CULTURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT CRM VOLUME 24 NO. 3 2001
Keeping the Peace and Protecting our Heritage
Cultural Resource Management in the Department of Defense
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR National Park Service Cultural Resources PUBLISHED BY THE VOLUME 24 NO. 3 2001 NATIONAL PARK SERVICE Contents ISSN 1068-4999 Information for parks, federal agencies, Indian tribes, states, local governments, Keeping the Peace and and the private sector that promotes and maintains high standards for pre serving and managing cultural resources Protecting Our Heritage
ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR Cultural Resource Management CULTURAL RESOURCE STEWARDSHIP AND PARTNERSHIPS in the Department of Defense Katherine H. Stevenson
EDITOR Seeking Innovative Solutions to Rock Art Sites at Marine Air Ground Ronald M. Greenberg Managing Cultural Resources in the Task Force Training Command 21 Department of Defense 3 Marie G. Cottrell, Uyen K. Doan, ASSOCIATE EDITOR L. Peter Boice and Rhys M. Evans Janice C. McCoy
GUEST EDITORS The Department of Defense Legacy Preservation and Partnerships—Sacred L. Peter Boice Resource Management Program 5 Places on Army Lands in Hawaii 24 Paula A Massouh Paula A. Massouh Laurie J. Lucking ADVISORS Integrated Cultural Resources From Sacred Sites to Stealth Bombers— David Andrews Editor, NPS Management Plan Electronic Toolbox . .7 Bridging Cross-Cultural Boundaries . .26 Joan Bacharach Suzanne Keith Loechl and Vicki S. Best, Gregory A. Fasano, Curator, NPS Lucy Whalley and Richard W Arnold Randall J. Biallas Historical Architect, NPS John A. Bums Using GIS and the Web on Eglin AFB . .9 Military Aircraft Hangars—Footprints Architect, NPS Newell Wright, Vista Stewart, through a Century of Flight 29 Harry A. Butowsky Historian, NPS Tegan Swain, and Lynn Shreve Julie L. Webster and Pratt Cassity Gordon L. Cohen Executive Director, Stewards of the Past—Archeological National Alienee of Preservatbn Commissbns Collections and the DoD 11 Repatriation of Human Remains Muriel Crespi Cultural Anthropologist, NPS Eugene A. Marino and at Marine Corps Base Hawaii 32 Mary Cullen Michael K. Trimble June Noelani Cleghorn Director, Historical Services Branch Parks Canada Fort Hood, Texas—CRM in the Recovery of the Confederate Mark Edwards Historic Preservation and Cultural Resource Group Manager Home of the Army's Largest Submarine H.L. Hunley 35 URS Greiner Woodward Ctyde Federal Services Fighting Machines 13 David L. Conlin Roger E. Kelly Archeologst, NPS Cheryl L, Huckerby Antoinette J. Lee New Frontiers, New Soldiers of Historian, NPS NAGPRA Issues at Camp Pendleton . .17 Preservation—The Presidio of Stan Berryman San Francisco under Civilian Control. .38 ASSISTANT Denise M. Mayo Sannie Kenton Osborn and CRM at Fort McCoy, Wisconsin 19 Robert Wallace Andrew R. Sewell, Stephen C. Wagner, Ryan J. Howell, Resource Management in the An electronic version of this Wendell P. Greek, and Department of Defense—Defending issue of CRM can be accessed Karyn L. Caldwell America's Heritage 42 through the CRM homepage at David G. Anderson
Statements of fact and views are the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect an opinion or endorsement on the part of the editors, the CRM advisors and consultants, or the National Park Service. Send articles and correspondence to the Editor, CRM, U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1849 C Street, NW, Suite 350NC, Washington, DC 20240 (U.S. Postal Service) or 800 North Capitol St, NW, Suite 350, Washington, DC 20002 (Federal Express); ph. 202-343-3411, fax 202-343-5260; email:
2 CRM No 3—2001 L. Peter Boice Seeking Innovative Solutions to Managing Cultural Resources in the Department of Defense
he Department of Defense reminders and symbols of people, events, and (DoD) manages a wide range of ideas that shaped our nation's character. They also unique cultural resources on its are important because of their support of military 25 million acres of public lands. mission goals, their contributions to military his IncludeTd are buildings, structures, sites, and tory and tradition, and their enhancement of objects associated with the historical growth and quality of life for the residents, employees, and development of the U.S. military, as well as many visitors to DoD installations. other elements of American history and prehistory. These facts notwithstanding, cultural Cultural resources under DoD management resource management (CRM) is not a core ele include the impressive architecture of our mili ment of DoD's primary mission of national tary service academies and other historic military defense. It is difficult to fund CRM requirements installations; Native American rock carvings and that are not strictly driven by legal compliance archeological sites; pioneer cemeteries, structures, issues. And CRM usually lies "below the radar and sites; sites and buildings associated with such screen" with respect to its visibility to senior major recent efforts as nuclear weapons develop DoD officials. Consequently, DoD has been ment and the space program; historic aircraft and working to develop new solutions for CRM in ships; and documents, photographs, and other the Department. objects associated with our nation's military his Identifying New Technologies for CRM tory. These cultural resources are tangible A major recent initiative, jointly sponsored by the DoD Legacy Resource Management Brochure cover, Program (Legacy) and the Strategic courtesy Office Environmental Research and Development of the Secretary Program (SERDP), was a CRM workshop held of Defense. at Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland, in June 2000. The workshop's goals were to define the state-of-the-art in CRM science and technol ogy, define DoD's future CRM needs, and iden tify potential technologies to reduce costs and improve efficiencies. (The proceedings from this workshop are available at
CRM No 3—2001 3 New Tools for CRM lar management flexibility (see Marino and DoD's new Integrated Cultural Resources Trimble, p. 11). For example, this seven-year Management Plan (ICRMP) Toolbox is discussed study of almost 250 DoD collections identified elsewhere in this issue (see Loechl and Whalley, many collections with substantial percentages of p. 7). Another recently completed project is the soil samples, and others with large amounts of Center of Expertise for the Preservation of fire-cracked rock. Because it is unlikely that these Historic Structures and Buildings, U.S. Army items have any significant scientific research Corps of Engineers, Seattle District's study, The value, it may be possible to delete these items Cost of Maintaining Historic Military Family from our long-term curation inventory. Housing. This report looks at the current condi Summary tions of historic military family housing, and the DoD continues to be a leader in federal factors affecting their maintenance costs. The CRM. The cultural resources under DoD control report identifies improved management and are significant national assets. Wise stewardship operations procedures for both historic and non- of these resources is DoD's moral and legal oblig historic housing. ation. New technologies, tools, policies and pro New communications tools are also needed. cedures will help maintain DoD's ability to man For example, Legacy-SERDP workshop partici age these resources for future generations. pants suggested a need for new tools to facilitate stakeholder involvement in Native American References consultations. Documents such as Cultural Anderson, Lara, Karolyn Kinsey, Marc Kodack, Eugene Resources in the Department of Defense and A. Marino, Jennifer Riordan, Barbara Smoyer, and Kelly H. Wissehr. An Archaeological Curation-Needs DoD-specific training courses may help facilitate Assessment of Military Installations in Select Eastern communications throughout the Department. United States. Technical Report No. 23. Mandatory New Policies and Procedures for CRM Center of Expertise for the Curation and A potentially contentious issue surrounds Management of Archaeological Collections, U.S. the questions "what should we preserve?" and Army Corps of Engineers, St. Louis District, 2000. "how should we preserve it?" While an idealist Center of Expertise for the Preservation of Historic might be unwilling to sacrifice any artifacts, doc Structures and Buildings. U.S. Army Corps of uments, buildings, or other cultural resources, Engineers, Seattle District. The Cost of Maintaining Historic Military Family Housing. 2001. others would argue that certain of these resources Department of Defense, Cultural Resources in the are of marginal value and are diverting scarce Department of Defense, 2000. resources from more compelling needs. DoD has Felix, Susan S., Amy E. Halpin, Kelly L. Holland, undertaken several major inventories to begin to Eugene A. Marino, Steve McSween, D. Lynn address such issues. Murdoch, Julia A. Samerdyke, Kenneth L. A four-volume inventory, California Shingleton, and Sylvia Yu. An Archaeological Historic Military Buildings and Structures, ana Curation-Needs Assessment of Military Installations in Select Western United States. Technical Report No. lyzes the way in which these buildings and struc 20. Mandatory Center of Expertise for the Curation tures have been evaluated by the various DoD and Management of Archaeological Collections. components in California, and provides a U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, St. Louis District, methodological and contextual framework to 2000. guide future work. It is hoped that the results of U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Sacramento District, this study will identify those buildings and struc California's Historic Military Buildings and tures that DoD must protect, while permitting Structures. Volumes I-IV. 2000. the Department greater management flexibility with others. L. Peter Boice is Conservation Team Leader for the Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense for The nationwide curation needs assessment Environmental Security. He oversees DoD's natural and conducted by the Mandatory Center of Expertise cultural resources management programs, including the for the Curation and Management of DoD Legacy Resource Management Program. He served as Archaeological Collections, U.S. Corps of guest co-editor of this issue o/CRM. Engineers, St. Louis District, may result in simi
4 CRM No 3—2001 Paula A. Massouh The Department of Defense Legacy Resource Management Program
n 1990, Congress passed legislation Legacy funding is not restricted to military that established the Legacy Resource installations or their affiliates. Non-military per Management Program. The program sonnel, such as at universities and non-profit provides financial assistance to DoD organizations, can also apply for consideration, effortsI to enhance natural and cultural resource but must coordinate proposed projects with a stewardship on military lands while supporting particular service or command to ensure that the military mission. Three principles guide the their proposal has military support and supports program—stewardship, leadership, and partner the military mission. However, inclusion of a ship. Since its creation, the program has funded proposal in the tracking system does not denote several thousand projects ranging from threat DoD approval to fund a project. A review com ened and endangered species mittee, consisting of DoD and protection to underwater service representatives, ultimately archeology. decides on whether to approve or Due to legislative changes reject a proposal. enacted in 1997, Legacy's Cultural resource projects emphasis has shifted from funded during FY1998 -FY2000 smaller installation-specific covered a wide range of interests. projects to broader, regional, One of the areas of emphasis, national, and ecosystem-based cultural resource management, projects. During FY1998- encompasses projects involving a FY2000, Legacy funded broad spectrum of cultural approximately 60 cultural resources issues. In June 2000, resource projects at military Legacy funded a three-day work installations, totaling almost shop, co-sponsored with DoD's $35 million. This article will Strategic Environmental briefly discuss the application Research and Development process as well as mention some of the projects Program (SERDP), in which the participants funded during the designated period. identified potential technologies that could be The Legacy Program Tracker at adapted to reduce costs and efforts in meeting
CRM No 3—2001 5 of DoD-owned and a historic buildings conference, cold war studies, controlled archeological conservation of historic books and documents, properties and docu and the publication of a new cultural resources ments. Since DoD owns booklet. The program will continue to encourage more archeological new approaches and creative partnerships to pro resources than any other mote cultural resources management on DoD agency, Legacy has been lands. committed to ensuring The Legacy program also has reached out to that DoD collections those outside of the DoD sphere by publicizing are protected and cared its accomplishments through attendance at for in a professional national conferences and meetings. Legacy pro manner. Legacy-funded vided a display on the Integrated Cultural projects have provided Resources Management Plan (see Loechl and for the rehabilitation of Whalley, p. 7) at the Cultural Resources 2000 DoD collections and conference held by the National Park Service in the development of Santa Fe, New Mexico, December 4-8, 2000. At partnerships with insti the annual meeting of the Society for Historical tutions throughout the Archaeology, held in Long Beach, California, A propellant sta country that will curate collections. Other cura- January 10-13, 2001, Legacy provided a display tic test in tion-related projects have funded studies that relating to the underwater archeology projects progress on a have identified the numerous DoD collections that it has funded over the past few years. major propellant test stand at that are threatened due to poor storage condi As we begin the 21st century, it is impor Edwards AFB, tions and relocation due to base closures and tant that we conserve and defend our cultural 1958. Many of realignments (see Marino and Trimble, p. 11). resources that represent our national heritage. these Cold War- era structures A third area of emphasis, recently added for Projects such as those funded by the Legacy remaining at FY2002, Native American issues, is applicable to Resource Management Program can help the Edwards AFB both cultural and natural resource projects. Department of Defense support its mission while have been determined eligi Military installations contain sites and landscapes also preserving the past to the benefit of future ble for the where American Indian, Alaska Native, and generations. National Native Hawaiian people lived. Therefore, we are Register and seeking to support efforts that facilitate DoD- Paula A. Massouh is a cultural resource management spe were included in cialist with Versar, Inc., which provides contract support an inventory of wide or regional efforts that protect, manage, California his and/or restore resources in these areas in a man to the Department of Defense Legacy Resource Management Program. She served as guest co-editor of this toric military ner that is supportive of military activities and buildings and issue of CBM. structures operations, meeting our obligations to federally- funded by the recognized tribes. Although Legacy pro this area of emphasis was gram. Photo courtesy recently added, Legacy has National been funding projects relat Army City was an Archives. ing to Native American entertainment complex constructed at Fort Riley issues. These projects include in 1917 to serve the troops a knowledge-based system on being trained at Camp Funston. A large scale the cultural affiliation of the resistivity survey provided Five Civilized Tribes that will detailed information on site be disseminated on the layout and many aspects of depositional integrity. World Wide Web, as well as a The quality of the resistivity Native American treaty map made it possible to evaluate the site using far research study that will less excavation than would define treaty obligations for have been needed under DoD military installations. a traditional approach. Legacy has also funded projects dealing with GIS Example of a resistivity map produced from a Legacy funded project dealing with applications and geophysical geophysical applications. Courtesy Construction Engineering Research Laboratory studies of archeological sites, (CERL).
