Introduction to GIS Theory
Research Computing Services Sept. 10, 2021 Dennis Milechin, P.E. [email protected]
Please fill out tutorial evaluation: http://rcs.bu.edu/eval Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021
Housekeeping
- This session is recorded. - Will be published here: https://www.bu.edu/tech/support/research/training-consulting/access-training-materials/
Link to Presentation: http://rcs.bu.edu/examples/gis/tutorials/gis_theory/intro_to_gis_theory.pdf
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Outline
- What is GIS? - Datum - Geographic Coordinate System - Projections - Common Spatial Data Models - Data Layers - Spatial Data Storage - Example Workflow - Sample GIS Software 3 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021
What is GIS? - Most of us are familiar with tabular data.
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What is GIS? - Import tabular data into GIS.
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What is GIS? - Import tabular data into GIS.
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What is GIS? - Import tabular data into GIS.
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What is GIS?
- Geographic Information System
“A geographic information system (GIS) is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present spatial or geographic data”
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_system
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What is GIS?
- Typical functions of GIS software - Read/write spatial data - Maintain spatial meta data - Apply transformations for projections - Apply symbology based on attribute table - Allow layering of data - Tools to query/filter data - Spatial analysis tools - Exporting tools for printing maps or publish web maps 9 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021
Datum
10 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Datum
- The earth is generally round, but is not a perfect sphere or very smooth (e.g. mountains and canyons)
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipsoid 11 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021
Geographic Coordinate System (GCS)
12 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Geographic Coordinate System - How do I tell a computer where we are located on earth?
My office (42.350083 N, -71.104168 W)
13 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Geographic Coordinate System
Cartesian Coordinate System (50 E, 40 N) Point (2,2)
Source: https://www.e-education.psu.edu/natureofgeoinfo/c2_p10.html GCS
Source: http://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/10.3/guide-books/map-projections/geographic-coordinate- system.htm
Source: http://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/10.3/guide-books/map-projections/about-geographic-coordinate-systems.htm 14 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Geographic Coordinate System (+)
(-) (+)
(-)
Units Short Hand Compass Example +/- Example Degrees Minutes dddº mm′ ss.s″ 45º 36′ 23″ N, 122º46′ 18.4″ W 45º 36′ 23″ , -122º46′ 18.4″ Seconds Degrees Decimal dddº mm.mmm′ 45º 36.38′ N, 122º 46.31′ W 45º 36.38′ , -122º 46.31′ Minutes Decimal Degrees ddd.ddddddº 45.6064º N 122.7718º W 45.6064º, -122.7718º
Additional Reading: http://geokov.com/education/latitude-longitude.aspx 15 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Geographic Coordinate System
Decimal places and accuracy of position.
Additional Reading: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_degrees 16 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Geographic Coordinate System
- There are many GCSs. - They are updated occasionally.
- North American Datum (NAD) - NAD 27 - NAD 83 (with 5 updates) - New Datum in 2022!
List of GCS supported by ArcGIS: https://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/latest/map/projections/pdf/geographic_coordinate_sy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipsoid stems.pdf 17 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Geographic Coordinate System NAD 1927 NAD 1983
Coordinates are associated with a specific GCS. Above is an outline of Boston City Hall. The same coordinates 18 were used to plot the outlines in two different GCSs. Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021
Projections
19 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Projections Greenland What is wrong with this map?
Country Area ( mi ^2) Africa 11,730,000 Antarctica 5,405,000 Greenland 836,300
Africa
Antarctica 20 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Projections
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CPQZ7NcQ6YQ Additional Reading: https://laughingsquid.com/world-mercator-projection-map-country-size/ 21 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Projections
- Allow creation of flat maps.
