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Parallel Journeys: US History Within the Context of Ho-Chunk History

In his book, Facing East from Indian Country: A Native History of Early America, historian Daniel Richter asserts the following: “ . . . if we shift our perspective to try to view the past in a way that faces east from Indian country, history takes on a very different appearance. Native appear in the foreground, and Europeans enter from distance shores.” The following timeline places Ho-Chunk history and the story of the in parallel tracks and provides that “facing east” perspective.

The Hochungra Journey The United States Journey 1634 Oral history tradition tells of the 1607-1630s The first established settlements by Frenchman Nicolet encountering the English occur in Jamestown Ho-chunk people near Green Bay – () and in the New this is the first contact between the region. Ho-Chunk and people from Europe. Late 1630s A small pox epidemic hit the Ho- 1630s-40s Large scale slave labor system is Chunk very hard – estimated that the established in the West Indies. population was reduced by 2/3. is coming into the tobacco culture of 1639-1640 The Illini attack the Ho-Chunk on the southern colonies. in Winnebago, again causing significant population losses. 1640-1701 The Wars 1607-1733 The 13 original British colonies are A series of brutal conflicts between established in . The the Confederacy and the colonies exist within the economic French (and native allies of the system known as mercantilism and French including the Huron, essentially exist for the benefit of the Algonquins, and ). mother country. At the same time, the Eventually these wars spilled into the colonies are granted a fair amount of Great region and refugees autonomy over their political affairs. came into causing warfare between the Algonquin tribes and the Ho-Chunk. Eventually, however, Ho-Chunk people began intermarrying with the Algonquin refugees in Wisconsin and this helped them recover from huge population losses. 1660s The Ho-Chunk begin actively trading with the French via the and will continue that practice for more than a century. 1712-1733 The First and Second These wars pitted the Fox Indians against the French and lasted off and on for over 20 years. The Ho-Chunk became involved, as did other Wisconsin tribes. Generally, the Ho- Chunk were supportive of the French against the Fox and the fighting was primarily over control of the Fox

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River, vital link between Lake and the River. 1728 A split in the Ho-Chunk tribe occurs and results in the movement of one group south to the Rock River area (Rock River Band). 1755 Ho-Chunk warriors fight alongside 1754-1763 The is fought other tribes (and the French) against (called the “Seven Years War” in the British in “Braddock’s Defeat” in Europe) between England and the Monongahela Valley in for control of North America. Pennsylvania (part of the French and Indian War). 1763 The Ho-Chunk join with Chief The end of the French and Indian War Pontiac and also befriend the English results in British control of all territory at Green Bay. from the east coast to the . “Pontiac’s Rebellion” is an attempt by the Ottawan Chief to expel the At the conclusion of the war, the British from the Country. The British government begins to tax the rebellion ultimately failed, but colonials more heavily, in part to pay convinced the British that they for frontier protection. The colonial needed to stabilize the western people eventually revolt. frontier region. 1775-1783 The Ho-Chunk side with the British 1775-1783 The colonials fight for their during the American Revolution. independence from Great Britain and The American Revolution causes ultimately are successful. division among various tribes – some fought for the British and other for the colonials. 1783 Inter-tribal warfare develops due to 1781-1789 Sometimes called the “Critical Period,” fur trade competition – fighting the fledgling government of the US erupts between the Ho-Chunk and attempts to establish itself under the the Chippewa. Articles of Confederation, a government that eventually proved to be very weak. It was replaced by the US . The Land Ordinance of 1785 and the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 promote westward expansion. The area we live in is referred to as the “” at the time and there are provisions within the Ordinance that ban slavery from this region and indicate that Native people will not be removed. 1793 Spoon Decorah, eldest son of Glory 1790s The US Government is established of the Morning and Savrevoir with George Washington chosen as Dekaury, establishes a settlement on the first President of the United States. the (near Portage). Under the new Constitution, Indian 1794 Ho-Chunk warriors are among those Nations are viewed as sovereign, defeated at the “Battle of Fallen although they continually face Timbers” in Ohio. pressure from the US Government to “assimilate” or leave their land.