6 CRM No 3—2001 Suzanne Keith Loechl and Lucy Whalley Integrated Cultural Resources Management Plan Electronic Toolbox
new web-based toolbox can help integrating the entire installation cultural Department of Defense (DoD) resources program with ongoing mission activi cultural resource managers tailor ties, and allowing for identification of potential required plans according to the conflicts between the installation's mission and uniquAe needs at each military installation. cultural resources management. Available on the Defense Environmental The ICRMP also aids in determining what Network and Information Exchange (DENIX), funding is needed to meet compliance require (http://www.denix.osd.mil/ICRMP), the toolbox ments over a five-year period by addressing cul contains supporting documents and sample plans tural resources issues that are most at risk due to to assist in developing Integrated Cultural impacts from the military mission and other fac Resources Management Plans (ICRMP). tors. The requirements would depend on the his DoD is committed to comprehensive land toric nature of the installation and the state of its management and is faced with complex land cultural resource program. Examples include management issues. The need to train the archeological, historic building and landscape nation's military forces while protecting our nat assessments, and traditional cultural properties. ural and cultural heritage is a major challenge The ICRMP provides a forum to examine long- that necessitates an integrated and comprehensive term management goals, to establish short- and approach. To this end, DoD Instruction 4715.3 long-term priorities, and to develop strategies to requires installations to develop plans for inte meet these goals. Each year the plan can be grated cultural resource management. ICRMPs updated to incorporate new information and are part of a larger land management program activities. After a five-year period, the plan that balances land and heritage conservation with receives a major review. Thus, the plan follows a the needs of the military mission. pattern similar to and integrated with the rolling The new integrated plans respond to the five-year fiscal program and budget cycle used by need for cultural resources management to DoD. encompass the entire range of cultural resources The organization of the ICRMP is similar issues and manage them to meet legislative as to a pyramid that represents three hierarchical well as military mission requirements. The con levels of information. At the top level of the pyra cept of integrated cultural resources management mid, the installation command focuses on the is mirrored in DoD's Integrated Natural military mission as well as the current status and Resources Management Plans that integrate a future requirements of the cultural resources pro variety of related natural resource elements with gram. By approving the plan, the command sig other base functions, including military training. nals confidence in program management and del- Prior to the new DoD ICRMP pyramid structure. Instruction in 1996, cultural resources were managed either COMMAND LEVEL ' by Historic Preservation Plans or Cultural Resources Management Plans. These were developed independently from plans sup INSTALLATION LEVEL - porting the primary installation mission. Integrated Cultural
Resources Management Plans CULTURAL RESOUCRESLEVEL - take a proactive approach by
CRM No 3—2001 7 Resources Management Plan Electronic Toolbox that was implemented at three different installa tions: Fort Lewis, Washington (Army); Washington Navy Yard, Washington, DC (Navy); and Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island, South Carolina (Marine Corps). The implementa tion of the toolbox at these three installations helped to augment the toolbox during its develop ment. A prototype plan for the Air Force is cur rently underway for Edwards Air Force Base, California. The toolbox is organized into four major components of the plan: management, integra tion, monitoring, and reporting. The manage ment section contains information about cultural resource management and provides tools to assist with the assessment process. The integration sec Officers' egates authority and responsibility to the cultural tion outlines the general installation structure for Quarters at resources manager. At the middle level of the each of the services and describes the philosophy Parris Island, pyramid, information is disseminated to and inte South Carolina, behind successful integration. The monitoring grated with other installation offices that have the 1920. Photo section stresses the importance of monitoring the courtesy Parris potential to impact cultural resources. At the bot success of the cultural resource program once the Island Marine tom level of the pyramid, the cultural resource Corps Recruit plan is in place. The reporting section lists the major manager develops procedures to maintain conti Depot Museum. reporting requirements for each of the services. nuity in the program, identify gaps, and deter mine future requirements. The main window in the toolbox provides Since 1998, the Legacy Resource general information about cultural resources legis Management Program has provided funding to lation, planning level surveys, and installation the Construction Engineering Research context. A standardized menu on every page pro Laboratory (CERL) in Champaign, Illinois, to vides links to the DoD Instruction, individual ser conduct a needs assessment and create a prototype vice regulations and guidance, and a list of for a DoD-wide tool to develop ICRMPs. CERL acronyms. A links page also provides access to hosted a workshop attended by cultural resource many cultural resources web sites, such as the professionals from all levels of the services. The National Register of Historic Places, the Advisory purpose of the workshop was threefold: to learn Council on Historic Preservation, and sites relat how each service interprets the DoD Instruction; ing to Native American consultation. to understand how cultural resources and other Finally, the toolbox contains a prototype installation offices currently integrate cultural window that provides access to the prototypes resources management into the larger program, previously discussed which can be downloaded and to brainstorm ideas for how to best approach from the web site. While each plan was developed the ICRMP requirement to serve all of the to address the specific needs of each installation Department of Defense. and service, all the plans are similar in nature. The workshop attendees unanimously The toolbox is currently on DENIX and is agreed that guidance provided to cultural resource under formal review by cultural resource offices managers to develop ICRMPs should not be a throughout DoD. Once the review comments are "cookie cutter" approach, but consist of a set of reviewed and incorporated, the toolbox will reside tools to help them develop an individual ICRMP on DENIX permanently. Ongoing management specific to their installation's needs. Therefore, per of the toolbox will ensure web links, legislation, the suggestion of one of the attendees, a "toolbox" and other components are updated accordingly. which could provide information and guidance Suzanne Keith Loechl, Master of Landscape Architecture, for developing a plan was developed. and Lucy Whalley, Ph.D., anthropology, are members of Since the workshop, a multi-disciplinary the Land and Heritage Conservation Branch at the team of cultural resource professionals at CERL Environmental Research and Development Center (ERDC)/ Construction Engineering Research Laboratories developed a web-based Integrated Cultural (CERL) in Champaign, Illinois.
8 CRM No 3—2001 Newell Wright, Vista Stewart, Tegan Swain, and Lynn Shreve Using GIS and the Web on Eglin AFB
he Department of Defense, as Due to the existence of historic buildings stewards of military lands, con listed on the National Register of Historic Places, siders cultural resource protec Eglin has established two historic districts. Camp tion a part of its central mission, Pinchot Historic District is a group of historic "the defensTe of the United States - its people, its Forest Service buildings that have been preserved land, and its heritage."* At Eglin Air Force Base, and are currently being used as an integral part of protecting cultural resources includes using the the mission. The Eglin Field Historic District is a newest Geographic Information Systems (GIS) group of buildings constructed during WWII and web technologies. that have been preserved and restored to provide For the past several years, Eglin has incor offices for base personnel serving in administra porated both of these technologies into daily tive, legal, research, and hospital related posi operations for the identification, documentation, tions. The Cultural Resources Management protection, and maintenance of the archeological Office is currently in one of these rehabilitated and historic properties on the base. The GIS is a structures. Eglin is therefore provided with evi mapping, photography, remote sensing, Global dence of a cultural past ranging from prehistoric Positioning System (GPS), and database manage camps to abandoned missile test sites. With ment tool united into a single system and distrib resources this diverse and geographically separate, uted on inter-office and base-wide levels. The electronic technologies provide the most efficient Eglin web page is the base's primary public infor method of location and documentation. mation distribution medium while it has The primary focus of the GIS program is improved the efficiency of various missions. the inventory, evaluation, preservation, and docu Eglin is the largest single land holding air mentation of archeological sites and historic force base in the free world. Consisting of structures. GIS greatly facilitates the mapping, 464,000 acres—720 square miles—it is located recording, and in some instances relocation of in the western region of the Florida panhandle resources across the property that makes up the bordering the Gulf of Mexico. Close proximity to Eglin military installation. Environmental coastal waters and abundant terrestrial resources Management Historic (EMH), the division have made this location attractive to human responsible for historic preservation, worked with inhabitants for thousands of years. Prehistoric site the Florida State Historic Preservation Office types on Eglin AFB include small early Archaic (SHPO) to implement a preservation program temporary campsites to sizeable late Mississippian applicable to Eglin AFB. In the 1980s, EMH villages (7000 B.C.-AD. 1500). conducted quarter section surveys of the base and In addition to prehistoric settlement, Eglin developed a probability model for archeological has a rich history of colonial settlement, pioneer occurrence. The high probability zones were ing homesteads, naval stores, and military activity determined to be primarily within 656 feet and and testing. The first military use of Eglin as an 50 feet in elevation of previous or existing water auxiliary field and bombing and gunnery range resources. Areas of documented activity such as occurred in 1935. Soon after, approximately mills, structures, homesteads, or historic military 300,000 acres were acquired from the properties were also given high testing prece Choctawhatchee National Forest which provided dence. Enhanced GIS planning increases the abil a larger installation for military research and ity to observe inventoried areas where missions development. Evidence of forestry and military are planned, and also to evaluate zones of interest activity is suggested by the remains of homestead to the installation prior to a mission occurring. sites, turpentine camps, historic military struc As a tool of the preservation management tures, laboratories, firing ranges, abandoned mis process, high probability zone maps are available sile testing sites, and simulated villages. base-wide. Point and click menus, similar to
CRM No 3—2001 9 Microsoft Word or Microsoft Excel menus, assist least 50 years old, as well as Cold War structures. the user in creating maps for their projects GIS provides extensive assistance in the inven through a customized Microstation Viewer. tory of these structures by visually representing Mission planners can create composite maps for the properties to be evaluated. Digitized loca locations within the Eglin AFB boundary by tions of historic structures, photos of historic overlaying maps of various streams, test areas, buildings, and database information about build historic buildings, and high probability zones for ings are all part of the GIS. Smart maps contain recovery. There is also a zoom feature which both digitized graphical information, such as highlights only the area slated for activities. In roads and structures, and also imbedded photos this way planners can produce customized maps and database links to the Historic Structures Site from their own computer and print or send these Form. maps over the web to fellow planners and other EMH in consultation with the SHPO is in offices. the process of determining National Register eli EMH works closely with the Natural gibility and significance of these structures. The Resources office during controlled burns and historical structures database was developed simi timber sales to preserve combustible, nonrenew lar to the archeological site form to include easy able, and other at-risk resources across Eglin by entry menu screens. As information about these exchanging maps through the Microstation buildings is entered into the database, it is linked Viewer. The availability of the viewer to the entire to the GIS. To assist the base in planning efforts, Eglin command facilitates information sharing a Historical Structures web page has been posted and increases awareness of resources and pro on the base Intranet. The Eglin Historic motes compliance with protection requirements. Structures web page provides the status of each Mission planners can easily view the area historical building on base and connects to both slated for activities and incorporate resource con the photo library and the GIS mapping. cerns in their strategy. A customized cultural The Eglin Intranet's access is limited to the resources viewer created for EMH expedites Air Force and contains the Historic Structures accessibility to GIS maps and database informa Web Site for managing Eglin's historic structures tion needed to assist other base divisions. as well as the cultural resources management Eglin uses the Trimble Global Positioning plan (CRMP) with hyper links for project plan System to facilitate navigation to known sites, ners. The Eglin Historic Structures web page record new site locations, and document shovel provides identification and current status infor tests locations and results. Data obtained from mation on all of Eglin's historic structures. Access these investigations is then entered into an elec to this web page allows mission planners to tronic database and appended to precise real time obtain the most recent information pertaining to location maps. The Trimble units give a differen historic structures, including management deci tial GPS location reading to within +/- 50 cm. sions regarding long-range mission uses. Each Data downloaded from the field is incorporated structure's evaluation and status are featured on into an Access Database. The information is its own page with links to photos, GIS mapping exported through an Open Database locations, and their National Register significance. Connectivity (ODBC) link to generate Area, Additional links to a consultation page summarize Site, and Artifact maps. This process of elec the SHPO's concurrence or determinations. tronic transfer has improved the accuracy and Preserving Eglin Air Force Base's rich and reliability of the survey and testing outcomes. diverse history requires education at all levels of Existing State of Florida site forms have also the Base community. The Cultural Resource been incorporated electronically allowing EMH Management Program has implemented GIS and to access information from previously investi web technology to promote coordination and gated sites, enter updated information, and cooperation within the Air Force command. GIS record new sites, through easy entry menu allows the easy transfer of maps and information, screens. The GIS system also has the capability between Environmental Management, Civil to link artifact provenience with site location and Engineering, Test Wing, and other tenants on curation records. Eglin AFB. This facilitates the simultaneous Eglin's Historic Structures Program is con goals of preventing mission delays and proactive ducting an inventory of structures that are at preservation. Web technology is promoting
10 CRM No 3—2001 information sharing and training by making per phone: 850-882-8454, act. 203 or by email: tinent information easily accessible. This is espe < wrightn @eglin. afmil>. cially true with the management and preservation Vista Stewart is a GIS/Environmental Engineer with of historic structures. SAIC managing the GIS, Web, and EMH databases for the EMH department at Eglin AFB, Note Tegan Swain is an archeologist currently working as a cul * Cultural Resources in the Department of Defense, R. tural resources specialist on contract to Eglin AFB through Christopher Goodwin & Associates, Inc. for Legacy Colorado State University. Resource Management Program, (1991), 2. Lynn Shreve is an archeologist and is currently a Colorado Newell Wright is the Base Historic Preservation Officer at state employee on contract to Eglin AFB in the cultural Eglin AFB, Florida. Dr. Wright may be reached by tele resources division.
Eugene A. Marino and Michael K. Trimble Stewards of the Past Archeological Collections and the DoD
or over 60 years, federally-sponsored and overcrowded repositories were no longer ade archeology has occupied itself with quate. However, most federal funding for arche one major function—excavation. ology continued to go toward compliance-driven Excavation has taken many forms, excavation and not long-term management of from Fmassive earthmoving ventures to meticulous collections, even though federal laws call for layer-by-layer scrutiny of the past, and has both. Between 1970 and 1990, many collections resulted in the generation of countless artifacts became seriously compromised due to inappro that span prehistoric and historic times. priate storage methods, general neglect, and lack Congress, likewise, has long recognized the of funds. importance of archeological sites on federal lands In September 1991, the National Park and has passed numerous laws, such as the Service released 36 CFR Part 79, a regulation Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979, that established guidelines to be followed by fed that are aimed at protecting these resources. eral agencies to properly curate prehistoric and Although collections from public lands have historic cultural materials and their associated existed since before the beginning of the 20th documents. Shortly after publication of this regu century, those made prior to the 1920s and '30s lation, the Department of Defense (DoD) Legacy were relatively limited in volume. It was not until Resource Management Program entered into an the Great Depression years (1930s) and again agreement with the newly established U.S.Army during the River Basin Survey era (late 1940s Corps of Engineers Mandatory Center of through the mid-1980s) that federally-funded, Expertise for the Curation and Management of compliance-driven archeological projects suc Archeological Collections, located at the Corps' ceeded in creating both a substantial database for St. Louis District, to identify and locate all DoD American archeology and a long-term problem archeological collections, assess their condition, that continues to plague the field today; namely, and estimate the requirements needed for their that the amount of professionally-appropriate long-term management. museum space available for collections storage Identification began with a blanket litera could not keep pace with the level of excavation ture review of all pertinent written information that was being maintained throughout the country. pertaining to archeological work on DoD land; By the early 1970s, the archeological com the hypothesis being that the documents would, munity recognized that outdated storage practices in turn, lead to locating the collections. Though