- At expense of distorting: - Shape - Area - Direction - Distance
- Coordinates are typically in feet, or meters, and positive values - e.g (114564 ft, 53746 ft)
Fun Read: “America Has Two Feet. It’s About to Lose One of Them.” https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/18/science/foot-surveying-metrology-dennis.html 22 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Projections
Cylindrical
Conical
Planar 23 Source: https://docs.qgis.org/3.10/en/docs/gentle_gis_introduction/coordinate_reference_systems.html#id1 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Projections Tissot's Indicatrix Conformal Equal Area Equidistant
Source and Additional Reading: 24 http://geokov.com/education/map-projection.aspx Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021
Source and Additional Reading: Projections http://downloads2.esri.com/support/documentation/ao_/710Understanding_ Map_Projections.pdf
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World Fuller Cube World
Polar NSIDC EASE Grid North NAD 1983 UTM Zone26 15N Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Projections Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
source: https://gisgeography.com/utm-universal-transverse-mercator-projection/
Source: https://www.e-education.psu.edu/natureofgeoinfo/c2_p22.html UTM Zones for US source: https://gisgeography.com/utm-universal-transverse-mercator-projection/ Source and Additional Reading: https://www.e-education.psu.edu/natureofgeoinfo/c2_p22.html https://gisgeography.com/utm-universal-transverse-mercator-projection/ 27 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Projections
Many GIS packages takes care of the math. Phew! - What projection/GCS do I choose? - Institutions or Organization may select a standard coordinate system. - Choose one that minimizes distortion characteristics important for your analysis.
- When to select/change GCS or projections in GIS? - Importing raw data into GIS - Georeferencing images or old maps. - Importing CSV files NAD 1927 NAD 1983 - Spatial processing of two layers. - Some GIS tools expect projected data. 28 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021
Projections Types of Projection Definitions
- EPSG - MapServer Mapfile | Python - Well Known Text as HTML - Mapnik XML | Python - Human-Readable OGC WKT - GeoServer - Proj (formerly proj4) - PostGIS spatial_ref_sys INSERT - OGC WKT statement - JSON - Proj4js format - GML - ESRI WKT - .PRJ File - USGS 29 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021
Projections Sample Projection Definitions for NAD83 / Massachusetts Mainland (ftUS)
Definition Type Example EPSG 2249 Proj4 +proj=lcc +lat_1=42.68333333333333 +lat_2=41.71666666666667 +lat_0=41 +lon_0=-71.5 +x_0=200000.0001016002 +y_0=750000 +ellps=GRS80 +datum=NAD83 +to_meter=0.3048006096012192 +no_defs .prj PROJCS["NAD83 / Massachusetts Mainland (ftUS)",GEOGCS["GCS_North_American_1983",DATUM["D_North_American_1983",S PHEROID["GRS_1980",6378137,298.257222101]],PRIMEM["Greenwich",0],UNIT["De gree",0.017453292519943295]],PROJECTION["Lambert_Conformal_Conic"],PARAME TER["standard_parallel_1",42.68333333333333],PARAMETER["standard_parallel_2", 41.71666666666667],PARAMETER["latitude_of_origin",41],PARAMETER["central_me ridian",- 71.5],PARAMETER["false_easting",656166.667],PARAMETER["false_northing",24606 25],UNIT["Foot_US",0.30480060960121924]] 30 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021
Projections Sample Projection Definitions for NAD83 / Massachusetts Mainland (ftUS)
Definition Type Example Well Known PROJCS["NAD83 / Massachusetts Mainland (ftUS)", GEOGCS["NAD83", Text (WKT) DATUM["North_American_Datum_1983", SPHEROID["GRS 1980",6378137,298.257222101, AUTHORITY["EPSG","7019"]], AUTHORITY["EPSG","6269"]], PRIMEM["Greenwich",0, AUTHORITY["EPSG","8901"]], UNIT["degree",0.01745329251994328, AUTHORITY["EPSG","9122"]], AUTHORITY["EPSG","4269"]], UNIT["US survey foot",0.3048006096012192, AUTHORITY["EPSG","9003"]], PROJECTION["Lambert_Conformal_Conic_2SP"], PARAMETER["standard_parallel_1",42.68333333333333], PARAMETER["standard_parallel_2",41.71666666666667], PARAMETER["latitude_of_origin",41], PARAMETER["central_meridian",-71.5], PARAMETER["false_easting",656166.667], PARAMETER["false_northing",2460625], AUTHORITY["EPSG","2249"], AXIS["X",EAST], AXIS["Y",NORTH]] 31 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Projections
Additional Reading - http://geokov.com/education/map-projection.aspx - https://www.axismaps.com/guide/general/map-projections/ - https://alastaira.wordpress.com/2011/01/23/the-google-maps-bing- maps-spherical-mercator-projection/ - http://bl.ocks.org/syntagmatic/raw/ba569633d51ebec6ec6e/ Projected Coordinate Systems supported by ArcGIS Pro - https://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/latest/map/projections/pdf/project ed_coordinate_systems.pdf Projection Definition Lookup reference - https://spatialreference.org/ref/epsg/ 32 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Review 1. To plot spatial data we need Datum and Geographic Coordinate System (GCS).