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1806 Over 300 native people representing Early Thomas Jefferson is America’s 3rd the Ho-chunk, Fox, and , 1800s President and he commissions Lewis participate in a LaCrosse tournament and Clark to explore from to at Prairie du Chien. the west coast. Jefferson is fascinated Early The fur trade begins to decrease with by the native people, but essentially 1800s more and more Euro-Americans carries out the removal policies that moving into Wisconsin. The Ho- were initiated under George Chunk begin to feel more pressure Washington. Expansion into the west concerning their land. At this time is viewed as central to the nation’s there were 30 or more Ho-Chunk future. villages extending down the Rock River almost to its mouth on the There is also a growing tension Mississippi, along the Fox and up the between the young United States and Wisconsin, and on over to the Black Britain during this period. It primarily River and then on down the involves trade and shipping, but also Mississippi. involves the perception by Americans that the British are inciting the native people against American settlers in the west. 1809-1811 The travels west 1809-1814 James Madison becomes President and from Prophetstown and meets with takes the nation to war against Britain Ho-chunk and Sac people along the (the ). The War is largely a Rock and Mississippi Rivers. 50 Ho- maritime war, but there are battles in Chunk warriors eventually join the frontier as well. Eventually, the Tecumseh and his brother the two nations fight to a draw, even Prophet, in Tippecanoe (). though the Americans view the war as They are attempting to unify the a victory. becomes various tribes to hold off white the great hero from the war for his incursion into the region. The Ho- actions in the Battle of New Orleans. chunk established a village near Jackson leaves his mark on American Tippecanoe in Indiana (Village du history as an “Indian fighter” and Puant). becomes popular with many different The takes place groups of people. 1811 in Ohio and hundreds of Ho-Chunk warriors are involved. 1812-1814 During the War of 1812, the Ho- Chunk side with the British against the United States. They are involved in a number of battles during the war, including the capture of Fort Mackinac on Mackinac Island and battles in the Prairie du Chien area. 1814 The Treaty of Ghent is signed ending 1814-1816 The post-war period is called the “Era the War of 1812. The fate of the of Good Feeling” in American history, Woodland tribes is now in the hands owing to the fact that there was very of the US Government. At the time little political division in the country of the Treaty, Ho-Chunk territory is a from roughly 1816-1824. triangle shaped region with Green Bay, north central , and LaCrosse as the three points. 1816 A Treaty of Peace and Friendship is signed between the Ho-Chunk and

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the Federal Government. This is the first of 11 such treaties, the last one signed in 1865.

The Hochungra Journey The United States Journey 1816 Tribal organization is in disarray as 1816 James Monroe is elected as America’s the Ho-Chunk are scattered into 5th President and serves during the s0- nearly 40 settlements. Generally called “Era of Good Feeling,” so named speaking, there is a division in the because of the apparent unity of the tribe going back to the mid-1700s period. This unity held until 1824. with a significant settlement in the Green Bay-Lake Winnebago area, with another portion of the tribe in the Rock River drainage area in the southwestern region of Wisconsin. 1816-1825 The US Government begins the 1817-1825 This is a period of great development actual exercise of sovereignty for the young United States acquired from Great Britain under Government. Henry Clay’s “American the Treaty of in 1783. Colonel System” promotes a national approach John Miller arrives in Green Bay with to economic development, westward four companies of the 3rd US Infantry expansion increases dramatically, and and constructs Fort Howard. The the US begins to carve out its borders Ho-Chunk people oppose this action both north and south through various by the Americans, who they refer to agreements (The Treaty of 1818 and the as “Long Knives.” A Ho-Chunk Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819). Andrew Chief, Natawpindawqua (also known Jackson leads military forces against as the “Smoker”) gives a speech in the Seminole Indians in Florida and of 1816 voicing Ho-chunk the forces of the Spanish Government, suspicion of the Americans, but also leading to the US acquiring Florida. suggesting allegiance. The Monroe Doctrine is enunciated, indicating US interest in keeping other European powers of the the Western Hemisphere. 1822 The US Government begins leasing 1819 Missouri’s application for statehood lands in southwestern Wisconsin to leads to a bitter debate over the lead miners, thus creating a rush of extension of slavery into the west. The Euro-American speculators and Missouri Compromise settles the issue prospectors into Ho-Chunk territory. for a time, but the debate foreshadows the sectional division that will lead to Civil War. 1823 In the case of Johnson v. McIntosh 1823 The Adams Administration issues the the Supreme Court rules that only Monroe Doctrine aimed at European the US Government held the right to nations (including Russia) warning negotiate and purchase land from them to “stay out” of the Western Indian tribes. This meant Indian Hemisphere. Though unable to people, in fact, possessed the land enforce the Doctrine at the time, this they were living on, but also paved signaled the US desire to be the the way for future dispossession dominant power in the hemisphere through treaties. and eventually gained in importance. 1825 The Treaty of Prairie du Chien 1824 John Quincy Adams (son of John establishes clear land boundaries Adams) becomes 6th President of the