CRM No 3—2001 11 tedious, the strategy proved effective in locating To date, the DoD response to curation has the 200-plus repositories holding over 18,000 been comprehensive and far reaching. For cubic feet of archeological material and 2,500 lin instance, the agency has developed a national ear feet of associated documents from 196 mili plan to inventory all collections from their lands; tary installations across the country. used the findings of the inventory to illustrate the Once a collection, defined here as artifacts need for better collections management and and associated records, was identified, the next begun to identify professional repositories to steps were to physically visit and inspect the meet these needs; and begun to address rehabili materials and then form recommendations as to tation of its materials so that they can be pre their future curation needs. Information gathered served by professionals, cataloged for easy access, from these phases included collection size and and used by interested researchers. composition—two pieces of information critical Implementation of these steps will help to to understanding specific conservation and long- ensure that DoD archeological collections receive term care requirements of the collection. proper, standardized care by qualified individuals Also gathered was information on the level and will help validate the considerable financial of labeling and extent of processing in order to investment made by the American taxpayer for determine how beatable and accessible a collec archeology by allowing for greater use of the collec tion is and what work has been done and what tions for research and general educational pursuits. work remains to be completed before materials are ready for long-term storage. References Anderson, Lara, Karolyn Kinsey, Eugene A. Marino, Equal emphasis was placed on the examina Jennifer Riordan, Barbara Smoyer, and Kelly H. tion of both artifacts and records during the Wissehr. An Archaeological Curation-Needs inventory process. Documentation is an Assessment of Military Installations in Select Eastern extremely important part of any archeological United States. Technical Report No. 23. Mandatory Center of Expertise for the Curation and collection. If this documentation is not stored Management of Archaeological Collections, U.S. properly, the artifacts become the only tangible Army Corps of Engineers, St. Louis District, 2000. evidence that the site ever existed. Further, if the Felix, Susan S., Amy E. Halpin, Kelly L. Holland, records are not maintained and the artifacts are Eugene A. Marino, Steve McSween, D. Lynn Murdoch, Julia A. Samerdyke, Kenneth L. poorly curated, future research using the artifacts Shingleton, and Sylvia Yu. An Archaeological may be extremely limited if not impossible. Curation-Needs Assessment of Military Installations in Because curation has been neglected, long- Select Western United States. Technical Report No. term management of federal collections has been 20. Mandatory Center of Expertise for the Curation and Management of Archaeological Collections. uneven and collections are often housed in repos U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, St. Louis District, itories that are inadequate for long-term storage. 2000. These facilities may possess staff with training in curatorial practices, but may not possess the nec Eugene A. Marino is an archeologist with the Mandatory essary infrastructure to accommodate the range Center of Expertise for the Curation and Management of Archaeological Collection, U.S. Army Engineer District, of curation needs that some collections require. St. Louis. Similarly, collections located in institutions that purport to be long-term curation facilities may Michael. K. Trimble is an archeologist and the director of still reside in substandard containers. In some the Mandatory Center of Expertise for the Curation and Management of Archaeological Collection, U.S. Army cases these collections have been neglected for Engineer District, St. Louis. decades, remaining untouched since they were excavated. Not all long-term repositories are in such dire straits. In fact, several were visited that serve Acknowledgements as excellent examples of proper curation and col We thank the Department of Defense, lections management. However, until a national Legacy Resource Management Program for strategy for collections management is adopted funding for this research. For more information and the necessary funding is made available, on the DoD Legacy program visit
12 CRM No 3—2001 Cheryl L. Huckerby Fort Hood, Texas CRM in the Home of the Army's Largest Fighting Machines
ort Hood's Cultural Resource agricultural lands used primarily for livestock Management program is an integral grazing. part of the fort's mission to provide Camp Hood formally opened for troop an efficient and effective training training in September 1942 and provided train facilityF through an active program of identifica ing grounds for over 130,000 troops. In the tion, assessment, protection, monitoring, and 1950s, the Department of the Army designated education of cultural resources. The program sus Camp Hood a permanent post, renamed the tains training by providing options that avoid installation "Fort Hood," and acquired approxi impacts to resources and assists in creating a safe mately 50,000 acres concurrently with the acqui training environment by identifying potential sition of land for Belton Lake Reservoir. Over the hazards associated with some resources that need years, Fort Hood has expanded through a series to be avoided, such as historic well and cistern of smaller land acquisitions to accommodate new locations. In addition, Fort Hood's CRM pro equipment and training needs. Today, Fort Hood gram research provides information to military owns all but approximately 6,000 acres adjacent and other landscape users, e.g., geomorphologic to Lake Belton which are leased from the U.S. units, erosion patterns, and relationships between Army Corps of Engineers (ACOE). Fort Hood's locations of past usage areas and the landscape CRM program has oversight responsibility for topography. Most importantly the program sup the entire 220,000 acres. ports the installation's mission by increasing Fort Hood is the largest armored post in the awareness of the presence and importance of cul United States and is home to two armored divi tural resources and by providing a link to identify sions. It is also home to Headquarters III Corps these resources as part of our American heritage Phantom Command and is the primary training that the Department of Army protects. resource for the 49th Armored Division of the Background Texas Army National Guard. Fort Hood supports Fort Hood is located in central Texas, two major airfields, the Robert Gray Army approximately one hour south of Waco and one- Airfield and Hood Army Airfield. hour north of Austin. Its bound Example of Fort aries encompass approximately Hood landscape. Photo by the 220,000 acres (349 square miles) author. of diverse landscape. The terrain is varied with gently rolling, open hills on the west side and 200 to 300 meter (600 to 900 foot) escarpments on the east side. The installation consists of a live fire area, training maneuver areas, and a cantonment. The cantonment borders dense resi dential and commercial develop ment. The majority of the instal lation borders low-density resi dential development and
CRM No 3—2001 13 Projectile point features include rock art, burned rock middens recovered during and mounds, rockshelters, and an identified excavations on Fort Hood. Medicine Wheel. Photo by Ian Fort Hood contains the entire or partial ter McGuire. ritories of 23 dispersed rural communities repre sented by the historic archeological resources, three historic buildings, and 21 pioneer cemeter ies. Historic resources include cattle ranches, farms, community structures, and trash dumps ranging from the 1850s through the military acquisition periods of 1942 and 1953. Pioneer cemeteries and adjacent community sites remain the focus for ethnic identity among former mem bers of these dispersed communities and are cur rently the focus of an oral history project. Operations and Initiatives FTHCRM is integrating cultural resource awareness and hence coordination into the vari ous operational divisions within the installation. Training is conducted on Fort Hood year- First and foremost is obtaining a better under round. Training lands are used for battle readiness standing of training needs, and the operation of in tank and mobile infantry maneuvers, artillery the equipment and its impact on the landscape in firing, helicopter tactical training, and large-scale which the resources are located. Hence mock offensives. Fort Hood's 61,374.9 -acre live FTHCRM has implemented a detailed fire area, impact area, firing ranges, and associ Geographic Information Systems (GIS) program ated facilities accommodate firing of all Army to coordinate all the information FTHCRM has weapons. acquired. The Program Being part of the Environmental Division Since 1978, the Fort Hood Cultural of Fort Hood's Department of Public Works Resource Management Program (FTHCRM) (DPW) has benefited FTHCRM by providing a office has kept pace with training due to a long- large amount of baseline environmental informa range program of identification and testing for tion. The other departments have provided vege National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) eli tation maps, habitat definitions, and hydrological gibility. Successful coordination of cultural maps, which complement the geomorphologic resource conservation and protection with the work FTHCRM has undertaken concurrent with Army's training mission has occurred. Surveys surveys and inventories. By combining the cur identified a total of 2,222 archeological resources rent versions of this information in the GIS, resulting in 99% of training areas and canton FTHCRM is able to track landscape impacts ment plus 71% of the live fire area systematically resulting from proposed training exercises, assess inventoried for archeological cultural resources. if specific resources will be affected and provide This number consists of 1,102 prehistoric arche alternatives to enable implementation of the ological sites inclusive of one Native American training exercises on schedule, thereby not requir sacred resource and 1,120 historic archeological ing postponement for mitigation purposes. For sites. The archeological cultural resource inven example, FTHCRM is entering the locations of tory was completed in 1991. Since then, Fort dig sites requested for different training exercises Hood has implemented National Register eligi into a GIS layer. By overlaying this layer with bility testing for prehistoric archeological training area boundaries and underlying the layer resources that is currently near completion. with digital aerial photographs, FTHCRM is Chronology of the prehistoric material recovered identifying high use areas. With this information, span from 10,000 BP to 700 BP and represent high use areas can be targeted for research and the remains of hunter/gatherer camps, kill sites, identify the best alternative to conserve an arche quarries, and resource processing centers. Other ological resource in situ. This analysis will also
14 CRM No 3—2001 identify those high use areas where data recovery environmental coordinators, during which may be the best option in trade off for resource coordinators and potential coordinators are preservation in situ. briefed on how to comply with regulations that From an operational perspective, require them to avoid impacts to cultural FTHCRM has worked closely with the Natural resources, how to recognize resources in the field Resources program and the Integrated Training so they are able to insure avoidance, and how to Area Management (ITAM) program to provide a obtain the Coordination for Excavation permit. comprehensive map compatible with the existing The soldiers are then taken on a field trip to gain training maps to assist training planners in iden first hand experience in identifying resources in tifying potential environmental coordination the field. Succinct briefings on regulation compli requirements. This map is a restricted document ance and resource avoidance are prepared for signed out to military personnel and comple senior military personnel as well as civilians. ments the Coordination for Excavation Form Upon request, civilian training is provided and that is required for all excavation activities on FTHCRM participates in a variety of environ Fort Hood. To obtain the permit, soldiers are mental and installation activities to promote cul required to visit various offices to provide loca tural resource awareness, such as Earth Day and tion and information on the training exercise Texas Archaeological Awareness month. In 2000, enabling assessment of the proposed exercise FTHCRM sponsored brown bag lunch seminars impacts. By consulting the Coordination for featuring talks on Fort Hood archeology. Excavation map, trainers are able to identify FTHCRM also has established associations with those areas where environmental requirements Mercyhurst College and the University of will be minimal or non-existent, thus expediting Birmingham, United Kingdom, for personnel the coordination process. This reduces the need and research purposes. to go back and forth revising training plans and Active resource protection is a fundamental re-checking with the various environmental and crucial program that includes implementing other DPW offices. The Corps of Engineer's direct protection options such as stabilizing, fenc Construction Engineer's Research Laboratory in ing, burying, and avoiding resources. The type of Champaign, Illinois, is currently developing an protection a resource needs is based on the electronic coordination procedure. potential degradation activities that could affect To assist construction in support of train it. An open campsite, for example, is more likely ing, FTHCRM attends project-planning meet to be run over by tanks than a rockshelter and ings with G3/Range Control engineers, ITAM thus requires different protection measures. project coordinators, and DPWs Engineering However, military degradation is not the only and Planning Services to Cultural identify potential cultural resource field resource impacts early. This activities occur concurrently provides time to identify with military alternatives for project loca training activi tions. If avoidance is not pos ties. Photo by Karl Kleinbach. sible, coordination and any needed mitigation measures must be implemented. Supplementing integra tion and coordination efforts is FTHCRM's expanding education program. An exam ple of this is the awareness training provided for troops. A half day segment is included in the Environ mental Awareness Training Class provided to all unit
CRM No 3—2001 15 degrading activity affecting sites. They are also Hood's mission reflects our Department of the affected by natural actions and man-made degra Army Forces Command's (FORSCOM) mission: dation, such as erosion and looting, respectively. to train, mobilize and deploy combat ready The second component of protection ground forces of America's Total Army to meet addresses all these types of degradation by moni operational requirements of our nation. toring resources to track degradation impacts. FORSCOM is a steward of Army resources, car This enables FTHCRM staff to identify recent ing for soldiers, civilians, retirees and families, military impacts that occurred from a lack of fol and of the high quality installations from which lowing coordination for excavation procedures, we project and support the force. To support this major erosion events, such as heavy rains, and mission, FORSCOM's cultural resources pro man-made degradation, such as looting. This gram initially began in the 1970s at Fort Hood information is then used to implement appropri and at Fort Polk, Louisiana. ate rehabilitation or mitigation measures. In the FORSCOM, headquartered at Fort case of looting, FTHCRM works with the McPherson, Georgia, consists of 11 installations Provost Marshall's Office (PMO) and Criminal scattered about the continental U.S. encompass Investigation Unit (CID) to identify potential ing 2,491,912 acres. Military personnel are rou looters leading to arrest and prosecution. tinely transferred between them to maintain their This collaboration with PMO and CID has readiness training. Hence FORSCOM installa resulted in the third component of protection, tions work close together to insure a level of the implementation of Archaeological Resource homogeneity in program approaches. This helps Protection Act procedures. FTHCRM staff devel produce training continuity in meeting environ oped a standard operating procedure for a mental requirements that help to sustain the response team to investigate active looting at training landscapes. Nevertheless, the CRM pro archeological resources. In cases where potential grams at each installation are distinct because of perpetrators have not been identifiable, a surveil the specific resources for which they are stewards. lance program has been established to regularly Some installations have a preponderance of visit archeological resources where previous loot archeological resources such as Fort Hood while ing activity has been identified. This is enabling others, such as Fort McPherson, consists primar FTHCRM to establish activity patterns and ily of historic buildings. through documenting the damage and collecting Conclusion other evidence in accordance with criminal inves Cultural resources and particularly archeo tigation practices, FTHCRM is establishing the logical sites are a common component of the basis for prosecution when a perpetrator is appre Army's training landscape. Installation programs hended. FTHCRM is also testing different that integrate their preservation efforts with remote surveillance equipment set-ups to training needs, not only insure that America's improve identification of potential perpetrators. Army meets its readiness training requirements, Another protection program under develop but also support stewardship of these resources. ment involves integration with military opera Identifying and assessing the resources and tions. FTHCRM is working with military per exploring options to best meet preservation needs sonnel to develop a digital avoidance map that is accomplish this aim. The military have been downloadable into heavy equipment navigation responsive to the programs by providing feedback systems. The aim is to provide personnel operat on the feasibility of avoidance options and what ing the heavy equipment with a way to efficiently information is most helpful for them to avoid avoid sensitive areas via an alert system tied into resources while training. This cooperative spirit the navigation equipment, which sounds when will enable Fort Hood's Cultural Resource entering a buffer area abutting a sensitive area. Management program to move in new manage Fort Hood within the Department ment directions in the 21st century. of the Army Though FTHCRM supports Fort Hood's Cheryl L. Huckerby, Ph.D., R.P.A., is the staff archeolo- mission, we do not work in isolation. Fort gist and Cultural Resource Program Manager at Fort Hood, Texas.