Source: http://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/10.3/guide-books/map-projections/about-geographic-coordinate-systems.htm 2. Use GCS to assign coordinates to data.
40º 00′ 00″ N, 50º 00′ 00″ E
Source: http://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/10.3/guide-books/map-projections/geographic-coordinate-system.htm
3. To make a flat map, need to apply a projection.
14572818.92E, 21094356.67N feet 33 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021
Common Spatial Data Models
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Common Spatial Data Models
Vector Raster
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Common Spatial Data Models - Vector
(X, Y)
Points Polylines Polygon
Note: Each type of vector data is put in its own group, layer, when stored in a data file. 36 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Common Spatial Data Models - Vector
Source and Additional Reading: 37 https://www.e-education.psu.edu/natureofgeoinfo/c1_p9.html Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Common Spatial Data Models- Vector
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- Filtering data one common option is Structured Query Language (SQL)
SELECT Additional Reading: https://www.w3schools.com/sql/ 42 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Common Spatial Data Models - Vector SELECT * FROM MBTA_ARC WHERE LINE = ‘RED’ 43 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Common Spatial Data Models – Vector (Other) - Topological Constraints Additional Reading: http://resources.arcgis.com/en/help/main/10.2/01mm/pdf/topology_rules_poster.pdf 44 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Common Spatial Data Models – Vector (Other) - Network Model - Collection of arcs and nodes - Also include topological constraints - Answers questions such as: - How to get from point A to point B - Shortest path from point A to point B Source and Additional Reading: https://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/latest/extensions/network- analyst/what-is-a-network-dataset.htm 45 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Common Spatial Data Models Vector Raster 46 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Common Spatial Data Models - Raster Raster Data - continuous data - uniform gridded data Source: http://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/latest/manage-data/raster-and-images/what-is-raster- 47 data.htm Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Common Spatial Data Models - Raster Examples of Raster Data 48 Source: http://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/latest/manage-data/raster-and-images/what-is-raster- data.htm Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Common Spatial Data Models - Review Source and Additional Reading: 49 https://www.e-education.psu.edu/natureofgeoinfo/c1_p9.html Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Common Spatial Data Models - Raster Raster Data - Bands - For color image need red, green, and blue bands. - Remote sensing data can contain up to 8 bands of data representing a signal response from a sensor. Source and Additional Reading: http://gsp.humboldt.edu/olm_2016/courses/GSP_216_Online/lesson3-1/bands.html 50 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Common Spatial Data Models – Raster (Other) Digital Elevation Model (DEM) - Elevation point data interpolated over an area - Used in: - Hydrologic Analysis. - Help placing cell tower for max coverage. - Base