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between the tribes in Wisconsin and US in the disputed “Favorite Son” also enables the Federal Government Election of 1824. to negotiate with individual tribes. 1827 The Winnebago War (also sometimes called the Redbird War) results from conflicts between white lead miners and Ho-Chunk people in southeastern Wisconsin. Red Bird eventually dies in prison. 1829 The Treaty of 1829 is signed – the 1828 Andrew Jackson is elected President first of several land cessions for the and represents a changing American Ho-Chunk. This opened the lead political environment. “Old Hickory” mining region to further white first became famous as an Indian settlement. The conflict over access fighter and war hero from the Battle of to the lead mines is a good example New Orleans. His rise coincides with of the battle over resources and land. the extension of voting rights to non- property owners and the rise of blue collar workers. 1830 Under President Andrew Jackson, Early Jackson battles hard over two domestic Federal Indian Policy underwent 1830s issues. He is an outspoken opponent massive change. The goal of Indian of the National Bank (and crushes it), Removal became official policy and navigates the nation through the through the passage of the Indian Nullification Crisis brought on by Removal Act in of 1830. There southern opposition to the tariff. The were vigorous debates among whites Nullification Debate foreshadows the in the Congress, but over the next 8 great debates that will emerge years, removal occurred at a concerning slavery prior to the Civil staggering rate especially in the War. American southeast. The Second Great Awakening, a spiritual revival, is beginning to energize a variety of reform movements.

William Lloyd Garrison begins publishing “The Liberator,” an anti- slavery newspaper. The debate over slavery begins to consume American politics. 1832 Chief , leader of a band of Mid-1830s The northern Mexican province of Sac and Fox Indians (Illinois) Texas becomes a hot topic during this attempted to return to lost territory period. American settlers (such as Sam on the east side of the Mississippi Houston) eventually want to be River. The Ho-Chunk do not independent of Mexican control and by participate in the conflict in a unified 1836 have achieved independence. way, partly due to previous conflicts Texas is an independent Republic from with the Sac and Fox. The War 1836-1845. creates more tension between native people and white settlers and  In a series of Supreme Court provides the backdrop for the second decisions, John Marshall Ho-Chunk land cession. enunciates the following

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The Treaty of 1832 finalizes a second principles regarding Native land cession for the Ho-Chunk – all Americans: lands south and east of the  Aboriginal land claims: Wisconsin River and for the first Aboriginal people had land use time called for the removal of the rights of occupancy and only the Ho-Chunk people west of the United States government can Mississippi. The Treaty also calls for settle those claims. establishing “neutral ground” in  Tribal Sovereignty: Tribes are that will be a buffer between the similar to sovereign nations Sioux and the Sac and Fox. This led with the authority to govern to the first removal of Ho-Chunk themselves. The source of their people (to neutral territory). authority to govern is ‘inherent,’ meaning that it comes from tribes being self-governing long before explorers and settlers came to the .  Federal Trust Responsibility: The Federal Government has a responsibility to protect Indian lands and resources, and to provide essential services to Indian people. This comes from the fact that the federal government took away the vast majority of Indian lands, and in return promised to provide these things

1837 The most controversial treaty of the Martin Van Buren becomes America’s period, the Treaty of 1837 was signed 8th President and serves for 1 term. He under questionable circumstances in inherits an unstable economic Washington D.C. between situation (the Panic of 1837) which representatives of the Ho-Chunk and makes for a difficult Presidency. the Van Buren Administration. The Treaty is a land cession of the area The Seminole Indians are defeated and north of the Wisconsin River eventually removed from Florida. (including the Black River Valley) and called for the removal of the Ho- chunk people within 8 months (the Treaty signers believed that removal would not happen for 8 years). The Treaty ultimately divided the Ho- chunk people into “Abiding” and “Non-Abiding” factions. Yellow Thunder and Dandy lead the resistance to removal, and for the next 37 years, non-abiding factions resist one removal after another.

1838 Jacob Spaulding and 18 other 1838 The Cherokee Indians are removed transplanted northeasterners, come from Georgia to

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north from Illinois on the Mississippi () on the so-called “Trail of to LaCrosse, then navigate up the Tears.” Black River into the area of the falls. They are seeking wealth through harvesting of the White Pines. This group provides the nucleus for the settlement that will become Black River Falls. 1840 The first forced removal to 1840 William Henry Harrison is elected River, Iowa occurs (so-called “neutral President. He dies 4 weeks into office ground”). after taking the oath in of 1841. He is succeeded by John Tyler. 1844 1844 James K. Polk is elected President. He is openly expansionist and his election signals a victory for the idea of Manifest Destiny. Texas is annexed to the United States in 1845. 1846 The Ho-Chunk cede the “Neutral 1848 In 1848 the Seneca Falls Women’s Ground” in Iowa and 1300 people are Rights Convention is held in . removed to the Long Prairie area The US goes to war with Mexico from north of St. Cloud, . 1846-48. Mexico loses half its territory to the United States including the American southwest and California.