16 CRM No 3—2001 Stan Berryman NAGPRA Issues at Camp Pendleton
amp Pendleton is located in San pied by the ancestors of the Yuman speaking Diego County, California, along Kumeyaay, who also claim the Camp Pendleton the Pacific Coast and extends area as traditional territory. Cinland for a distance of approxi There are 19 tribal governments with which mately 20 miles. It extends 17 miles from San Camp Pendleton consults. These include six Clemente, California, southward to Oceanside, Luiseno (Pechanga, Pauma, Pala, Rincon, La California, comprising 125,000 acres. It is situ Jolla, and Soboba) and 13 Kumeyaay (San ated between the City of San Diego to the south Pasqual, Mesa Grande, Santa Ysabel, Barona, and Los Angeles to the north and is the only rela Sequan, Viejas, Campo, Manzanita, tively open coastal area within the southern Cosmit/Inaja, Cuyapaipe, La Posta, Jamul, and California megalopolis. Capitan Grande), one Kumeyaay repatriation Camp Pendleton exists to train marines. coalition, one Luiseno repatriation coalition that The base's natural resources are unique and irre is forming, one Luiseno non-federally recognized placeable to the Marine Corps because they com tribe, and three Juaneno non-federally recognized bine a long coastline and extensive, diverse inland tribal governments. ranges and maneuver areas. Camp Pendleton's NAGPRA mission is "to operate an amphibious training The Native American Graves Protection base to promote the combat readiness of operat and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) mandates the ing forces by providing necessary facilities and repatriation of Native American human remains services; to support the deployment of the Fleet and objects possessed or controlled by federal Marine Force and other organizations; and to agencies and museums. It covers items in agency provide support and services responsive to the possession prior to 1990, and items discovered needs of Marines, Sailors and their families." inadvertentently subsequent to 1990. It is the Camp Pendleton's resident population consists of inadvertent discoveries that will be addressed in 50,000 Marines, 15,000 dependent families, and the balance of this article. 3,000 civilian employees The implementing regulations of NAGPRA Archeology mandate a series of steps that can result in project To date, over 80% or 90,000 acres of the delays up to and at times longer than 30 days. non-live fire impact areas have been archeologi- NAGPRA also permits development of a com cally surveyed. The live fire areas consist of prehensive plan of action (comprehensive agree 12,000 acres. Dating from the early Holocene to ment) which is a legally binding equivalent to European contact, 650 sites have been recorded memorandum of agreement. on the Base. There are seven ethnohistoric vil NAGPRA is property rights and human lages recorded for Camp Pendleton. The location rights law. It covers human remains—full burials of four villages has been verified through field or elements of burials, with the exception of nat study. The other three villages have been located urally shed items, associated and unassociated by ethnohistoric study. The types of prehistoric funerary objects, sacred objects, and objects of sites on the base include shell middens, milling cultural patrimony. Inadvertent discoveries are sites, residential bases, quarries, and rock art. those remains and objects found during an activ Tribal Territories ity or project action including archeological Camp Pendleton is located in the tradi excavations. tional territory of the Juaneno and Luiseno To date, there have been 17 inadvertent dis Tribes. Most likely these Shoshonean speakers coveries involving three major military construc were one tribe prior to the intrusion of the tion projects on Camp Pendleton. They have Spanish. It has been estimated that they arrived included complete burials, human bone frag in the area about 2,000 years before the present. ments, and ceremonial and funerary objects. Prior to that time, the area may have been occu
CRM No 3—2001 17 There have been seven NAGPRA consulta • Treatment of items identified in the laboratory tions on Camp Pendleton involving representa and during analysis tives of up to 19 federally recognized tribal gov • Treatment of items if further archeological ernments, four non-federally recognized tribal excavation is required governments, and tribal legal representatives. The • Notification and disposition of inadvertent meetings have varied in size from six to 30 tribal discoveries representatives; up to 150 days in project delays; • Dispute resolution, amendments, and confi preparation of five individual plans of actions; dentiality over 800 hours of Marine Corps and Naval Identification of points of contact is the key Facilities Engineering Command (NAVFAC) element of the agreement. The appointed tribal staff time; and hundreds of hours of uncompen representatives and the government archeologists sated Native American time. Camp Pendleton will form a rapid response team to shorten the staff time consists of initial determination of the consultation time and to provide for an expedited discovery, contacts with the tribes and notifica decision tree. The time between a discovery until tions, development of background information, the consultation occurs will be seven days. determination of affiliation, conduct of consulta The tribal signatories to the agreement will tion, development of a plan of action and news appoint a total of two points of contact (POCs) paper notices, repatriation preparation of reburial and two alternatives. The POCs for Camp site, and assistance in reburial if requested. Pendleton will be the Base archeologist and the Camp Pendleton's approach to inadvertent NAVFAC archeologist. Currently when there is discoveries has been to follow the NAGPRA reg an inadvertent discovery, the Base calls each tribal ulations, conduct the consultations in a non- government, the Kumeyaay coalition, and the confrontational atmosphere, take field visits to non-recognized tribes. Within three days, this is the locations of the discoveries, and develop a followed up with a letter to each tribal govern mutually agreeable plan of action. ment with a date, time, and place for a consulta Developing a Comprehensive Plan tion meeting. The time lag between discovery Camp Pendleton and NAVFAC entered and action in the field can take over 30 days. into a cooperative agreement/contract with two Under this agreement, the Base will contact the tribal governments (one Luiseno and one tribal POCs who will contact the individual Kumeyaay) to provide program management, tribal governments. The consultation meeting meeting facilitation, and elder consultation. between the government and tribal representa There were monthly working group meetings to tives will occur within seven days. The consulta address concerns of the tribes and Camp tion will determine further action and treatment Pendleton over a nearly two-year period. The based on the procedures within the agreement. result of these meetings has been a draft compre The POCs will serve to better facilitate the treat hensive agreement that covers future inadvertent ment and ultimate repatriation of the human discoveries. remains. The goal has been to develop a comprehen Expectations sive agreement that will allow the Base and the The implementation schedule is as follows: tribes to achieve the aims of NAGPRA within a • Complete legal review of the agreement docu timely manner and in an atmosphere of mutual ment by the end of 2000 (accomplished). respect. The final draft comprehensive agreement • All involved parties will agree to the plan by is currently under review. The elements of the May 2001. final draft agreement include: • Appoint POCs by mid-year 2001 • Definitions It is expected that the Comprehensive • Affiliation determination Agreement will result in smoother consultations • Points of contact and a better response to inadvertent discoveries • Treatment of inadvertent discoveries discov on Camp Pendleton. ered during construction or routine activities • Treatment of inadvertent discoveries identified Stan Berryman is Archaeological Resources Branch Head during archeological field work at Camp Pendleton, California. He has 28 years experi ence in cultural resource management directing projects • Treatment of items not positively identified as throughout the United States. human remains or cultural objects
18 CRM No 3—2001 Andrew R. Sewell, Stephen C. Wagner, Ryan J. Howell, Wendell P. Greek, and Karyn L. Caldwell CRM at Fort McCoy, Wisconsin
ort McCoy is a U.S. Army Reserve 1994, an integrated cultural resources manage Command installation situated on ment approach has been used to coordinate the 60,000 acres in west central actions and decisions of archeologists, land man Wisconsin. Indigenous peoples agers, and environmental specialists with military have occupieFd the Fort McCoy bioregion begin trainers and master planners. The integration of ning nearly 10,000 years before the present, management decisions reflecting the needs and including Paleoindian, Archaic, Woodland, and actions of installation managers on the landscape Oneota cultures. The Ho-Chunk Nation is the has been greatly facilitated by the development of only federally recognized Native American tribe a Geographical Information Systems (GIS) envi culturally affiliated with the installation today. ronment and successfully merging the GIS plat European-American settlers arrived in the mid- form into installation long-term planning. This 19th century, transforming the landscape for achievement has transformed archeology on Fort agriculture. Fort McCoy was established in 1908 McCoy, creating an efficient, planned response to as an Army field artillery range, and has served a the Army's changing needs for land use while major role in every American military conflict ensuring cultural resource law compliance. since World War I, training over 175,000 Army Program Overview Reserve, National Guard, and Marine Reserve The U. S. Army's goals include the practical troops annually. Thus the landscape constituting concerns of training for combat readiness while present-day Fort McCoy is an area of unique cul maintaining a well-developed program of natural tural continuity that spans more than 10,000 and cultural resources management. The Fort years and has been home to indigenous peoples, McCoy cultural resources management (CRM) early settlers, and military personnel. program has served as the primary means for Archeological surveys have been conducted achieving the installation goals of promoting over the Fort McCoy landscape since the 1970s, sound environmental stewardship while support with focused National Historic Preservation Act ing Army mission requirements. The presence of compliance work dominating since the mid- an "in-house" CRM program has allowed instal 1980s. Early archeological surveys were con lation land management programs to establish ducted as needed until a full-time professional and maintain long-term, cost-effective manage archeologist was hired in 1993, and a formal cul ment methods, such as predictive models and tural resources program was established. Since management plans, based on cultural landscape management. Field technician At Fort McCoy, the CRM program is Claudia Schugel paired with the Natural Resource Management recording data Program under the Directorate of Training and from one of the prehistoric sites Mobilization (DTM) as the Biological and at Fort McCoy. Cultural Resources Management Team Photo by Ryan (BCRMT). This integration has allowed the Howell. development of internal operating procedures that permit rapid consultation between program managers and installation training staff, resulting in the efficient sharing of important data and rapid response to requests for environmental clearances in support of the installation training mission. What sets the Fort McCoy CRM program apart from other DoD installation CRM pro grams across the nation is the availability of a
CRM No 3—2001 19 trained specialist for each of the broad classes of The Fort McCoy staff archeologists' dedica cultural resources found at Fort McCoy. tion to their discipline is evident in their Within the last three years, prehistoric acknowledgement of their professional responsi archeologists have formally surveyed 1,090 acres bility to disseminate the results of their work. in advance of training, construction, and timber Fort McCoy archeologists have presented six pro harvests, which represents 7% of the total instal fessional papers at regional and national confer lation area designated as "high probability" for ences within the last year, and are currently archeological sites, and brings the total percent preparing articles for publication in professional age of installation land surveyed to 26%. An journals. Staff archeologists have also given pre additional 760 acres were surface surveyed fol sentations to local historical societies and a copy lowing a windstorm that severely damaged several of the four-volume report for the historic home areas of the installation in 1998. Over 61 miles of stead project was donated to the Monroe County roads, vehicle paths, and trails also have been History Room, which will also feature a display recently surveyed in conjunction with the of artifacts found by local volunteers during Training Area Restoration Program. Fourteen recent installation mill project excavations. new prehistoric sites and 108 isolated finds were Conclusion identified as a result of these recent surveys. In The Fort McCoy Archaeology Laboratory addition to new site identification and evaluation supports the Fort McCoy mission by rapidly surveys, archeologists have evaluated 30 sites pre responding to requests for training area NHPA viously identified by short-term contract projects, compliance surveys for new construction and but which had remained unevaluated. Because all training projects, while ensuring that data from unevaluated sites are considered eligible for the their surveys are incorporated into the archeolog National Register, thus requiring protection, a ical and historical records of west central "backlog" of such sites represents a considerable Wisconsin. The current program strives to main investment in protection strategies and land-use tain the Army's standards and goals of land stew restrictions. The 30 recently evaluated sites repre ardship, accomplish high quality, useful research, sent a reduction of 70% of the backlog, accumu and meet the practical daily needs of a large mili lated from years of identification surveys. tary installation. The Fort McCoy Archaeology Fort McCoy's historic resources have Laboratory's integrated management approach recently received similar attention. During the ensures a cost-effective balance between the 1999 field season, over 100 installation historic installation's mission requirements and the careful homestead sites were documented and evaluated stewardship of Fort McCoy's cultural heritage. for National Register eligibility. This project This article was supported in part by an resulted in one of the largest and most thorough appointment to the Environmental Management evaluations of historic homesteads within the Participation Program for the U. S. Army state of Wisconsin. During the 2000 field season, Environmental Center (USAEC) administered by the Fort McCoy CRM program also investigated the Oak Ridge Institute for Science and a 19th-century saw and grist mill and associated Education through an agreement between the village. The excavation was accomplished with an U.S. Department of Energy and USAEC. all-volunteer crew under the supervision of the staff historic archeologist. Andrew R. Sewell, RPA, a former post-graduate intern in During the same time period, Fort McCoy the Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education pro gram at Fort McCoy Archaeology Laboratory (FMAL), is architectural historians documented and evalu now a principal investigator at the archeology division of ated all of the approximately 1,200 buildings and Hardlines Design Company, Columbus, Ohio. structures located within the boundaries of the Stephen C. Wagner is the FMAL field supervisor. installation. The documentation was converted to a digital PDF format, enabling installation man Ryan J. Howell is a post-graduate intern in the Oak Ridge agers to "click" on a building footprint located on Institute for Science and Education program at FMAL. an installation street map and bring up the his Wendell P. Greek, RPA, is the United States Army Reserve toric documentation for that building. Cultural Resources Program Manager. Documentation includes photographs, historic Karyn L. Caldwell, RPA, is FMAL Cultural Resources use data, and architectural descriptions. Program Manager.
20 CRM No 3—2001 Marie G. Cottrell, Uyen K. Doan, and Rhys M. Evans Rock Art Sites at Marine Air Ground Task Force Training Command
he Marine Corps Air Ground approximately three linear kilometers of rock art Combat Center, home to the applied to the southern face of a large lava flow Marine Air Ground Task Force located in the central/eastern portion of the Training Command, is located installation. The rock art at this site is unusual in theT southern Mojave Desert, one of the hottest because it has both petroglyphs (images and driest deserts in North America. It is the scratched, pecked, or chiseled into rock surfaces) Marine Corps' largest training facility, occupying and pictographs (images painted on rock sur Photos courtesy Marine Air 935 square miles (approximately 600,000 acres). faces). The site consists of five areas where rock Ground Task Currently, over 1,200 recorded archeologi- art concentrations occur along the lava flow. The Force Training cal sites have been identified. The most visible of site has over 450 rock art panels and over 1,300 Command. its prehistoric resources are the rock art sites. To design elements present in the five defined areas. date, there are three recorded rock art sites Foxtrot contains rock art styles common to both located within the installation boundaries. A the Great Basin and southern California deserts. fourth has been located, but has not yet been Great Basin abstract is the predominant style rep completely recorded. With approximately 15% resented. The common abstract motifs are cross- of the installation inventoried for cultural hatching, wavy lines, circles, concentric circles, resources, the potential exists for many more and meandering lines. Additionally, anthropo rock art sites to be found as surveys continue. morphic and zoomorphic figures are common. The first rock art site recorded on the base The unique blend of different styles and motifs is the Foxtrot Petroglyph Site. The site, CA-SBR- at Foxtrot indicates use by Native Americans for 161, documented in 1979,1 was listed in the ceremonial or ritual purposes over many cen National Register of Historic Places in February turies, making the site a truly unique resource. 1995. The Foxtrot Petroglyph Site encompasses The second recorded rock art site is the Lavic Lake petroglyph site, CA-SBR-7898, Common abstract motifs at located in the northern sector of the base. Unlike the Foxtrot Foxtrot, this site is located in a basalt boulder Petroglyph Site. field and includes pecked and incised images. Bisected circles, meandering lines, rakes, rectan gular grids, and a pattern of interlocking trian gles are found on the panels at this site. Documentation2 for this site identified 55 boul ders with 63 glyphs. Although not large, it is an important resource that provides information on the variability of rock art styles, elements, and motifs found in the desert west. The third recorded rock art site, the Cleghorn Pass Site, was found in April 1998, by biologists conducting surveys of sensitive plant species in remote areas of the base. Dropped off by helicopter at the crest of the Bullion Mountains, biologists were making their way down a major drainage when they discovered a single boulder covered with petroglyphs. The find was reported, and cultural resources staff flew by helicopter to the location to record the site.
CRM No 3—2001 21 ters "WB" carved into it. The south face has a sin gle amorphous, pecked glyph. The second feature at this site is of the same igneous material as the rock art boulder and is located about two meters east of the latter. It is an unshaped, tabular, and unifacially ground millingstone. Additionally, a plain pottery sherd and a single chert core were found in close prox imity. The site area showed no signs of military activity; however, an early historic mining camp dating to the late 1800s/early 1900s is located adjacent to the rock art boulder. Rock art is one of the most difficult media to document. Elements and portions of elements are visible or not depending on light and weather The Lavic Lake Designated CA-SBR-9768, the Cleghorn conditions as well as perceptions on the part of Petroglyph site Pass site is located at the western end of a small the recorder. Therefore, with each episode of is located in a secondary drainage near the southern terminus of basalt boulder inventory or recordation, a different perception in field. the central Bullion Mountains. This minor the number and kinds of elements present is gen drainage converges with a larger, northeast- erated and it is often difficult to reconcile the trending seasonal drainage that enters a major findings. It is, therefore, also difficult to compare wash some 2.5 km northeast of the site. It should various rock art sites effectively. be noted that this wash co-joins with other In looking at the three rock art sites at the washes to form the major wash that borders the Combat Center, the most obvious difference is in Foxtrot site on the south. Situated among granitic their setting or landscape; from a cliffed lava flow, hills and outcrops, the two igneous boulders that to a boulder field, to an isolated boulder in a comprise the site appear to be out of place. remote location high in the mountains. While Nearby are a number of ephemeral waterfalls and Foxtrot and Lavic Lake are easily accessible, natural water tanks {tinajas) that attract a number Cleghorn Pass is remote and entails a difficult of animals when water is present. Elevations in climb. Rock art expressions are highly visible at this part of the Bullion Mountains range from Foxtrot and may be considered as part of the 2,400 to 4,000 feet and the site is located at the "public" realm. Rock art at Lavic Lake and 3,060-foot elevation. Cleghorn Pass, however, is not as evident. The The main archeological feature at the Cleghorn Pass site consists of a large boulder dis Pattern of inter locking triangles playing petroglyphs, images pecked into the rock found at the surface on three sides of the boulder. Additionally Lavic Lake Site. the top of the boulder has been ground flat and a cross glyph pecked onto its surface. Five cupules—small, bowl like depressions—have also been pecked and ground along the edge of the top of the boulder. The boulder measures approxi mately 1.0m in height and 1.25m at the base. The east face of the boulder exhibits about 20 petroglyph elements, including two animal figures that appear to be "lizards." The other glyphs are all abstract and consist primarily of circles and curved connected lines and are considered typical of Great Basin Abstract and Curvilinear design elements.^ Differential repatination among the glyphs indicates that there were at least three sepa rate episodes of inscription. The north face of the boulder has three amorphous glyphs and the let
22 CRM No 3—2001 The main feature Lavic Lake petroglyphs are at the Cleghorn located on a limited number of Pass sites con sists of a single boulders within a larger boulder boulder with field. There, if you did not know petroglyphs on where to look, you would not its surface. know that they are there. Cleghorn Pass rock art is very visible, but is remote and diffi cult to access. The latter two sites can thus be characterized as part of the private or secret realm. Foxtrot is the largest site with the greatest number of ele ments and as expected appears to span the greatest length of time. Looking at repatination as a relative mea rock art styles, elements, and motifs found on the sure of age, Foxtrot has some glyphs that are so base and in the region. All three sites demonstrate heavily repatinated as to be virtually indistin the range of environments used by Native guishable from the parent material and are, thus, Americans and offer an unparalleled view into probably many thousands of years old. As there the range and depth of Native American tradi are habitation sites in the vicinity of Foxtrot that tional practices unavailable through other records are 7,500 to 7,000 years old, it is possible that or artifacts. some of the rock art is equally as old. The remaining glyphs vary in their degree of repatina Notes 1 tion from moderate to light indicating fairly con Daniel F. McCarthy, The Foxtrot Rock Art Site, CA- SBr-161, Twentynine Palms Marine Corps Base, tinuous applications over time. The Lavic Lake San Bermardino County, California. Unpublished petroglyph site, if related to habitation sites report for U.S. Marine Corps, Twentynine Palms, found in the surrounding vicinity, could date to California (1979). between 3,500 and 1,500 years ago. The degree 2 Meg McDonald, J. Jeffery Flennikan and Daniel F. of repatination of glyphs at this site appears rela McCarthy, Evaluation of Prehistoric Resources at tively equal connotating inscription within a rela Pisgah Crater Lava Flows and Lavic Lake, Marine tively discrete time frame. The Cleghorn Pass site Corps Air Ground Combat Center, San Bernardino has relatively little repatination visible; however, County, California. Unpublished report for U.S. Marine Corps, Twentynine Palms, California there is sufficient visual evidence that glyphs were (1996). applied to the rock surface on at least three sepa 3 Robert F. Heizer and Martin A. Baumhoff, rate occasions, possibly over a number of decades. Prehistoric Rock Art of Nevada and Eastern Inasmuch as historic Native American peo California (Berkeley, University of California Press, ples of interior western North America generally 1962). do not admit knowledge of the purpose or mean ing of rock art designs, numerous interpretations Marie G. Cottrell received her Ph.D. in anthropology have been offered regarding their function. Some from UCLA in 1991. She is the Cultural Resources Manager for the Marine Air Ground Task Force Training researchers propose that rock art sites in the Command (MAGTFTC), Twentynine Palms, California. region were related to hunting of large game, for example acquiring hunting magic. Others have Uyen K. Doan is the senior staff archeologist, associated rock art with vision quests, expressions MAGTFTC. She is currently working on her M. S. of interrelated beliefs, and rites of passage. The Degree in Anthropology at the University of California, Foxtrot site with its numerous and graphically Riverside. different styles and motifs offers the opportunity to develop a comparative database against which Rhys M. Evans obtained a BS degree in Wildlife Management from Humboldt State University in 1991. other sites can be compared. The Lavic Lake and He served in the U.S. Peace Corps (Poland) as a national Cleghorn Pass sites, although much smaller, pro park advisor before starting employment at MAGTFTC vide additional information on the variability of in 1996.
