such as a Coke bottle, scissors, and a bowler hat are scattered throughout the gallery for the user to discover, collect, and return to the rightful artwork. These objects were selected since they are main components to the artworks, such as the cola bottle in Paris Review. The objects themselves also serve as topics of information which the virtual agent provides. The scissors and

Coke bottle are not placed directly in front of their appropriate works in order to challenge the user to decide on his or her own where it belongs. The task of discovering objects provides the user with motivation to continue to explore and discover new artworks in the environment [20].

The process of collecting the objects enables the visitor to be active and form meaning.

Once the items are returned to the artwork, the artwork begins to animate. This response gives the visitor a sense of accomplishment as it provides him or her with positive feedback that he or she performed the correct action [24]. If the user attempts to return an object to the incorrect artwork, an animation will not play, the virtual agent will not provide information about the work, nor will the object disappear. This lack of feedback informs the user that he or she needs to try again.

4.3 Summary

In the development of this project, we sought to examine the usefulness of learning models presented by Chen [20], Fowler [23], and Mirsha et al [22]. to inform and guide the design of a virtual reality learning environment intended to raise the visitor’s awareness of women pop artists.

As suggested by the learning models, the visitor has the ability to navigate, explore, collect objects, and interact with artworks.

As a designer, using the learning models to inform and guide the design of a VR learning

Chapter 4: Discussion 4.3 Summary 24 environment did not prove to be difficult. Chen’s suggestion to provide the user with the agency to navigate, explore, and discover is implemented in this environment, as he or she is able to walk around and find missing objects. The introduction, as described by Fowler, serves not only as an opportunity to create a new concept for the learner, but it is also a tutorial about the controls. The

TPACK framework allowed for a stronger focus on the content, pedagogy, and technology used in the project. For instance, the framework suggests that the technology does not decide how it is used, and the designer should determine which device is appropriate [29]. For the purpose of this project,

Google Cardboard is being used to view and interact in the immersive learning environment. More advanced VR headsets are also available; however, they are not necessary for the learning goals of this project.

4.4 Limitations & Future Work

Virtual reality may be used as an aid to how humans naturally learn– through interaction with the environment to obtain information from the world [30]. VR does not allow the user to use their sense of touch, smell or taste, which may affect learning. This VR project is limited to the use of sight and sound. In it, Google Cardboard has been selected as part of the delivery system because it is ideal for a wider audience. However, there is one major limitation developing for this device, which is lack of controllers. Rather than physically reaching for an object, the visitor is required to gaze at an object in order to collect it. It is expected that this inability should have a slight impact on learning. However, the simplicity of the headset allows the visitor to spend more time navigating through the environment and being an active learner of the content rather than mastering the controls.

Furthermore, as a VR environment, the images displayed in this project are digital art- works, not the original artworks. The transition from a physical work to digital causes a loss in scale, material, and potentially color. Because of this transition along with the liberties taken with the artists’ works, such as animating and scaling the pieces, the cultural value of the original work may be lost in the virtual environment.

This VR learning environment produced as this MS project is a tool ready to be used

Chapter 4: Discussion 4.4 Limitations & Future Work 25 in the study of the effectiveness of VR learning environments on students between sixth to eighth grades. Since this model environment is based on learning theory it may offer opportunities to better understand how these theories can best be applied.

Chapter 4: Discussion 4.4 Limitations & Future Work 26

Bibliography

[1] L. B. Gellman, “Judith leyster: A woman painter in holland’s golden age by frima fox hofrichter,” Woman’s Art Journal, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 34–36. [2] C. Sterling, “A fine "david" reattributed,” The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, New Series, vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 121–132, 1951.

[3] W. Chadwick, Women, art, and society. New York, N.Y: Thames and Hudson, 1990. [4] M. Walkner and A. Steif, Power Up - Female Pop Art. Wien : Kunsthalle ; Cologne : DuMont Buchverlag, 2010. [5] S. Sachs and K. Minioudaki, Seductive Subversion: Women Pop Artists 1958-1968. NY: Abbeville Press, 2010.