Zachary Taylor is elected President. 1849 1849 The California Gold Rush begins in earnest interjecting a huge population into the west. 1850 1850 The question of the expansion of slavery nearly divides the Union when California applies for statehood in 1848. The Compromise of 1850 forestalls sectional divide for another 10 years. 1855 A new treaty prompts the removal of 1854 The - Act repeals the the Ho-Chunk from Long Prairie to a Missouri Compromise and blows the fertile farming area near Blue Earth, expansion of slavery issue into the Minnesota (south central region of open. The idea of “popular the state). Over the next 7 years, the sovereignty” is imbedded in the new Blue Earth situation is not good. law, meaning that the settlers in Promised allotments by the Kansas and Nebraska will decide the government are not paid, white slavery issue. War ensues in what is settlers in the region are hostile to remembered as “bleeding Kansas.” The the Indian presence, and the health Republican Party is formed in and well-being of the Ho-Chunk response. Ripon, Wisconsin claims to people reaches a dire situation. be the birthplace of the party. 1857 1857 The Dred Scott Decision by the US Supreme Court affirms the idea that slaves are property and have no rights under the US Constitution.

The US suffers a financial panic.

7 Intro to First Nations Studies: The Tribal World/ PST Rykken 1860 1860 Abraham Lincoln is elected President and between his election and inauguration, 7 southern states secede from the Union to for the Confederate States of America. 1861 1861 The Civil War rages for 4 years. Ultimately the South is defeated and the Union preserved. The War comes at great cost to the nation and is followed by a very difficult period of Reconstruction. 1862 The “Sioux Uprising” frightens white 1862 The Battle of Antietam proves to be a settlers in Minnesota (and turning point for Union forces in the Wisconsin) and calls for removal of Civil War. all native people from the region are made. By 1863, hostilities are at a Lincoln issues the Preliminary high pitch and groups such as the Emancipation Proclamation as a “Knights of the Forest” in Mankato response, changing the war into a war push for the removal of the Ho- for abolition of slavery. Chunk people from Minnesota. Fears of Native violence spread into The Homestead Act is passed paving Wisconsin and the Black River region the way for tens of thousands of and negatively impact attitudes settlers moving into the west. toward Ho-Chunk people who were resisting removal throughout this During the summer of 1862, Indian period. warfare broke out in southern Minnesota that left between 400 and 800 settlers and soldiers dead, and provoked military action against the Sioux in the Dakota Territory. The causes of the “Sioux Uprising” (also known as the Dakota Conflict) were complex and included hunger, official corruption, and delayed annuity payments. Ultimately, over 1000 Dakota people were imprisoned and over 300 were tried and found guilty. Lincoln commuted 264 sentences. In the end, 38 Native people were executed in a mass hanging in Mankato, the largest such execution in US History. 1863 A special act of Congress is passed 1863 The Battle of Gettysburg rages for 3 approving the removal of the days in Pennsylvania. Along with the Wisconsin Ho-Chunk to Crow Creek fall of Vicksburg on the Mississippi, Reserve in . In the Gettysburg proves to be the fatal blow same year, discussions begin to the Southern cause. concerning removing the Ho-Chunk people to the Omaha Reserve in Lincoln is re-elected in 1864. Nebraska. 1864 1864 The Sand Creek Massacre occurs in Colorado. US Army personnel kill and

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mutilate over 100 Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians, 2/3 of which are women and children. 1865 The Winnebago people of Wisconsin 1865 Robert E. Lee surrenders to U.S. Grant (roughly speaking, those that had at Appomattox Court House, Virginia been the “treaty-abiding” faction officially ending the American Civil officially relocate to the Omaha War. Lincoln is shot and killed 5 days Reserve in Nebraska (the basis for later. Andrew Johnson succeeds the Winnebago population there Lincoln and ultimately is impeached today). due to his conflicts with Northern Republicans over Reconstruction policies in the South. Late Ho-Chunk people continue to resist 1868 U.S. Grant, war hero, is elected 1860s removal but tensions rise in President. His administration will Wisconsin over the issue. prove to be one of the most corrupt in US History.