CRM No 3—2001 2} Laurie J. Lucking Preservation and Partnerships Sacred Places on Army Lands in Hawaii
he 25th Infantry Division Light cultural places, such as this heiau near the Makua and U. S. Army, Hawaii Military Reservation. (USARHAW) is comprised of 28 In 1998, the Installation began a process to sub-installations covering open the Ukanipo Heiau site to native Hawaiian 161,00T0 acres on the islands of Hawaii and religious practitioners under the American Indian Oahu. These lands, hereinafter referred to as the Religious Freedom Act of 1978. A National Installation, include six active training ranges and Register site complex covering 105 acres, it is three large cantonment areas. The training ranges located outside the active training area at the contain over 400 archeological sites, two of Makua Military Reservation (Reservation) on which (Ukanipo Heiau and Hanakaoe Heiau) are land leased from the State of Hawaii. The on the National Register of Historic Places. The Reservation, composed of two valleys, Makua sub-installations of Fort Shafter and Wheeler and Kahanahaiki, consists of fee-simple lands, Army Airfield each contain a National Historic ceded lands, and lands leased from the State of Landmark district. Schofield Barracks and Hawaii. Because of the complex land issues that Kilauea Military Camp each contain a large affect site access and management, a cooperative National Register of Historic Places district. In effort was envisioned between the native all, there are 750 buildings listed on or deter Hawaiian community in the Waianae/Makua mined eligible for the National Register and two area, the State of Hawaii as landowner, and the archeological sites. Army as land-user. The goal was to give the Many of the sites on installation lands can native Hawaiian community curatorial oversight be classified as either traditional cultural places or of the Heiau with financial and personnel sup sacred sites, areas important to the native port from the Army under the State Custodial Hawaiian population as traditional religious, Management Program. hunting, gathering, and fishing areas. These sites In March 1998, the Army asked the native "Opening" cere mony for include shrines, temples or heiau, taro fields or Hawaiian community to provide volunteers to sit Ukanipo Heiau, lot, and natural areas having religious signifi on a Ukanipo Heiau Advisory Board that would March 23, 1998. cance. These sites also include "new" traditional be responsible for drawing up: • a site stabilization plan, • a site access and use plan, and • a long-term management and maintenance plan. Per the request of the native Hawaiian com munity, the Army agreed to allow them to choose a Native Hawaiian, who would be a paid consul tant, to be the leader or facilitator of the group. On March 23, 1998, the Heiau was officially "opened" in a ceremony, allowing members of the community to visit the site for the first time in 50 years. In 1998, the Ukanipo Heiau Advisory Council O Wahipana O Makua, was formed, consisting of 14 members of the Waianae/Leeward Coast community and advisors from the Army and the State of Hawaii Historic Preservation Division. The members from the community represented families with ancestral
24 CRM No 3—2001 the programmatic agreement with input from the Hawaii State Historic Preservation Office, the U.S. Army Garrison, Hawaii, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Pacific Ocean Division. On October 12, 2000, all of the parties signed the programmatic agreement for the management of Ukanipo Heiau. Under the terms of the pro grammatic agreement, the Installation • recognizes the Ukanipo Heiau Advisory Council O Wahipana O Makua as the stewards of the site, • guarantees access to the Ukanipo Heiau site complex, • agrees to provide all maps, survey reports, pho tographs, and other survey materials for the Heiau to the Ukanipo Council, • agrees to aid in site maintenance activities After action ties to Makua, as well as interested organizations including stabilization of stone structures, review of such as Malama Makua, Koa Mana, and the building a fence, and providing water for land detonation of kupu'o ka'aina O Wai'anae. 500-pound scaping, and bomb by Native Beginning in August 1998, five World • agrees to complete a survey of archeological Hawaiians and War II-era bombs, ranging in size from 100 to EOD, Makua. 1,000 pounds, were discovered within the site features associated with the Heiau. complex over a four-month period while survey The Ukanipo Heiau Advisory Council O ing and mapping the site. After six months of Wahipana O Makua agrees to intense consultation between the Army, the • maintain the landscaping and erosion control native Hawaiian community and the State of features, Hawaii, these bombs were successfully detonated • monitor effects of site use, develop interpretive while minimizing impact to the site. The detona and educational programs, and tions took place on three separate occasions. The • implement access and cultural protocols. Ukanipo Council worked closely with the explo The State of Hawaii agrees to sive experts to determine how to avoid site ele • serve in a technical assistance capacity on all ments during detonation. Several members vol aspects of preservation, and unteered to accompany the unexploded ordnance • act as a conduit for other State of Hawaii agencies. detail (EOD) to inspect the bomb locations prior The Ukanipo Council is now overseeing the to detonation and to designate important sites implementation of the management plan. that needed to be avoided. The Army provided Because of the successful establishment of helicopter support and personnel who took mea the Ukanipo Council, the Installation has since sures to cover portions of the sites to protect 1999 hired two native Hawaiians to participate them against bomb fragments. Almost all of the in the Traditional Cultural Places Surveys at members of the Ukanipo Council were present Makua Military Reservation, Schofield Barracks, during each pre-detonation site preparation, each and Pohakuloa Training Area. Informal partner detonation, and post-detonation site inspection ships have also been established with Hawaiian to ascertain damage. The EOD subsequently civic clubs, other native Hawaiian organizations, located and detonated 81 other smaller pieces of and families and individuals from various com unexploded ordnance. munities to help the Installation identify and manage sites. A public outreach program also is Beginning in January 1999, the Ukanipo being developed to permit native Hawaiians, Council met every two weeks to work on the for especially the kupuna, or elders, to tour archeo mation of a programmatic agreement for the logical sites as safety permits. management of the Heiau. They examined the maps prepared by the archeologists that had sur Laurie J. Lucking is the Cultural Resources Program veyed the site, discussed details of cultural proto Manager for the U.S. Army Garrison, Hawaii. col and access, and discussed initial planting and landscaping plans. The Ukanipo Council wrote Photos by the author.
CRM No 3—2001 25 Vicki S. Best, Gregory A. Fasano, and Richard W. Arnold From Sacred Sites to Stealth Bombers Bridging Cross-Cultural Boundaries
he Native American Interaction groups could have been as challenging as break Program (NAIP) at the Nellis ing the military code of silence. However, this Air Force Base (NAFB) has com unique collection of tribal representatives has pleted its fifth year of interactive learned to work together to achieve their goals. culturaTl consultations with 17 American Indian For the past 10 years, these tribes located in tribes and one Indian organization that represents Nevada, Arizona, California, and Utah have con Indian people throughout the southern Nevada verged to work with several federal agencies. area. Since 1995, Science Applications They now call themselves the Consolidated International Corporation (SAIC) has managed Group of Tribes and Organizations (CGTO). and coordinated the NAIP for NAFB and its By holding a large general meeting at associated three-million-acre training range. This NAFB in the spring of each year, tribal represen program combines science and culture in an tatives from each of the 18 entities and NAFB effort to understand those who have gone before personnel are able to come together and discuss us. By embarking on this task, NAFB faces chal the direction for the NAIP. At the conclusion of lenges that are in stark contrast to the day-to-day each meeting, the tribal representatives meet in a training mission of this distinct military installa private executive session to formulate recommen tion. How does one convey to an Air Force Wing dations to the NAFB. This front-line program Commander that the Indian people believe that has led to the involvement of Indian people in the air above NAFB is alive, Location of the Nellis Air Force and military jet crashes are Range and asso caused when planes fly ciated Native through pockets of spiritually American ethnic groups. Photo dead air damaged from radia courtesy Science tion originating from "angry Applications rocks"? Such is an example of International Corporation the diverging perspectives (SAIC). that emerge when the two worlds of the Air Force and the Indian people intersect. Seventeen tribes and one Indian organization with demonstrated cultural and historic ties to the southern Nevada area were invited to participate in the NAIP. The program is comprised of Indian people of Southern Paiute (seven tribes), Western Shoshone (four tribes), Owens Valley Paiute (five tribes), and Mojave (one tribe) ethnic origin, as well as the Las Vegas Indian Center. Working with this many
26 CRM No 3—2001 Southern Paiute the preparation of the NAFB Legislative representative Environmental Impact Statement for training discussing pos sible interpreta range land renewal, Native American Graves tions of rock art Protection and Repatriation Act consultations, in Wellington and the review of numerous environmental Canyon. Photo courtesy SAIC. reports. By working together, tribal representa tives have made specific recommendations that have resulted in plans and actions that promote cultural and environmental stewardship of the lands comprising the Nellis Air Force Range (NAFR). One of the first initiatives under the NAIP was to conduct a Native American ethnography project. The project was designed to include interviews of knowledgeable Indian elders and was driven by Executive Order 13007, which affirms identification, protection, and access to American Indian sacred sites located on federal lands. The Indian people maintain a holistic per spective of the world that must be considered when speaking of sacred sites. One Western Shoshone member offered up this summary: It's important to understand the indigenous To expand on this project, each year NAFB perspective of the world around us and our funds small subgroups of tribal members, holistic way of thinking. As Indian people we appointed by the CGTO, to visit various cultural are tied to the land, air, and water. All ele resource areas on the NAFR. These site visits ments of the world, animate and inanimate, allow tribal representatives to access areas that are functionally integrated. The water, air, have not been utilized by Indian people for more rocks, plants, animals and people are con nected. The change in one element changes than 50 years. The tribal representatives are the other elements. The significance of a familiar with much of the land through stories sacred site can not be reduced to just the rock and songs having been passed down from earlier cliff with the petroglyphs. Its significance is generations. Tribal representatives are able to interrelated with the creek within the canyon, view the conditions of the cultural resource areas the trout in the creek, the pinyon pine trees, and offer suggestions on ways to protect and pre the juniper, the bighorn sheep, the birds, and serve the land. Indian people have a complex so on. understanding of ecosystem management with The information recorded served as the deep religious overtones. By having the opportu building blocks for a successful program that nity to visit these areas, tribal members have been continues today. For example, one of the elders able to offer prayers that in their view help to interviewed remembered when the airplanes orig restore the natural balance of the area. At the inally started flying in the area. Another person conclusion of each trip, the participants prepare a remembered visiting the Stonewall Mountains on report and recommendations to document their horseback after the land was withdrawn for mili findings. The information gained may then be tary purposes in the 1940s. These individuals also used as a basis for additional ethnographic studies shared information on the foods that were col and active Air Force land management and lected, the medicines that were used, and the cer preservation efforts. emonies that were conducted in conjunction An example of this process occurred when with the lands that currently encompass the an extensive ethnographic study was conducted NAFR. Efforts such as these are examples of the on the Pintwater Cave and Wellington Canyon paramount initiative shown by NAFB in recog areas on the NAFR. A subgroup of Indian elders nizing that Indian people need a forum to be able visited the Pintwater Cave area in January 1997, to come forward and communicate with federal and a second group visited the Wellington agencies. Canyon area in February 1998. The sites were
CRM No 3—2001 27 documented as sacred sites and recommendations pretations. What may have been viewed as an were made to the NAFB that the areas be pro adversarial relationship by some has actually led tected from disturbance. These areas and their to a truly collaborative approach to archeology extensive rock art panels are viewed as being and the development of mutual friendships. extremely important to the Indian people and a These efforts have allowed NAFB and the arche recommendation was made for additional ethno ological community to gain significant insight graphic studies. NAFB responded to these rec into Native American culture and beliefs. ommendations by instituting measures to protect During an archeological field sampling pro and preserve the locations and by issuing a con ject conducted in 1999 in the Kawich Mountains tract for additional ethnographic work. on the northern reaches of the Nellis Range, In October 1999, SAIC teamed with the Native American monitors identified an area that University of Arizona, Tucson-Bureau of Applied they described as an "adverse ceremonial area." Research in Anthropology to conduct the ethno The monitors reported feeling something was graphic research. Indian elders and knowledge "not quite right" as they viewed the area in ques able tribal representatives were brought to the tion. Further investigation later revealed that an field for interviews. Pintwater Cave is believed to Indian family from a nearby area had indeed have uses that may be associated with hunting, practiced bad medicine at this site, intending to medicine, or prayer. The interviewees offered dif cause great harm to others. The monitors offered fering interpretations of the area with one mem a traditional prayer and appropriate offerings and ber stating, have requested that a spiritual leader be brought to the location to restore balance to the area. This is a power spot for vision seeking. This is definitely a medicine spot. I also believe this The CGTO may not be supportive of the is a man's [medicine man] spot. complete mission of the NAFB due to environ mental concerns, but they commend NAFB on Another elder stated, its commitment to preserve and protect the [They] came for different reasons; vision- numerous cultural resources the training range questing, wishing, [using] artifacts as payment entails. Of the many cultures that exist in the for the wish. This cave has more power than United States, the culture of Native peoples is the others. commonly overlooked and all too often forgot Tribal representatives also offered varying ten. At the NAFB, government and Native interpretations of the rock art in Wellington American representatives have intertwined, lead Canyon, which consists of both petroglyphs and ing to a revised realm of thinking that strives to pictographs. One male elder stated that unlock the mysteries of the past and preserve the Wellington Canyon is a place of many religious cultural and spiritual landscape for tomorrow's drawings and thinks "most of them are thank-you generations. kinds of drawings" made by those who offered thanks to the Spirit for success or good fortune. Vicki S. Best is an environmental scientist with SAIC in Las Vegas, Nevada. Another representative felt the place was used annually by Indian people for "doctoring pur Gregory A. Fasano is Senior Project Manager with SAIC poses or where they gathered to test their powers in Las Vegas, Nevada. against each other." The results of these efforts provide NAFB with valuable information to Richard W Arnold is Executive Director of the Las Vegas assist in its land management and trust responsi Indian Center in Las Vegas, Nevada. He is a Southern bility to the involved tribes and organizations in Paiute and spokesperson for CGTO. accordance with cultural and Native American regulations. To commemorate Nevada Archaeology NAFB has also instituted a program Week, May 13-19, 2001, a full-color poster whereby Native American monitors are employed titled "Native Americans and Archaeology" was to work with archeological field crews as surveys prepared in honor of the Nellis AFB Native are conducted on the NAFR. The monitors have American Interaction Program. The poster been trained to assist in the study efforts and are depicts Native Americans participating in cul intimately involved in the fieldwork. Monitors tural resource management efforts on the Nellis often walk transects, flag sites, and record inter Range.