canvas for 3D visualizations. Source and Additional Reading: https://pro.arcgis.com/en/pro-app/tool-reference/spatial-analyst/exploring-digital- elevation-models.htm 51 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Common Spatial Data Models - Review Vector Raster - Attribute Table - Continuous data - Labeling - Color coding by cell, by numeric - Filtering value - Symbology - Data source may contain multiple bands - Topological Constrains can be applied. - Digital Elevation Model (DEM) - Network Model Source and Additional Reading: 52 https://www.e-education.psu.edu/natureofgeoinfo/c1_p9.html;https://pro.arcgis.com/en/pro-app/tool-reference/spatial-analyst/exploring-digital-elevation-models.htm ;https://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/latest/extensions/network-analyst/what-is-a-network-dataset.htm ;http://resources.arcgis.com/en/help/main/10.2/01mm/pdf/topology_rules_poster.pdf Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Data Layers 53 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Data Layers Layer Projection A Layer Projection B Layer Projection C ArcGIS Pro and QGIS On the Fly “Project” Projection Transformation Source: 54 http://www.forestrymaps.alaska.gov/whyGIS.html Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Spatial Data Storage 55 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Spatial Data Storage UK .NTF OGC API - Features Oracle Spatial ODBC RDBMS How is spatial data stored? Open Document Spreadsheet OGDI Vectors OpenAir Special Use Airspace Format AmigoCloud GeoJSONSeq: sequence of GeoJSON features ESRI File Geodatabase (OpenFileGDB) ESRI ArcObjects Geomedia MDB database OpenStreetMap XML and PBF Arc/Info Generate GeoRSS : Geographically Encoded Objects for RSS feeds Geospatial PDF Arc/Info Binary Coverage Geography Markup Language Planetary Data Systems TABLE Arc/Info E00 (ASCII) Coverage Geography Markup Language (GML) driven by application schemas PostgreSQL / PostGIS Atlas BNA GMT ASCII Vectors (.gmt) PostgreSQL SQL Dump AutoCAD DWG GeoPackage vector ESRI Personal GeoDatabase Carto GPSBabel PLScenes (Planet Labs Scenes/Catalog API) Cloudant GPS Exchange Format IHO S-57 (ENC) CouchDB/GeoCouch GRASS Vector Format ESRI ArcSDE Comma Separated Value (.csv) GPS TrackMaker SDTS OGC CSW (Catalog Service for the Web) Hydrographic Transfer Format SEG-P1 / UKOOA P1/90 DB2 Spatial IDB SEG-Y / SEGY Microstation DGN Idrisi Vector (.VCT) Selafin files Microstation DGN v8 “INTERLIS 1” and “INTERLIS 2” drivers ESRI Shapefile / DBF DODS/OPeNDAP “INTERLIS 1” and “INTERLIS 2” drivers Norwegian SOSI Standard AutoCAD DWG INGRES SQLite / Spatialite RDBMS AutoCAD DXF JML: OpenJUMP JML format Tim Newport-Peace’s Special Use Airspace EDIGEO Keyhole Markup Language Format Google Earth Engine Data API LIBKML Driver (.kml .kmz) Scalable Vector Graphics Elasticsearch: Geographically Encoded Dutch Kadaster LV BAG 2.0 Extract SXF Objects for Elasticsearch MapML U.S. Census TIGER/Line ESRIJSON / FeatureService driver Access MDB databases TopoJSON driver ESRI File Geodatabase (FileGDB) Memory VDV-451/VDV-452/INTREST Data Format FlatGeobuf MapInfo TAB and MIF/MID Czech Cadastral Exchange Data Format FMEObjects Gateway MongoDB Virtual Format GeoConcept text export MongoDBv3 Walk Spatial Data GeoJSON Microsoft SQL Server Spatial Database WAsP .map format MVT: Mapbox Vector Tiles OGC WFS service MySQL MS Excel format ALKIS MS Office Open XML spreadsheet Vector X-Plane/Flightgear aeronautical data NextGIS Web 56 Vector