Grant initiates the “Peace Policy” regarding Native American tribes. At the time he became president of the United States in 1868, approximately 250,000 American Indians all across the nation were under the jurisdiction of a federal Indian policy. The Bureau of Indian Affairs was notoriously corrupt and reformers called for a change that would result in positive accomplishments, such as civilizing American Indians through education, Christianity, and teaching methods of self-support. One year earlier, in response to continuing hostilities with Indians on the Plains, the government had created a Peace Commission which prepared the foundation of what would become known as Grant's Peace Policy.

A major hallmark of the Peace Policy was a desire to abandon the old treaty system, a patronizing arrangement that had never worked well and that had caused, at best, innumerable frustrations and disagreements among the Indian nations. The Peace Policy was a sincere effort to “change the game” by US officials, but was based on the old idea of assimilating Native people into white culture.

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1872-74 The last attempt to remove the Ho- 1872-74 The Credit Mobilier Scandal is exposed Chunk people from Wisconsin takes and US Grant is re-elected for a second place during the winter. The term. removal battle carries on for 2 years with Ho-Chunk people being hunted The Panic of 1873 plunges the US as outlaws. economy into depression.

The Hochungra Journey The United States Journey Early The Wisconsin Ho-Chunk petition 1875-1900: HIGHLIGHTS 1875 the government to allow them to become US Citizens. PRESIDENTS OF THE PERIOD Congress extends the Homestead Act Rutherford B. Hayes 1877-1881 of 1862 to Native people stating “that James Garfield 1881 (d. 1881) any Indian born in the United States, Chester Arthur 1881-1885 who is the head of a family, or who Grover Cleveland 1885-1889 has arrived at the age of twenty-one Benjamin Harrison 1889-1893 years, and who has abandoned, or Grover Cleveland 1893-1897 may hereafter abandon, his tribal William McKinley 1897-1901 (d. 1901) relations, shall, on making satisfactory proof of such The post-Civil War period of American history to abandonment, under rules to be 1890 was a time of great change for the nation. prescribed by the Secretary of the Here are some highlights from those years: Interior, be entitled to the benefits of the act entitled “An act to secure The American South was experiencing homesteads to actual settlers on the RECONSTRUCTION – the rebuilding of the public domain . . .” The law has southern economy, along with the reorientation to implications for the Ho-Chunk the changes brought by the Civil War. The Election people of Wisconsin. Jacob of 1876, a hotly contested election won by Spaulding, one of the founders of Rutherford B. Hayes, is often viewed as the “end” of Black River Falls, is working to secure Reconstruction due to the fact that HOME RULE homesteads for the Ho-chunk people was restored in the South. As part of the election of the area in the years preceding his victory, Hayes and followers agreed to withdraw death in 1876. federal troops from the South, meaning that local control would be reestablished. Thus began the era 1876 Short Wing and Black Hawk ask John of JIM CROW – the nickname given to the series of St. Cyr to help them obtain the right laws which firmly entrenched SEGREGATION laws to homestead land for 80 Ho-Chunk in the South for the next two generations. Though families near Black River Falls. the 13th Amendment had formally abolished slavery,

former slaves were relegated to a lowly status and Jacob Spaulding dies and over 1000 political rights guaranteed in the Civil War people attend his funeral, including Amendments (the right to due process of law, equal 40 Ho-chunk men and interpreter protection of the laws, and the right to vote – John St. Cyr who are seated at the Amendments 14 and 15) were denied. very front of the church. The 40 men

also lead the funeral process to the The Battle of the Little Bighorn takes place in cemetery for his burial (cemetery is (1876). George Armstrong Custer, Civil located just west of where the current