28 CRM No 3—2001 Julie L. Webster and Gordon L. Cohen Military Aircraft Hangars Footprints through a Century of Flight
hen international conflict The Threat to Hangars threatens national security, On military installations today these spa the U.S. military response is cious, magnificent buildings are rapidly being unmistakable. On the lead subdivided or consumed wholesale to serve ing edgWe of U.S. military power is aviation tech diverse functions, such as research facilities, nology—an ever-diversifying arsenal of tactical offices, and gymnasiums. Their structural clear and strategic aircraft that play a key role in the spans provide facility designers a "clean slate" of operations of every military service. Since the first open, highly adaptable space for consolidating military application of air power almost a century multiple functions previously housed in smaller ago, aviation technology has rapidly advanced to separate buildings. While adaptability is highly meet formidable new mission demands. The avia valued as the Department of Defense (DoD) tion technology revolution has not only left its works to reduce its building inventory, histori permanent imprint on global politics, it has also cally significant architecture can accidentally be left its footprints across the American landscape. marred or lost in the tumult of short-term budget The history of U.S. aviation can be read to a great pressures. If a targeted hangar is at least 50 years extent in the function, form, and style of its air old or is thought to have exceptional historic field architecture. importance, its significance must be reviewed in A military airfield's "alpha" structure is the accordance with the National Historic aircraft hangar. Typically, the earliest ones were Preservation Act (NHPA). To efficiently conduct humble structures, little more than sheds these reviews, facility and cultural resource man intended to keep these new flying contraptions agers need accessible, reliable historic and archi sheltered from the elements. However, aeronauti tectural information to help determine the signif cal engineers and pilots relentlessly pushed the icance of hangars. envelope in military air power, creating faster and The Construction Engineering Research Oldest identifiable more powerful flying machines—and lots of Laboratory (CERL) was tasked to study the example of the them. Hangar designers responded in kind by cre DoD's aircraft hangar inventory and develop cri U.S. Ail-Steel ating large, increasingly sophisticated (and unin teria relevant to NHPA requirements. The Hangar at Fort Sam Houston, tentionally glorious) structures tailored to the research was conceived by Dr. Paul Green, U.S. Texas, c.1917. complexities of outfitting and maintaining a Air Force Air Combat Command (ACC), and Photo courtesy modern airborne arsenal. The variety and quality funded by ACC and the DoD Legacy Resource Archives at Fort Sam Houston, of military aircraft hangars erected during the Management Program. The product of this study Texas. 20th century is surprisingly impressive. was a comprehensive report intended to facilitate the assessment of a military hangar's historical and architectural significance. The report is now available online for viewing or download at
CRM No 3—2001 2') • document their origins, locations, and approxi is inadequate or missing. When the cultural mate numbers, and resource manager identifies the basic type of • provide a context for understanding their avia hangar, he or she can then study the hangar data tion and construction history. base (included in an appendix) to determine The study looked at all DoD aircraft which other installations have similar structures. hangars, except those on Reserve, National The database can provide an initial indication of Guard, Base Realignment and Closure, and over a hangar's relative abundance or scarcity in the seas installations. The CERL research team made national context. several site visits to better understand military air Finally, for quick reference purposes, each field infrastructure and how it is used. The team history chapter concludes with a simplified time also visited centralized repositories with military line comprising a chart of major historical, tech airfield construction record holdings and con nological, and programmatic milestones. These ducted literature searches. To gather detailed site- timelines help the reader visualize key interrela specific physical data, a mail-in survey was tionships between military activities, defense designed and sent to all installations known to objectives, technological developments, and mili maintain a significant airfield infrastructure. tary construction programs. All elements of the Countless DoD historians, architects, engineers, report—the historical narrative, quick reference record drawing stewards, real property staff, and timelines, hangar typology, and appendices—are cultural resource personnel responded, and their readily cross-referenced to help cultural resource submittals were collated into a draft database. managers make informed inferences in order to Although extensive, the draft database included fill gaps in local construction records. significant gaps that had to be filled with existing Summary of Findings data from Army and Air Force headquarters-level The CERL study illustrates how military real property offices. Although the selected real hangar construction was affected by two overar property records did not include information on ching trends: changes in air mission requirements specific architectural characteristics, the statistical and standardization of facility design. data they contained greatly enhanced the research The report documents how air mission team's knowledge base. All of the material col requirements evolved in response to technical lected by the research team, especially the archi advances in aircraft. Although larger and more tectural drawings, were used to develop a hangar specialized airplanes were constantly rolling off typology—a tool that provides a classification sys U.S. assembly lines, the most important driver of tem based on structural cross-section, principal military hangar demand appears to have been material, and other physical characteristics. sharp increases in the number and size of air Versatile CRM Guide combat groups—especially during the defense The hangar report can be used in several dif buildup before World War II. The relationship ferent ways depending on the needs of the reader. between aircraft size and hangar size is actually First, the historical narrative will help cultural indirect and complex, and only in a few cases is resource managers understand the place of their there direct evidence of a connection. Once the local hangars in the national aviation construction all-metal airplane body went into full production, context. This text is divided into five chapters that there was no longer any reason to shelter these air correspond to a major U.S. military conflict or craft, except during maintenance, repair, and out peacetime era. Each chapter is subdivided to fitting operations. The major construction chal address the aviation construction histories of the lenge then was to provide enough hangar space to various military services. Major sections are labeled handle the enormous servicing capacity required to identify the principal national aviation con to keep an airborne fighting force in the sky. struction themes of the era. The report focuses on As new training, outfitting, and mainte national contexts that are intended to illuminate nance activities drastically increased the need for local and regional contexts—not to replace them. new hangars, both the Army Air Corps and the Second, the report includes a chapter dedi Navy construction programs came to rely exten cated to hangar typology, illustrated and cross-ref sively on standard designs and plans. The CERL erenced with numerous charts, photos, and draw study shows that there was even an appreciable ings. The typology chapter can be of great value amount of standardization within particular spe in helping a cultural resource manager identify cialties and construction programs. For example, hangars in those cases where local documentation in terms of architecture, air depot facilities can
30 CRM No 3—2001 Table 6-5. Concrete arch cross section typology. nance shops, usually located away Concrete Arches from the airfields for which they
Cross Section First Known Use Plan Description Plan No. were originally intended. Many installations today still have one Open Arch early 1940s Shore Facility- Denver Type Reserve Station 486581 •I 520026 or more of them in use. The early 1940s Monolithic Concrete Seaplane varies £ structure can be identified by its unknown Shore Facility-MiramarType varies £ distinctive 66-foot steel gambrel mid-1940s Squadron Operations varies o truss. Due to the modular design of this hangar, however, it was not late 1940s Monolithic Concrete 35-04-01 o uncommon to erect them in mul mid-1950s Organizational Pull-Thru 39-01-65 o tiple-bay configurations and in mid-1950s Organizational Pull-Thru 39-01-66 o varying lengths. Alternative lay mid-1950s Organizational Pull-Thru 39-01-67 o outs, such as these, as well as their Transverse Arch late 1930s Monolithic Concrete Seaplane varies £ utilization away from historic flight lines, likely contribute to difficulty recognizing the U.S. Note: The star symbol in the right-hand column indicates an Army or Air Force All-Steel Hangar on military plan; the anchor symbol indicates a Navy plan. installations today. Conclusion Concrete Arch readily be distinguished from flying training field The CERL hangar study has drawn many Cross Section facilities, and these in turn can be distinguished Typology for mili inquiries from DoD personnel as well as the civil from technical training facilities. tary hangars. ian sector, and some queries have revealed unique Created by the Not surprisingly, the rarity of pre-1919 and scarce resources. For example, the report has Construction hangars is noteworthy, and the rarity of wood Engineering been used to help understand the provenance of frame construction also stands out. One discovery Research historic military hangars located on former mili Laboratory made during the research was that most surviving tary air bases that are no longer owned by DoD. (CERL). hangars originally designated as temporary con However, the principal goal of the study was to struction are made of steel. This was unexpected assist DoD cultural resource managers with because, as a rule, temporary military facilities NHPA compliance reviews. DoD cultural were usually made of wood. Virtually all wooden resource personnel report that the study also has hangars—and half of all non-permanent hangars— proven valuable in the successful conversion of were constructed during the World War II era. historic hangars to new uses. Furthermore, cul However, only about 25% of the temporary tural resource managers at installations with no hangars recorded in the CERL database are tim original design documents have made inquiries ber structures. The preponderance of steel tempo when they need additional technical expertise to rary hangars in the DoD inventory is accounted interpret layouts, structural elements, or nonstan for by a World War II-era Air Corps policy that dard construction details. encouraged the use of steel in technical temporary construction. Based on the available data, most of The hangar study should provide cultural the surviving wood frame hangars appear to be resource managers, historians, architects, and located in Alaska and the Pacific Northwest, engineers a sound basis on which to begin an where heavy timber was available locally in plenti evaluation of historic aircraft hangars. The big- ful amounts. picture perspective presented in the report will certainly contribute to national-level significance One particular hangar—the U.S. All-Steel assessments and provide a basis for more mean Hangar—warrants special comment. Although it ingful determinations of regional and local was a classic workhorse design of the World War I significance. era, many installation cultural resource managers do not recognize it and therefore consider it a rar Julie L. Webster is a registered architect and architectural ity. This hangar was in fact mass-produced during historian at the Construction Engineering Research World War I, but many building components did Laboratory, Champaign, Illinois, U.S. Army Engineer not reach their intended locations until after the Research and Development Center. Armistice. Consequently, most U.S. All-Steel Gordon L. Cohen is a technical writer and editor at the Hangars were assembled after World War I and put Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, to alternative uses, such as warehouses or mainte Champaign, Illinois, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center.
CRM No 3—2001 31 June Noelani Cleghorn Repatriation of Human Remains at Marine Corps Base Hawaii
he following is a brief summary The picture of pre-Contact occupation of the repatriation effort con described above resulted from archeological data ducted by Marine Corps Base gathered during systematic excavations of Hawaii, Kaneohe Bay (MCBH) Mokapu's northern sand dunes that were con followeTd by a synopsis of efforts to execute ducted as early as 1938. In these few years prior Native Hawaiian claimant requests for reburial. to the Pearl Harbor bombing in 1941, the federal The ultimate objective is to present a snapshot of government was acquiring the various privately the intricacies of conducting statutory consulta owned and territorial parcels of the Mokapu tion with multiple groups who submitted claims peninsula for military use. Beginning as early as for repatriation of the collection of Native 1917, and continuing intermittently over the Hawaiian human remains found on the Mokapu next two decades, the Bishop Museum accepted peninsula. isolated human remains which were reported by The Mokapu Burial Area local residents as having eroded out of Mokapu's The Mokapu peninsula is located on the sand dunes. With the threat of war and the The Mokapu northeast side of the island of O'ahu between increased focus on establishing the Mokapu Burial Area con Kailua and Kane'ohe Bays. MCBH currently peninsula as a strategic military installation, two sists of the high archeologists, one from the Bishop Museum and vegetated sand occupies this entire peninsula. The archeological dunes, seen in evidence from Mokapu provides a picture of the one from the University of Hawaii, applied for the left fore indigenous inhabitants of windward O'ahu, dur permission to excavate the sand dunes. The exca ground and ing the 500 years prior to Captain James Cook's vations, conducted on weekends between 1938- extending the length of this "discovery" of the Hawaiian Islands in 1778. 1940, resulted in the recovery of human skeletal coastline to These early Hawaiian inhabitants established remains representing more than 1,300 individuals. Ku'au, the name temporary campsites on the peninsula shorelines By 1943, the federal government had of the pinnacle rock seen at the as they sought out abundant marine resources for acquired the entire Mokapu peninsula. The gov right above. their subsistence. They were probably members ernment operated the peninsula first as a Naval Photo courtesy of extended family units totaling not more than Air Station (NAS) throughout the World War II, Jon Chun, Marine Corps 150 people at any given time. These Hawaiian followed by commissioning of the Kaneohe Base Hawaii family groups used the peninsula's northernmost Marine Corps Air Station (MCAS) in 1952. (MCBH). sand dunes for burial. During the Kaneohe NAS years, a commercial sand mining operation was established on the peninsula's northern sand dunes that supported a buildup of military infrastructure both on the peninsula and at other installations island wide. The dune sand was used as padding for installa tion of underground utilities and concrete build ing foundations. As a result, isolated human remains, whose original burial had been located in Mokapu's sand dunes, were disturbed and inadvertently deposited elsewhere on the penin sula and to other locales throughout the island. In the early 1970s, as federal and state gov ernments were beginning to identify and inven tory the nation's significant cultural resources, Kaneohe MCAS nominated the Mokapu sand dunes for listing on the National Register of
s2 CRM No 3—2001 Historic Places (NRHP). In 1972, these sand regulations were not going to be of much help in dunes became known as the Mokapu Burial Area resolving competing claims, it also became and were listed on the NRHP as Site 50-80-11- increasingly clear that the claimants themselves 1017. Marine Corps assets on O'ahu Island were were often baffled with the confusing "maze" of consolidated in 1994, resulting in the establish regulations. ment of Marine Corps Base Hawaii with the Thus, early in the repatriation process, Mokapu peninsula, known as MCBH Kaneohe MCBH accepted responsibility for aiding the Bay, being its largest land holding. Current claimants in their understanding of the extensive efforts to maintain, repair, and replace World procedures required for repatriation of what they War II era buildings and infrastructure on believed were their rightful ancestral remains. MCBH often result in the inadvertent discovery Specifically, MCBH opted to become partners of isolated human remains whose original burial with these claimants and together learn as much locales had been within what is now the Mokapu as possible regarding the implementation of a Burial Area. successful repatriation process. MCBH sponsored NAGPRA Compliance and Consultation NAGPRA training workshops for both the MCBH completed its inventory of Native claimants and base staff, attempted to learn about Hawaiian human remains in 1994, when it pub centuries-old Native Hawaiian burial traditions, lished the requisite Notice of Inventory and tried to interpret the NAGPRA regulations Completion in the February 28 Federal Register. in ways that would support the integrity of such This inventory identified the Mokapu Collection traditions. of Native Hawaiian human remains (referred to For example, the NAGPRA criterion for below as the Mokapu Collection) as representing claims of lineal descent (43 CFR 10.2(b)(1)) can at least 1,582 distinct individuals. The solicita only be met if the individual sets of remains can tion of claims for the Mokapu Collection that be specifically named or identified. However, pre- accompanied the 1994 Notice of Inventory Contact Hawaiians purposefully buried their Completion resulted in the submittal of numer loved ones in nondescript ways to inhibit dese ous competing claims from Native Hawaiian cration of their ancestors' remains by rival fami individuals and organizations. lies or chiefs. Thus, the vast majority of tradi The initial efforts at consulting with these tional Hawaiian burials found during modern first claimants took the form of written corre times is lacking identification. Indeed, none of spondence culminating in one large group meet the 1,582 individual sets of remains in the ing, near the end of 1994, which resembled an Mokapu Collection could be named as specific adversarial town meeting with the government individuals. Thus MCBH realized that all of the representatives on one side facing Native lineal descent claims from families and individu Hawaiian representatives on the other. The repre als would have to be denied. Rather than accept sentatives for MCBH urged the many claimants denial and exclusion of the lineal descendant to work out differences among themselves and to claims based on a definition that did not take submit a second "unified" claim as being the fastest into account the specific traditions of Native route to a resolution of this apparent claimant Hawaiian burial, MCBH allowed for these competition. This suggestion was received with Native Hawaiian families to resubmit their claims anger and frustration among some of the claimants as Native Hawaiian organizations claiming cul since their own attempts to unite failed. Thus, the tural affiliation. Ultimately, all the claims for lin responsibility for executing repatriation became the eal descent were resubmitted as cultural affilia onus of the Marine Corps, as the government tion claims from Native Hawaiian organizations, agency mandated to take such action. and these organizational claims were subse Multiple Competing Claimants quently afforded equal standing as claimants Acting in good faith, MCBH turned to the under the NAGPRA regulations due to the broad NAGPRA regulations for guidance in evaluating nature of the qualifying criteria listed for Native these multiple claims. Unfortunately, the proce Hawaiian organizations. dures listed in the NAGPRA regulations for eval At this point in the repatriation process an uating multiple competing claims lack the practi important success had been achieved: MCBH cal means to reach a resolution. Additionally, as had used the NAGPRA regulations to allow for the MCBH legal staff realized that the NAGPRA equality among all claimants who wanted to be