Data Source: https://gdal.org/drivers/vector/index.html Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Intergraph Raster Format PCRaster raster file format Vaisala’s weather radar software format Geospatial PDF ISCE Planetary Data System v3 Spatial Data Storage International Service for the Geoid NASA Planetary Data System (Version 4) USGS Astrogeology ISIS Cube (Version 2) PLMosaic (Planet Labs Mosaics API) USGS Astrogeology ISIS Cube (Version 3) Portable Network Graphics Japanese DEM (.mem) Netpbm (.pgm, .ppm) How is spatial data stored? ERDAS JPEG2000 (.jp2) PostGIS Raster driver JPEG-2000 (based on Kakadu) PHOTOMOD Raster File Arc/Info ASCII Grid Enhanced Compressed Wavelets (.ecw) JPEG2000 driver based on Lurawave library R Object Data Store ACE2 Google Earth Engine Data API Image JPEG2000 via MrSID SDK Rasdaman GDAL driver ADRG/ARC Digitized Raster Graphics (.gen/.thf) ESRI .hdr Labelled JPEG2000 driver based on OpenJPEG library Rasters in SQLite DB Arc/Info Binary Grid Erdas Imagine Raw JPEG JFIF File Format Rasters in SQLite DB AIRSAR Polarimetric Format Earth Resources Laboratory Applications Software Implementation of the JPEG-2000 part 1 RDA (DigitalGlobe Raster Data Access) Azavea Raster Grid ENVI .hdr Labelled Raster JPEGLS RIEGL Database Bathymetry Attributed Grid Wavelet compressed images JPIP Streaming Swedish Grid Maps Magellan BLX Topo File Format ERMapper .ERS KEA Raster Matrix Format Microsoft Windows Device Independent Bitmap Envisat Image Product KMLSuperoverlay ROI_PAC Better Portable Graphics Extended Dynamic Range Image File Format KOLOR Raw format Raster Product Format/RPF (a.toc) Maptech/NOAA BSB Nautical Chart Format EOSAT FAST Format NOAA Polar Orbiter Level 1b Data Set (AVHRR) R Raster VTP .bt Binary Terrain Format FIT Erdas 7.x .LAN and .GIS RadarSat 2 XML Product Natural Resources Canada’s Geoid file format (.byn) Flexible Image Transport System FARSITE v.4 LCP Format Sentinel-1 SAFE XML Product AutoCAD DWG raster layer Fuji BAS Scanner Image Daylon Leveller Heightfield CEOS SAR Image CALS Type 1 Generic Binary (.hdr labelled) NADCON .los/.las Datum Grid Shift SAGA GIS Binary Grid File Format CEOS Image Oracle Spatial GeoRaster OziExplorer .MAP ESRI ArcSDE Raster DRDC COASP SAR Processor Raster Sandia National Laboratories GSAT File Format Meta Raster Format USGS SDTS DEM Cloud Optimized GeoTIFF generator Graphics Interchange Format MBTiles Sentinel-2 Products TerraSAR-X Complex SAR Data Product GMT Compatible netCDF In Memory Raster SGI Image Format Convair PolGASP data GeoPackage raster Vexcel MFF Raster Scaled Integer Gridded DEM CTable2 Datum Grid Shift GRASS Raster Format Vexcel MFF2 Image Snow Data Assimilation System USGS LULC Composite Theme Grid GRASS ASCII Grid MrSID/MG4 LiDAR Compression / Point Cloud View Standard Product Format (ASRP/USRP) (.gen) DAAS (Airbus DS Intelligence Data As A Service driver) WMO General Regularly-distributed Information in Binary form files SRTM HGT Format DB2 raster Golden Software Surfer 7 Binary Grid File Format Multi-resolution Seamless Image Database Terragen™ Terrain File DirectDraw Surface Golden Software ASCII Grid File Format Meteosat Second Generation EarthWatch/DigitalGlobe .TIL Derived subdatasets driver Golden Software Binary Grid File Format Meteosat Second Generation (MSG) Native Archive TileDB Spot DIMAP GSC Geogrid Format (.nat) TerraSAR-X Product ELAS DIPEx Generic Tagged Arrays NLAPS Data Format USGS ASCII DEM (and CDED) OPeNDAP Grid Client GeoTIFF File Format