10 Intro to First Nations Studies: The Tribal World/ PST Rykken Administrative Offices are for the War veteran, was defeated by combined forces of School District). the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho. 1878-1921 First “Mission” School Missionary Jacob Stucki establishes This national politics of this period was dominated the first school at the Mission east of by the Republican Party (the victorious party Black River Falls. In 1921 the school is coming out of the Civil War) and tended to be one moved to Neillsville. of the more corrupt periods in our history. The 1880 The Wisconsin Ho-Chunk are once Presidents of the period (Grant, Hayes, Garfield, again able to share in annuities -- - Arthur, Cleveland, and Harrison) are not considered they had been barred from receiving strong. them because they were viewed as “renegade bands” and therefore The period after the War is an “economic take-off” outside the agreement of the treaties. period with a dramatic growth in industry. Men 1881 Separate censuses are taken of the like Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, and J.P. Ho-Chunk in Wisconsin and the Morgan, among others, dominate the national Winnebago people in Nebraska. economy and there is a dramatic growth in MONOPOLIES which brought forth the call for Special legislation is passed greater regulation by the government. permitting the Wisconsin Ho-Chunk 40 acre homesteads. Approximately The period after the War also saw an acceleration of 1200 Ho-Chunk people are living in movement by the US Government into the Wisconsin at this time. American West. The Homestead Act of 1862 and 1884 A Norwegian Lutheran Mission and the dramatic increases in immigration during this school is established near period meant that more and more Euro-Americans Wittenberg, Wisconsin. The school would be moving into areas west of the Mississippi. will go back and forth between This naturally created conflicts with the indigenous government and church control people of the west. during its history. Reformers such as Helen Hunt Jackson were Boarding schools are a natural speaking out against government policies toward extension of the Peace Policy of U. S. Native people during these years. Her book. A Grant with the goal of educating and Century of Dishonor (1881) was considered a assimilating native children. The landmark publication and documented the boarding school era becomes one of dramatic losses that American Indians had the most controversial aspects of experienced. First Nations history. 1887 Reuben Gold Thwaites of the State The Federal Government outlawed the Sun Dance Historical Society of Wisconsin (1884), a practice begun by the Plains Indians as a comes to Tomah to gather revival of Native spirituality in the face of tragedy. information about the Ho-Chunk people. He concludes that the A wave of Populist Protest sweeps the upper homesteads granted them were Midwest and region. Populism was an mostly on barren hillsides or swamps. agrarian revolt (farm related) against policies of the Ho-Chunk population is at about Federal Government that hurt small farmers. 1400.

Congressman Henry Dawes of Several territories reach STATEHOOD during this sponsored a landmark period: , South Dakota, Montana, piece of legislation, the General Washington, Idaho, , Utah, and Allotment Act (aka The Dawes Oklahoma. Severalty Act), designed to encourage the break-up of the tribes and

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promote the assimilation of Indians into American society. Assimilation will be the major Indian policy until the 1930s.

Spoon Decorah participates in a wide-ranging interview prior to his death recounting a long and eventful life. 1890 Black Ash Basketry is introduced to the Ho-Chunk people and they soon become noted for this product. 1893 The Tomah Industrial School opens with 7 employees and 7 students. c. 1900 The use of Peyote is introduced to Wisconsin Indians. Ho-Chunk people introduced it to the Forest , the Sauk and Fox, and The Federal Census of 1890 declares that the to a lesser extent, the “frontier is closed” – the advancing line of and the . The Ho-Chunk settlement that had been present from the introduced certain Christian beginning of American history no longer exists. elements to it early and by 1918 had established the Native American The Battle of Wounded Knee (1891) tragically Church (NAC). symbolizes the brutality of the US Government’s approach to Native people. Over 150 Lakota men, women, and children were massacred by the US 7th

William McKinley is elected President in 1896 and his victory signals the end of the Populist Movement and foreshadows the further urbanization of American culture.

The US goes to war with Spain in 1898 with fighting in both Cuba and the Philippines. The War signals the expanding role of the US on the world stage. 1901 The first commencement takes place 1900-1932: HIGHLIGHTS at the Tomah Indian Industrial School with 5 children graduating. The period from 1898-1917 is referred to as the A government boarding school opens PROGRESSIVE ERA. This is a reference to the on the Winnebago reserve in politics of the period in which government began to Nebraska. play an increasing role in the lives of the people. Progressivism was a response to many societal 1907 Commissioner of Indian Affairs C.F. problems that emerged during the post-Civil War Larabee determines that the Ho- period. Progressives challenged the Government to Chunk are owed more than $800,000 become more active in fighting the abuses of based on treaties signed earlier. Capitalism (i.e. monopolies), the plight of the 1911-1923 The Society of American Indians is in growing class of urban poor, and the corruption of operation during these years. This is government officials. All Presidents during this the first such organization period were impacted by these demands. emphasizing Pan-Indianism and

becomes an influential voice for Presidents: Native people on the national level.