CRM No 3—2001 33 ful because it culmi nated in the repatria tion of the Mokapu Collection to all 21 Native Hawaiian claimants who had filed claims of affilia tion with this collec tion of remains. During the course of these several years, many differences emerged among the numerous representa tives of the Native Hawaiian organiza tions who were engaged in this process with MCBH. However, these con sultations were ulti mately successful due to the following key accomplishments:
Marine Corps part of the Mokapu Collection repatriation. Soon • During the latter three years of the repatriation Base Hawaii, after this success, however, difficulty arose in consultation process, MCBH established con Kaneohe Bay, is dealing with these multiple culturally-affiliated sistent agency points-of-contact (POC) which located on the Mokapu penin Native Hawaiian organizations. This difficulty included one civilian cultural resources specialist sula on the arose from the claimants' disparate views on and one or two specific Marine Corps officers. northeast coast Native Hawaiian traditions regarding the treat • Face-to-face meetings were scheduled on a reg of O'ahu Island. The Mokapu ment and care of their ancestral remains. In the ular basis which afforded the claimants the Burial Area, end, the Native Hawaiian organizations wanted opportunity for continual contact between National MCBH to judge the various claims and thereby themselves and the MCBH representatives. Register of Historic Places limit which ones could or could not keep their • The process was modified in ways that helped Site 50-80-11- standing. Since there were no procedures in the to support the integrity of the cultural tradi 1017, is located NAGPRA regulations for agencies to "judge" or tions that formed the basis of these Native along the north limit such claims, MCBH saw that it had to get ern coastline of Hawaiian claims. the peninsula as the claimants to realize that the only way to keep • Though some claimants were adamantly illustrated in the this repatriation process moving was to recognize opposed to MCBH acting as facilitator and/or aerial photo all the Native Hawaiian organizations as the above. Courtesy mediator in this consultation process, MCBH Jon Chun, rightful claimants for the repatriation of the did support and conduct mediation or facilita MCBH. Mokapu Collection. Thus, the Notice of Inventory tion when it seemed the only way to keep the Completion published in the August 31, 1998, process moving. issue of the Federal Register states that the Marine • Over time, MCBH learned to be better listen Corps repatriated the Mokapu Collection to 21 ers and realized that many of the claimants Native Hawaiian organizations who had filed took great satisfaction in knowing that, though claims. Then in April 1999, five years after publi ultimate decisions would be made by the base cation of the first Marine Corps Federal Register commanding general and not by his POCs, it Notice of Inventory Completion, final repatria was the familiar base POCs who were commit tion was completed. ted to hear them out. Successful Consultation • Ultimately, the single most effective action The process of consultation executed by accomplished in this consultation process was MCBH, albeit lengthy, was nonetheless success enforcing equity among the claimants by
34 CRM No 3—2001 ensuring that all those who wished a voice in readiness and global projection of operating this process were guaranteed that voice. forces. Though reburial of Native Hawaiian Repatriation and Beyond ancestral remains is not required under NAGRPA Through more than five years of active con and is not essential for global military readiness, sultation, MCBH found that trust from the the Marine Corps has nevertheless supported this claimants was earned through our perseverance reburial request because it is the right thing to and commitment to bringing repatriation to a do. The Marine Corps takes its resource steward successful end. Once repatriation was finalized, a ship responsibilities seriously, and MCBH is majority of the 21 recognized Native Hawaiian committed to providing such stewardship for the claimants, who ultimately became "owners" of remains of those who first resided on the the Mokapu iwi kupuna (Hawaiian phrase for Mokapu peninsula. "bones of the ancestors"), submitted to MCBH written requests for support and permission to June Noelani Cleghorn has been the Cultural Resources rebury their ancestral remains on the Mokapu Program Manager at Marine Corps Base Hawaii, Kaneohe Bay, on the island of O'ahu for nearly five years. peninsula and thereby allow for their ancestors to As a consultant to the National Park Service before this, "return home." she completed NAGPRA inventories of human remains The United States Marine Corps is a com for all of the national parks in Hawaii. bat organization whose mission is one of military
David L. Conlin Recovery of the Confederate Submarine H.L Hunley
istorians point to the March 9, of armored battleships crested and then declined 1862, engagement between the in the first half of the 20th century, the implica Union ironclad USS Monitor tions of that first submarine attack continue to and the Confederate ironclad affect global geopolitics and strategic thinking ram CSHS Virginia in Hampton Roads, as a piv today. otal moment in the development of modern Submarine warfare during the Civil War naval warfare. Though most would argue that the emerged largely as a Confederate response to the obsolescence of wooden ships of sail was vividly Union blockade of southern ports. Within the demonstrated in Virginia that day, fewer are able tightly constrained context of the blockade to appreciate that an equally significant develop emerged a remarkable drama of actions and reac ment in naval warfare—the first successful attack tions, causes and effects, and technological inno on a surface ship by a submarine—occurred just vations and responses that culminated dramati two years later off the coast of Charleston, South cally in naval combat off Charleston in early Carolina. While the tactical and strategic impact winter 1864. In 1864, the northern blockade was in full force, and its crippling economic effects had As this issue of CRMgoes to press, archeologists have begun to bite deeply into the Souths ability to almost completed the excavation of Hunley s interior, which fight the war. Unable to compete at an industrial filled with sediment following the sinking in 1864. Remains level with the Union, the Confederacy turned to of eight of the crew have been found, and it is likely that the technological and tactical innovation to break the ninth crewmember will be recovered as well. To date, the rea Federal stranglehold on southern ports, some sons for Hunley's loss remain a mystery. For the latest infoma- times with spectacular results. tion, go to
CRM No 3—2001 35 H.L. Hunley in In May 1995, after an its excavation exhaustive search, archeologists trench prior to recovery. Com sponsored by author Clive puter simulation Cussler's research organization, by Mike Skrab, the National Underwater and Oceaneering Advanced Marine Agency (NUMA), suc Technologies, cessfully located the submarine courtesy Friends buried beneath three feet of mud of the Hunley. and sand outside Charleston har bor. In 1996, with funding from the Department of Defense Legacy Resource Management Program and other private and government sources, a joint team of archeologists drawn from the National Park Service Sub merged Cultural Resources Unit command of Lieutenant George Dixon, slipped (NPS), the Underwater from the shores of Charleston Harbor on the out Archaeology Branch of the Naval Historical going tide, aimed itself at the Union blockade Center (NHC), and the South Carolina Institute ship USS Housatonic and prepared for what was of Archaeology and Anthropology (SCIAA) to become a singular milestone in naval history— returned to coordinates provided to the Navy by the first ever successful submarine attack on an NUMA to confirm that the object found was the enemy ship. With a crew of eight turning the remains of H.L. Hunley, assess the condition of hand crank that powered the submarine, Dixon the submarine, and recommend a course of steered four miles out to sea toward the Union action for the wreck. Based on the 1996 assess blockade fleet. ment and the threat posed to the site by looters, As Hunley drew near Housatonic, lookouts the decision was made to recover the submarine in the rigging spotted what seemed to be a log, for conservation and perpetual curation in South then a porpoise, and finally the attacking subma Carolina. Archeologists from the NHC, NPS, rine. While the alarm was sounded, the Union and a number of federal and state institutions ship slipped its anchor, backed its engine, and and organizations working with engineers and frantically tried to avoid the attack. As the crew consultants from Oceaneering Advanced and captain of the blockader fired pistols, rifles, Technologies, systematically examined and modi and shotguns at the tiny sub, Hunley rammed a fied technical options for Hunley's recovery, based 135-pound black powder charge into the stern on information obtained from the assessment quarter of Housatonic directly adjacent to the and subsequent findings. This cooperation cre- NPS Archeolo- powder magazine, backed off, gist Matt Russell and blew the entire starboard mapping the stern quarter off the Union ship. stern of H.L. Hunley. Diving After a massive explosion, conditions on Housatonic settled to the shallow site were diffi bottom as sailors in their under cult, with low to zero visibility the wear scrambled into the rigging norm. Photo to await rescue. Hunley signaled by Brett Sey the success of the attack and mour, NPS, then disappeared into the night. courtesy Friends of the Hunley Hunley's commander, George and National Dixon, and his crew of eight Geographic. men, the third and final crew to meet disaster in the submarine, also disappeared. Hunley was to remain lost for 131 years.
36 CRM No 3—2001 dinary importance. The Hunley project drew on the talents of hundreds of agencies and businesses at the formal and informal level and the success of the recovery is directly attributable to the thousands of contributions, both large and small, that were made by these individuals and groups. Cooperation, focused on preservation, has pro duced tangible results and placed this treasure of American and world history in the hands of gen erations to come.
Note * Larry E. Murphy, Daniel J. Lenihan and Christopher F. Amer, "Conclusions and Recommentations," H.L. Hunley Site Assessment, Cultural Resources Management Professional Papers, Number 62 (Santa Fe: National Park Service, 1998). August 8, 2000 ated a feasible plan that was implemented during 8:45 a.m., the summer of 2000. At the same time, archeolo- David L. Conlin is an underwater archeologist for the Hunley and gists from the NHC, NPS, and SCIAA briefly frame are safely Submerged Resources Center of the National Park Service lifted from the examined the wreck of USS Housatonic and and supervised field operations on the Hunley recovery. bottom and worked out myriad bureaucratic and manage He has a Ph.D. and a M.A. in anthropology from Brown placed on the ment details within the framework of the pro University, a M.A. in maritime and Aegean archeology transport barge. Photo courtesy grammatic agreement signed between state and from Oxford University in England, and a B.A. in Tim Smith, NPS. federal management authorities in 1996. anthropology from Reed College. He has worked on pro Fieldwork for H.L. Hunley s recovery com jects in the Mediterranean, Caribbean, and Africa, as well as in the U.S. menced on May 5, 2000, nearly five years to the day from when the submarine was discovered by Cussler's NUMA team. While Hunley was being prepared for recovery, archeologists working with geologists, sedimentologists, micro- and marine Acknowledgements biologists, corrosion specialists, and water chemists collected scientific information pertain Dr. Robert Neyland of the Naval ing to site formation processes, Hunley's interior Historical Center, on loan to the state of South and exterior environments, and overall state of Carolina's Hunley Commission, directed the preservation. During the next several months, the Hunley recovery project. This project involved submarine was carefully excavated from the sedi archeologists and professionals from the ments that surrounded it and gently suspended National Park Service Submerged Resources from a series of slings attached to a truss that Center and Fort Sumter National Monument, stretched over the submarine. South Carolina Institute of Archeology and On August 8, 2000, at 8:40 a.m., the first Anthropology, South Carolina Division of submarine to sink another warship was success Archives and History, the College of fully raised from the floor of Charleston harbor Charleston, and NUMA. Oceaneering and placed on a barge for transport to shore. By Advanced Technologies provided the engineer 6:00 p.m., this extraordinary piece of American ing and technical expertise for the recovery. The and world history was safely placed in a tank of Department of Defense Legacy Resource fresh water at a state-of-the-art conservation facil Management Program, the State of South ity in North Charleston. The entire project was Carolina and the private non-profit group, documented by teams from the National Friends of Hunley, chaired by Warren Lasch, Geographic Society and South Carolina provided funding for the project. The South Educational Television. Carolina Hunley Commission, chaired by Ultimately, Hunley's recovery represents a Senator Glen McConnell, provided policy model of federal, state, and private sector united and management oversight for the recovery. in service to an archeological resource of extraor
CRM No 3—2001 37 Sannie Kenton Osborn and Robert Wallace New Frontiers, New Soldiers of Preservation The Presidio of San Francisco under Civilian Control
ince the Ohlone Indians occupied In 1962, the Presidio was designated a the area now known as the Presidio National Historic Landmark district. Ten years of San Francisco (Presidio) thou later, Congress passed legislation designating it as sands of years ago, various groups part of the Golden Gate National Recreation have Smade distinct contributions that have Area (GGNRA). Designated for closure under helped shape its identity. Until the United States the 1989 Base Realignment and Closure Act, the Army's departure in 1994, the Presidio of San 1,480-acre Presidio was added to the larger Francisco was the longest continuously occupied 76,500-acre GGNRA. The National Park Service military installation in the nation, having been (NPS) assumed total jurisdiction over the ex-mil occupied by a succession of soldiers, settlers, and itary post in 1994. In 1996, Congress created the families sent by the governments of Spain (1776- Presidio Trust (Trust), an executive agency of the 1822), Mexico (1822-1846), and the United U.S. government, to oversee 80% of the former States (1846-1994). Bounded on the north by Army post, that includes most of its historic San Francisco Bay and on the west by the Pacific buildings. Both the Trust and NPS are responsi Ocean, the Presidio seemed to be on the edge of ble for the stewardship and interpretation of the civilization. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the Presidio's cultural landscapes, historic buildings, Map of El Presidio simultaneously marked the northern and archeological sites. They also are entrusted Presidio National frontier of Spanish and Mexican colonial expan with the research and preservation of the Historic Landmark district sion; the southeastern frontier for Russian fur Presidio's rich oral and archival histories. and El Presidio traders travelling from Alaska and Fort Ross, its Congress also mandated in the Trust's charter Archaeological northern California outpost; and the western that it be financially self-sufficient by fiscal year Site prepared by frontier of an American nation seeking its mani 2013. Otherwise, the Presidio will be transferred Christopher Lee, Presidio Trust. fest destiny. to the General Services Administration and sold. The most basic principle of the Trust's his toric preservation program is adaptive re-use and rehabilitation of the park's 474 historic buildings. Many that stood empty and unused before the Army's departure now need extensive care. These buildings represent 11 significant styles of archi tectural classification and eight major historical periods represented in the National Historic Landmark district designation. In the year 2000, several historic buildings underwent rehabilita tion, including seismic strengthening, electrical and plumbing modernization, and accessibility improvements. Over the coming decade, an esti mated $200 million is required to save the imper iled buildings, which will be funded from a com bination of public and private investment, long-
38 CRM No 3—2001 term leasing revenues, and federal tax credit was almost entirely superseded by brick construc incentives. tion after 1890. The building is now part of the The Main Post is one of the most signifi Trust's Main Post leasing program and has been cant areas in the Presidio historic district both converted into offices for a collection of smaller archeologically and in terms of preserving the non-profit tenants. built environment. At least 50 archeological fea The former barracks building underwent a tures contribute to the post's history and cultural complete rehabilitation consistent with the landscape development, including three recorded Secretary of the Interiors Standards for prehistoric sites. The Main Post has been the cen Rehabilitation and with the Presidio's ter of activity on the Presidio since its first tem Rehabilitation Guidelines. The entire structure porary structures were built in 1776. Selected by was seismically strengthened and then brought the Spaniards for its wind-sheltered location and into compliance with all applicable building commanding views of San Francisco Bay, the codes including complete fire detection and sup Main Post now comprises 149 buildings showcas pression systems. The non-historic fabric in the ing a wide range of architectural styles. Collec interior of the building was selectively demol tively, these buildings represent the most substan ished. All remaining historic fabric was incorpo tial Civil War-era military complex in the far rated into the design for the building rehabilita West. Housing was an integral part of the Main tion of common and tenant spaces while some Post, including several enlisted men's barracks historic fabric was lost. Other historic fabric was buildings and a distinctive row of officers' houses. replaced in kind or carefully removed and re This article describes the rehabilitation of three of installed, some of which will lend to the seismic these Main Post structures—Buildings 36, 39, stability of the structure. Deteriorated historic and 50—as well as archeological investigations plaster and wood lath were replaced with new associated with the building rehabilitations and at drywall and veneer plaster. Missing historic fabric the El Presidio archeological site. All three struc of certain elements on the first floor front porch tures and the El Presidio archeological site serve to were converted back to an original state by restor remind us of the many layers of the Presidio's his ing missing windows and doors at historic open tory. ings and replacing missing column brackets. A Building 36 second stair was also repositioned where the miss Located on Lincoln Boulevard, Building 36 ing historic stair had previously existed. All was designed by Captain Charles F. Humphrey, a restored elements matched remaining historic ele U.S. Army quartermaster officer, and constructed ments, or replicated elements found in historic Main Post in the 1890s with as one of a pair of barracks in 1885. It is the last photodocumentation. The contractor provided Building 36 on extant Indian War-era (1865-1890) wooden bar supervision to ensure that the rehabilitation of the far left. racks at the Presidio and represents a period dur the structure and remaining historic fabric com Courtesy NPS plied with drawings and specifications. During Park Archives, ing the 1870s and 1880s when the Presidio Presidio of San expanded in both size and importance. The the installation of utility trenches for Building Francisco. wood-frame military architecture of Building 36 36, ground disturbance precipitated the recovery of a buried Civil War-era 88-pound, 9-inch solid- cast Dahlgren cannonball. The cannonball is now displayed in the Presidio's Archeology Lab, a "temporary" World War I wooden structure origi nally built as a Quartermaster depot warehouse. Building 39 Located on the Presidio's historic Main Post, Building 39 was built in 1938 to house enlisted troops. Constructed in modified Mediterranean Revival style, the three-story I- shaped barracks was later transformed into the headquarters of the U.S. Sixth Army. The build ing stood vacant since 1995, when the Sixth Army was de-activated. In 1998, the San Francisco Film Centre (Centre) became the first