NetCDF: Network Common Data Form VICAR First Generation USGS DOQ Grid eXchange File NOAA NGS Geoid Height Grids GDAL Virtual Format New Labelled USGS DOQ Hierarchical Data Format Release 4 (HDF4) NextGIS Web OGC Web Coverage Service Military Elevation Data Hierarchical Data Format Release 5 (HDF5) National Imagery Transmission Format WEBP Arc/Info Export E00 GRID HF2/HFZ heightfield raster NTv1 Datum Grid Shift Web Map Services ECRG Table Of Contents (TOC.xml) Erdas Imagine .img NTv2 Datum Grid Shift OGC Web Map Tile Service Image Display and Analysis Northwood/Vertical Mapper File Format X11 Pixmap Idrisi Raster Format Northwood/Vertical Mapper File Format ASCII Gridded XYZ IGN-France height correction ASCII grids OZF2/OZFX3 raster ZMap Plus Grid Raster Map JAXA PALSAR Processed Products PCI .aux Labelled Raw Format PCI Geomatics Database File 57 Raster Data Source: https://gdal.org/drivers/raster/index.html# Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Spatial Data Storage General Categories of Data Storage Type of Storage Vector Examples Raster Example ESRI Shapefile Arc/Info ASCII Grid AutoCAD GeoTIFF Individual Files GeoJSON JPEG2000 Excel File netCDF HDF GeoPackage GeoPackage raster Multi-Feature/Raster File File Geodatabase SpatialLite Oracle Spatial GeoRaster PostgresSQL PostGIS Raster Database ArcGIS Server SQLite MySQL ArcGIS Server ArcGIS Online Google Maps Tiles ArcGIS Online Web Map Services OpenStreetMap Bing Maps 58 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Spatial Data Storage What is stored in these files? - Geographic coordinate system definition - Projection definition - Attribute Table - Meta data - Feature type and properties - Coordinate points for features - Various internal tables (such as spatial indexing) 59 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Example Workflow 60 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Example Workflow 1. Collect field data with coordinates, or download it. https://www.mass.gov/service-details/massgis-data-layers 2. Import data into GIS software. 3. Clean and condition the data. 4. Explore the data. 5. Use spatial analysis tools. 6. Apply symbology. 7. Publish/share map/results with others. 61 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Sample of GIS Software 62 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Sample of GIS Software Commercial Software - ESRI – Products - ArcGIS Pro - (Desktop) - ArcGIS Online – (Cloud) - ENVI To obtain contact CAS IT http://www.bu.edu/casit/information/purchasing-software/ 63 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Sample of GIS Software Open Source - Free Software Programming Languages - QGIS - Python - gdal, geopandas, pangeo - GrassGIS - R – sf, rgdal, raster - Saga - Google Maps/Earth Libraries/Command Line Tools - GDAL - Geos - Proj - Spatialite 64 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Sample of GIS Software Build Your Own GIS Toolbox My toolbox: - Organizing data - OGR/GDAL - Data storage - GeoPackage or PostgresSQL w/PostGIS - GIS Task Automation - R or Python - Visualizations for Reports - QGIS or ArcGIS Pro - Visualization for Web Maps - ArcGIS Online 65 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 GIS Data Sources I have compiled an informal GIS source list here: https://github.com/milechin/gis_data_sources/wiki/GIS-Data-Resources 66 Introduction to GIS Theory 9/10/2021 Questions Please fill out tutorial evaluation: http://rcs.bu.edu/eval Email me at: [email protected] 67 WHERE