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Citizenship for Native people and the establishment of some type of body Teddy Roosevelt (1901-1909) Republican for pursuing legal remedies for William H. Taft (1909-1913) Republican territorial loss are two major goals of Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921) Democrat the organization. Henry Roe Cloud Warren G. Harding (1921-1923) Republican (Nebraska Winnebago) is one of the Calvin Coolidge (1923-1929) Republican leading voice within the Herbert Hoover (1929-1933) Republican organization. 1917-18 As in every other war in American The US becomes embroiled in the European history, Ho-Chunk people serve the Conflict known initially as the “Great War” (later nation during World War I. called World War 1). The war started in 1914, but 1924 Congress passes the Indian the US stayed out until 1917. Americans, for the Citizenship Act in part as a response most part, enthusiastically supported US to American Indian service during involvement in the war against Germany, but the World War I, but also as a logical post-War period proved to be very difficult. extension of the assimilation policies of the late 19th Century. The law The economic policies of the Government during asserts that “all non-citizen Indians the 1920s were a reaction to the Progressivism of the born within the territorial limits of preceding years. The Republican call for less the United States be, and they are government regulation on businesses and lower hereby, declared to be citizens of the taxes seemed to coincide with growing prosperity United States.” for the American people. Farmers, however, were 1928 The ‘Meriam Report’ published in sunk in economic depression early after the War 1928 was a government study which ended and eventually the US experienced the described the poverty and poor living greatest economic collapse in its history signaled by conditions on the reservations, the crash of the Stock Market in 1929. terrible disease and death rates, grossly inadequate care of the Indian children in the boarding schools, and destructive effects of the erosion of Indian land caused by the General Allotment Act. The Great Depression began shortly after this report was issued, causing living conditions and employment opportunities to fall everywhere in the country. 1933-1963 By the middle 1930s the Hochunkgra 1933-1963: HIGHLIGHTS school had been established at the Mission with Federal funds and operated within the Public Schools of The dominant events of this period were the Jackson County. This school was in Depression (1929-1941) and World War 2 (1941- operation from late 1933 to the end of 1945). Much of our modern world still lives in the the 1963 school year. shadow of those events.

Presidents During This Period: 1934 Congress passes the Indian

Reorganization Act (IRA), also Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-1945): Democrat known as the Wheeler-Howard Act Harry S Truman (1945-1953): Democrat or the Indian New Deal. The IRA Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953-1961): Republican began a new era of federal John F. Kennedy (1961-1963): Democrat government and tribal relations. The

most important thing the IRA accomplished is the promotion of the

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exercise of tribal self-governing Roosevelt’s election in 1933 signaled a major shift in powers. Tribes were influenced by American politics. FDR’s formative influences came the IRA to formalize their during the Progressive Era and he applied governmental authorities in new Progressive principles as he fought the Great ways including adopting tribal Depression. His policies came to be known as the . Among other things New Deal and changed the role of government the Wheeler-Howard Act stopped the forever. erosion of the tribal land base by ending the allotment of tribal land, extended the trust period for existing allotments, prohibited lands to be taken away from tribes without their consent, and authorized the Secretary of the Interior to accept additional tribal lands in trust and to proclaim new reservations on those lands, recognized tribal governments and sought to promote tribal self- government, and set up specific tribal business charters under Section 17 of the Act. 1934 The Johnson-O’Malley Act is passed by Congress. The original purpose of JOM was to confer upon the Secretary of the Interior the authority to contract with state-supported schools, colleges, and universities for Indian education services. The legislation noted that "it becomes advisable to fit them into the general public school scheme rather than to provide separate schools for them." Growing tensions in Europe during the 1930s JOM is still functioning today. culminated in war breaking out in 1939 when 1935 The Tomah Industrial School closes Germany invaded Poland. US citizens and many in in . Many of the children are leadership positions advocated placed in foster care. from the events of Europe, in part based on the Late 1930s Cranberry Harvest Festivals are notion that our involvement in World War 1 had important part of Ho-Chunk social been a major mistake. When Japan attacked Pearl life during these years. Harbor in December of 1941, isolationist sentiment 1941-45 Again, many Ho-Chunk people serve quickly evaporated and the US plunged into the in the Armed Forces during World second great war of a generation. Fighting as part War II. Notably, Mitchell RedCloud, of the Allied Cause in both Europe and the Far East, Jr. serves in the South Pacific as a US the dramatic power of US industrial might helped Marine, leaves the service after his bring victory by 1945. discharge, but later rejoins the Army and dies valiantly in North Korea The post-War period produced an economic “take- during the Korean Conflict. He is off” in the United States. awarded the Medal of Honor posthumously by President Truman. 1945 The title of the Tomah Indian By 1946 the US is locked into an ideological struggle Industrial School is transferred to the with the Soviet Union that came to be known as the

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Veteran’s Administration (VA) for Cold War (1945-1991). Though they had been allies hospital use. during the war, the US and USSR distrusted each 1946 The Indian Claims Commission Act is other and began to engage in proxy wars in various passed into law. The ICCA was the parts of the world, most notably right away in culmination of 16 years of effort by Korea. Mitchell RedCloud, Jr., a young Ho-chunk Congress to create a new mechanism man who lived in the Hatfield area (and graduate of to resolve ancient tribal claims Black River High School), fought valiantly in both against the United States. The Act World War 2 and the Korean Conflict eventually was essentially remedial in nature being killed near the Yalu River in 1950. He was and constituted a broad waiver of the awarded the Medal of Honor after his death. United States’ sovereign immunity. The United States Supreme Court, quoting from the By the late 1940s, US society begins to plunge into a legislative history of the ICCA, has period of “Red Scare.” Driven by Senator Joseph stated: "The 'chief purpose of the [Act McCarthy of Wisconsin, many in American society was] to dispose of the Indian claims and government became convinced that the Soviet problem with finality.' The Claims Union, along with the global forces of Communism, Commission was one of the original were attempting to undermine the American goals of the Society of American government from within. Indians.