[6] E. Richards, “Materializing blame: Martha rosler and mary kelly,” Woman’s Art Journal, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 3–10, 2012. [7] L. Džuverović, “Martha rosler,” 2015. [Online]. Available: http://www.tate.org.uk/whats-on/ tate-modern/exhibition/ey-exhibition-world-goes-pop/artist-biography/martha-rosler

[8] B. Friedan, The Feminine Mystique. W. W. Norton and Co., 1963. [9] C. M. G. Leith and C. Moloney, Fly Me to the Moon: Kiki Kogelnik. United Kingdom: Modern Art Oxford, 2015. [10] D. Dreishpoon, “Marisol portrait sculpture,” Art Journal, vol. 50, no. 4, pp. 94–96, 1991.

[11] M. Pacini, B. Anthes, D. Ashton, D. Cullen, and D. Drisphoon, Marisol: Sculptures and Works on Paper. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2014. [12] S. Sachs, Idelle Weber-The Pop Years. New York: Hollis Taggart Galleries, 2013. [13] B. Collins, Pop Art. , NY: Phaidon Press Inc, 2012.

[14] K. Minioudaki, “Women in pop: Difference and marginality,” Thesis, 2009. [15] J. Sandberg, “Some traditional aspects of pop art,” Art Journal, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 228–233, 1967. [16] K. Kogelnik, A. Stief, F. Waldvogel, and A. Tietenberg, Kiki Kogelnik: I have Seen the Future. Germany: Snoeck Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, 2012. [17] C. Nemser, Art Talk: Conversations with 12 Women Artists. New York, NY: Scribner, 1975. [18] J. Morgan and F. Frigeri, The World Goes Pop. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015. [19] A. J. Davis, “Reading the strange case of woman-as-appliance,” Third Text, vol. 29, pp. 356–376, 2015. [20] C. J. Chen, “Theoretical bases for using virtual reality in education,” Themes in Science and Technology Education, vol. 2, no. 1-2, pp. 71–90, 2010. [21] I. D. D. Curcio, A. Dipace, and A. Norlund, “Virtual realities and education,” REM -Research on Education and Media, vol. 8, no. 2, 2016. 27

[22] P. Mishra, M. J. Koehler, and D. Henriksen, “The seven trans-disciplinary habits of mind: Extending the tpack framework towards 21 st century learning,” Educational Technology, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 22–28, 2011. [23] C. Fowler, “Virtual reality and learning: Where is the pedagogy?” British Journal of Educa- tional Technology, vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 412–422, 2015.

[24] A. Foster, P. Mishra, and M. Koehler, Digital Game Analysis: Using the Technological Peda- gogical Content Knowledge Framework to Determine the Affordances of a Game for Learning. New York: Peter Lang Publications, 2011, book section 10, pp. 190–212. [25] J. E. Katz and D. Halpern, “Can virtual museums motivate students? toward a constructivist learning approach,” Journal of Science Education and Technology, vol. 24, no. 6, pp. 776–788, 2015. [26] F. Fischnaller, Y. M. Singh, and M. Reed, “Last supper interactive,” Digital Heritage Interna- tional Congress (DigitalHeritage), pp. 637–644, 2013. [27] D. Schofield, “A virtual education: Guidelines for using games technology,” Journal of Infor- mation Technology Education: Research, vol. 13, no. May 2014, pp. 25–43, 2014. [28] D. Liu, K. K. Bhagat, Y. Gao, T.-W. Chang, and R. Huang, The Potentials and Trends of Virtual Reality in Education, ser. Smart Computing and Intelligence, 2017, book section Chapter 7, pp. 105–130.

[29] K. Kereluik, P. Mishra, C. Fahnoe, and L. Terry, “What knowledge is of most worth: Teacher knowledge for 21st century learning,” Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 127–140, 2013. [30] C. Christou, “Virtual reality in education,” Education, no. November, pp. 228–230, 2010.

Bibliography