CRM No 3—2001 39 struction over approximately 200 years. In the late-19th and 20th centuries, the building served as the U.S. Army Officers' Open Mess and later as the Presidio Officers' Club. Although no com plete buildings remain from the Spanish or Mexican occupations, the front portion of Building 50 contains the adobe walls of a much earlier Spanish building from c. 1812-1815, making it one of the oldest structures in the city and county of San Francisco. Therefore, it is most likely the most historically significant building on the Presidio. It is the largest of only two remain ing Spanish Colonial military buildings in California; the other being El Cuartel, a soldier's residence, located on the quadrangle of the
Building 36 after long-term tenant of the Presidio Trust by signing Presidio of Santa Barbara. rehabilitation. a lease for Building 39 and the 800-seat Presidio Building 50, although only a partial struc Photo by Robert Theatre. The Centre conducted a $6.6 million ture, contains the fabric of the last comandancia, Wallace. rehabilitation of the 67,000-square-foot former or commanding officer's quarters left from barracks that included a complete seismic Spanish Colonial California. Building founda upgrade of the facility, accessibility improve tions from an even earlier adobe structure have ments, and complete replacement of the electri also been found beneath it. From 1846-1856, cal, plumbing, and fire safety systems. The ten U.S. troops rebuilt the crumbling wall of El ant's design team carried out the project in accor Presidio's buildings, joining the two wings of the dance with the Secretary of the Interior's original adobe with plaster and wood infill to re Standards for Rehabilitation, under the supervi use the structure as a court-martial room. A pro sion of Trust historical architects. The Centre is jecting central assembly hall with gable was now home to a variety of non-profit and for- added in the 1880s, later used as a ballroom. profit arts-related organizations, including the During the period from 1931 to 1934, San Francisco Film Society and the George Gund Quartermaster Captain Barney Meeden directed Foundation. The site also includes state-of-the- an attempted "restoration" of Building 50, trans art film production and editing facilities, and forming the building into a contemporary public space showcasing film-related exhibits. Spanish Colonial Revival edifice, with the During the rehabilitation, artifacts dating Spanish tile roofs, decorative iron work, and from 1815, including tejas (roofing tiles used by heavy timber lintels and beams. This building the Spanish colonists), multicolored ceramic pot saw minimal use after the Army's departure until tery {majolica and lead glazed earthernwares), a early 2001, when it was upgraded to accommo fired-clay tobacco pipe, oxidized metal hooks, date a museum-quality public exhibition space. and cattle bones, were discovered on the west side In January 2001, a portion of the still-extant of the building. Since Building 39 is bisected by adobe wall was found during rehabilitation activ the c. 1815 expansion of the Spanish garrison ities for the building's exhibit gift shop. quadrangle, avoiding adverse effects to this arche- Archeologists and historic preservation personnel ological site was a top priority in the rehabilita from both the Trust and NPS recorded and mea tion. This site appears to have been a kitchen or sured the exposed portions of the adobe wall in hearth. The objects were removed and the soil order to see the interfaces between different and strata recorded so that the rehabilitation building episodes. The Trust has contracted with work continued with minimal delay. The artifacts Architectural Resources Group of San Francisco are now on display at the Presidio's Archeology to prepare a complete historic structures report. Lab. Archeological Investigations Building 50 Located in the heart of the modern Building 50 is a complex series of intercon Presidio's Main Post area, the El Presidio site has nected concrete, wood-frame, and steel-frame driven development in the post from 1776 to the structures representing several periods of con
40 CRM No 3—2001 present. Several archeological investigations have contributions of time, expertise, and financial been conducted at this site, including resources reflect the broad support the Presidio • the discovery of the Spanish Colonial El enjoys. These people provide indispensable sup Presidio de San Francisco (El Presidio) in 1993, port for the Trust and NPS, helping the organiza during the Army's removal of an underground tions achieve the preservation and economic fuel oil storage tank along Funston Avenue; mandates set forth by Congress. The former • additional research on the 1780 El Presidio crown jewel of the United States Army retains chapel site between 1996 and 1999, done by much of the rich foundation left behind by our NPS in cooperation with Cabrillo College, American soldiers—historic structures, customs, and; and culture upon which to build a vibrant com • field studies along the Funston Avenue munity where people live, work, and visit. "Officers Row" at the El Presidio site by the University of California at Berkeley's References Archaeological Research Facility during the Alley, Paul, Leo Barker, Gordon Chappell, Carey summers of 1999 and 2000. Feierabend, John P. Langelier, David Quitevis, and Sally A. Dean, Presidio of San Francisco National The project conducted by U.C. Berkeley Historic Landmark District. National Register of yielded a wide range of significant, intact archeo Historic Places Registration Form. National Park logical deposits and features that span from early Service, San Francisco. (1993). colonial occupations of the Presidio through the Barker, Leo, "The Presidio within the Presidio: early 1900s, including dense concentrations of Historical Archeology in a NHL." CRM2Q (9) Spanish-colonial (1776-1821) and Mexican (1997). (1822-1846) period archeological deposits. Brack, Mark, and James P. Delgado, National Limited testing showed that an American period Architectural and Engineering Record Inventory Presidio of San Francisco Buildings 36, 39, 50. component of the site contains well-preserved National Park Service, San Francisco. (1981). archeological remains, including privy pits, brick Doherty, Brendan, "The Lost Frontier." American foundations, a box drain or sewer, wooden archi Archaeology! (3) (1998). tectural remains, and household waste deposits. Foster, Lee, Jerry Fuentes, and Sannie Kenton Osborn, The site also has preserved structural remains "The Presidio of San Francisco: A Study in Inter- associated with previous historical landscapes, Agency Cooperation." CRM20 (13) (1997). such as remnants of wooden fences from the early Voss, Barb, Amy Ramsay, and Anna Naruta, Final 1900s. Report, Funston Avenue Archaeological Research Project, Presidio of San Francisco, 1999. Presidio The importance of these findings is only Trust, San Francisco. (1999). heightened by the Presidio's prominent role in
CRM No 3—2001 41 David G. Anderson Resource Management in the Department of Defense Defending America's Heritage
he articles in this issue of CRM and in full compliance with existing laws and reg illustrate how the Department of ulations. Integrated Cultural Resource Defense is defending Americas Management Plans (ICRMPs) are effective means heritage, not just on the battle of ensuring this occurs, as Loechl and Whalley field Tand overseas, but on the home front, discuss. The ready availability of resources that through an impressive, proactive program of support ICPvMP development on the web is preservation and management. Given the mili something of value to everyone concerned with tary's own proud history, and concern for its past, heritage management, and not just people in this is perhaps not surprising. Its position and DoD. approach certainly serve as an example other fed The curation program within DoD, as led eral and state agencies should follow. The diver by staff of the St. Louis District COE, and main sity of topics covered in this issue demonstrates tained by dedicated individuals on many installa that heritage resource management is strongly tions, as Eugene Marino and Michael Trimble integrated into and forms a well-considered part document, is indeed one of the best of any fed of the military mission. The content of these eral agency. The equal emphasis placed on arti papers shows that the agency is leading the way facts and associated records is laudable, since in a host of areas. The many dedicated people in without proper documentation, the artifacts DoD working in heritage resource management themselves are greatly reduced in scientific and deserve all of our thanks. interpretive value. Anyone who has had to work In my work with the National Park Service, with older collections, as I often have, realizes I have been helping provide technical assistance that curators and records managers are often the and contract oversight at a number of military unsung heroes of the cultural resource manage installations. I know that DoD puts its money ment world. where its responsibilities are with regard to iden Cheryl L. Huckerby's presentation of Fort tifying, evaluating, and protecting cultural Hood's outstanding CRM program highlights the resources. DoD is far ahead of all other federal diversity of activities that occur on individual agencies in this regard. The support provided by DoD installations, including GIS-based predic DoD for heritage resource management should tive modeling, public outreach, archeological, serve as a model for federal agencies. Many instal architectural, and historical research and synthe lations are completely surveyed, allowing for sis, archeological and architectural survey and effective resource management. The technical, evaluation, and the protection of sites from loot communications, and management tools in sup ing. Her paper offers a look at the specific proce port of these efforts, as Peter Boice noted, are var dures by which CRM is implemented on an ied and growing. Through the innovative Legacy active military installation. These programs show program, discussed by Paula Massouh, further how it is possible to facilitate the ongoing Army more, the results of installation-specific work are mission while simultaneously doing an excellent put into a broader perspective while important or job of preserving heritage resources. Most of my unusual projects and initiatives receive support. own work with the military has been on U.S. The military is also leading the way in Army Forces Command (FORSCOM) installa ensuring that heritage management is solidly tions, so I appreciated her overview of the larger integrated into other management concerns, in FORSCOM program, which I think is exem support of the ongoing mission of the agency, plary even by DoD's high standards.
42 CRM No 3—2001 Many of the papers, including that by and another exemplary aspect of DoD's national Newell Wright and his colleagues about Eglin Air preservation program. The Fort McCoy case also Force Base, document the very fine networked highlights the importance of strong interaction GIS and web-based computer systems in use on between cultural and natural resources personnel, DoD installations. The Eglin case shows how as well as other installation specialists, in manag these systems are invaluable aides to research and ing and interpreting cultural resources. The Fort management, facilitating communication and McCoy predictive modeling effort is typical of the cooperation between personnel in many special high quality, replicable analyses of this kind occur ties and offices on an installation. As an aside, the ring on military installations around the country. Eglin, Fort Hood, Camp Pendleton, and Fort Critical in all such studies, of course, is the devel McCoy case studies discussed here illustrate how opment of probability zones that can be quickly fieldwork conducted on DoD installations has and easily delimited on the ground by field teams, produced some of the very best archeological sur as was done here. Our predictive models change vey data in the country. This information is typi over time, of course, as more and better data are cally in a GIS, and hence readily available for collected, and our understanding of land use in management purposes, as well as state of the art the past changes. We must be prepared to revisit scientific studies of past settlement, land use pat our earlier efforts and refine them, and DoD is terning, and predictive modeling. taking the lead in seeing that that happens. Stan Berryman's discussion of the NAGPRA The paper recounting rock art discoveries at consultation process, specifically as it relates to the Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center in inadvertent discoveries of human remains at the Mojave Desert, by Marie Cottrell and her col Camp Pendleton, is another fine demonstration leagues, effectively demonstrates how agencies can of how the military takes a proactive role in man work to preserve and protect these sites, as well as aging heritage resources. The inadvertent discov learn from their contents. Protection from vandal ery process is something all resource managers ism is a serious issue before land managers, and must know about. The best way is to learn from sites on military bases sometimes are afforded a installations like this, where many such discoveries rare measure of protection just by virtue of the have occurred, specific procedures for dealing way access is controlled. The paper also gave us an with them have been developed, and these proce idea of what can be learned from such sites, and dures have been then formalized through coopera why their preservation is important. tive agreements with tribal governments. Having Laurie Lucking's paper about the use of specific details on how to proceed worked out as sacred places on Army lands in Hawaii, and the much as possible in advance, and incorporated in paper by Vicki Best and her colleagues on the use ICPvMP documents, is crucial. of similar kinds of sites on Nellis Air Force Base in The case study from Fort McCoy, Nevada, reminds us that military lands have value Wisconsin, presented by Andrew Sewell and his to many people, and that the perception of the colleagues, again illustrates the importance of a landscape itself is culturally determined. Public well-supported GIS in both installation land use outreach and partnerships programs directed to management and for the better understanding of the protection and appropriate use of traditional the past. Over 1,200 buildings on the installation cultural properties and sacred sites are an impor have been documented and evaluated by architec tant aspect of DoD land management. The exem tural historians, emphasizing the importance rou plary case studies from these installations serve as tinely given to standing structures by the military, real world examples that other agencies can learn from. The use of Native American monitors dur The papers discussed by David Anderson in this article, ing archeological fieldwork at Nellis, and the with the exception of those by Massouh, Osborn, Loechl and resulting development of truly collaborative inter Whalley, and Webster, were derived from presentations made action, is also a strong positive example of how to during a DoD symposium, "Keeping the Peace and Protecting develop and maintain good relations, with bene our Heritage: Cultural Resource Management in the Depart fits to all parties. ment of Defense," that was held at the Society for American Webster and Cohen's paper deals with his Archaeology meeting in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, April 5-9, toric architecture, in this case military aircraft 2000. David Anderson acted as the discussant at the symposium hangars, and demonstrates work that DoD excels that was co-chaired by L. Peter Boice and Paula Massouh. in—the evaluation and maintenance of large
CRM No 3—2001 43 numbers of historic buildings. World War II-era ularly the possibility that human remains are temporary wooden buildings are perhaps the best almost certainly present within the ship, and their known military structures to be evaluated collec insistence that they be treated with respect, has tively, rather than individually. This approach to given me (and no doubt many other people) a standing architecture, looking at as many or all much better appreciation of the concerns of native the existing examples of a class of buildings, and peoples in such matters. This is a remarkable pro evaluating and managing them accordingly, is an ject, a landmark of underwater archeology. The approach that might work well in state and local effort associated with the recovery and ongoing historic preservation programs. It certainly would analysis of Hunley shows us that having proper seem to make more sense than examining struc funding, personnel, and facilities in place, is cru tures on a case-by-case basis. The study also illus cial to the success of large, complex projects. trates the serendipitous and in some cases Osborn and Wallace's paper on recent work counter-intuitive results that can come from at the Presidio illustrates how the rehabilitation broad studies, in this case, that many early "tem and adaptive re-use of buildings can proceed given porary" hangars were made using steel rather than wide public and private support. The linkage wood frame construction. between archeology and architecture is also June Cleghom's presentation about repatria impressive, particularly in a complex known pri tion efforts at the Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii Marine marily for the latter kind of resources. Large num Corps Base, is another excellent real-world case bers of battlefields have become national parks, study about how NAGPRA consultation should and as an NPS employee who has seen many proceed. I routinely tell people in state and federal excellent historic architectural districts on military agencies, including my own, that military installa bases, I fully expect more military cantonment tions are the first place they should look to find areas to one day achieve this status. excellent standard operating procedure (SOP) DoD is a leading federal agency in both the documents and procedures for implementing funding and the doing of CRM on the ground, NAGPRA. As this case study shows, relationships and the many fine examples of this work are built on mutual respect and willingness to talk becoming more and more widely available, as and listen, and with sensitivity to the needs and exemplified by the case studies in this issue. The concerns of all parties, are the way to proceed. dedicated heritage management professionals in As an archeologist whose home is in South DoD, who do so much to foster an appreciation Carolina, I particularly appreciate the presentation for our nation's cultural resources, deserve our by Conlin on the recovery of Hunley. Like many admiration and respect. in my state and around the country, I have been following the conservation, analysis, and interpre David G. Anderson is an archeologist at the Southeast tation work on this historic submarine. The way Archeological Center of the National Park Service in Tallahassee, Florida. many people are reacting to this discovery, partic
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