The TERMINATION ACT is signed into law in 1953. 1947 Reverend Mitchell Whiterabbit, From 1953-1964, the government terminated World War II veteran, accepts the recognition of a total of 109 tribes and bands as call as pastor for the UCC parish at sovereign dependent nations. The population of the Mission. Native Americans who gave up tribal affiliation 1949 Tribal reorganization begins when totaled over 12,000 Native Americans or 3% of the the Nebraska Winnebago and total Native American population. Approximately Wisconsin Ho-Chunk agree to bring 2,500,000 acres (10,000 km2) of trust land was a common claim before the Indian removed from protected status during these years. Claims Commission. Much was sold by individuals to non-Natives.

The Ho-Chunk Veteran’s The termination of these tribes ended federal Organization is organized. government relations with and recognition of those 1950s By the middle 1950s, the Hochunkgra tribal governments and ended federal recognition of School went to a K-6 configuration tribal jurisdiction over their lands. In addition to and Ho-chunk children began to ending the tribal rights as sovereign nations, the attend the Junior High School in policy terminated federal support of most of the Black River. As part of the District’s health care and education programs, police and fire “consolidation” of country schools fighting departments available to Indians on during the 50s and 60s, the reservations. Given the considerable geographic Hochunkgra School was closed after isolation of many reservations and inherent the 1962-63 school year. This came economic problems, not many tribes had the funds within the context of the Civil Rights to continue such services after termination was Movement and calls for the implemented. The tribes initially selected for INTEGRATION of public schools termination had been considered groups who were (post 1954). Beginning in the fall of the most successful in the United States, in some 1963, most of the Ho-Chunk students cases, because of natural resources controlled by were bussed to Gebhardt Elementary their reservations. The Menominee Tribe of in Brockway for K-6 and then Wisconsin was one of the tribes that experience attended Junior High and High termination. The Termination Policy was reversed School in BRF. in 1973.

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1962 The Wisconsin Winnebago Tribal During the 1950s, US society underwent major Constitution is written under changes including dramatic increases in guidelines established by the Indian consumerism and a changing American lifestyle, the Reorganization Act (IRA), part of the advent of suburban expansion, as well as the early “Indian New Deal” of the 1930s. This stirrings of the Civil Rights Movement. ultimately led to federal recognition The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 dramatically of the tribe. confronts Soviet and American leaders with the 1963 A referendum is taken regarding the dangers of the nuclear world. reorganization of the tribe, the first officers are elected, and the first The assassination of John Kennedy in 1963 marks a General Council election is held. dramatic moment in modern American history. The school district of Black River Falls builds a new high school located in the west side of the community.

Due to the significant changes that have occurred in Indian Country since 1963, I am configuring the last portion of this timeline with three columns as noted.

The Hochungra Indian Country The United States Journey Highlights Journey 1964-1969 The early years of the The middle to late 1960s The period from 1964-1969 newly reorganized brought important changes brought many changes to the governing structure saw to Indian Country. The American landscape. the development of the Indian Civil Rights Act of Increasing involvement in the Pow-wow grounds, Indian 1968 extended many Bill of Vietnam War led to a surging Mission property, and the Rights protections to tribal anti-war movement on the Indian Heights Housing citizens. The American nation’s college campuses. In site. Indian Movement (A.I.M.) addition, major changes came was founded in Minneapolis through the so-called “Great in large part as a response to Society” legislation of the the treatment of Native period. Notably, the Civil people in the face of the law. Rights Act of 1964 and the In 1969 Vine Deloria, Jr. Voting Rights Act of 1965 published Custer Died for signaled the most far- Your Sins, an Indian reaching changes related to Manifesto that gave voice to people of color since the Civil the various struggles Native War. people were experiencing and signaled the rise of the “Red 1968 was a particularly Power” movement. Deloria’s tumultuous year in America work also increasingly with the assassination of both reached a non-native Martin Luther King, Jr. audience. In 1969 Indian () and Presidential activists took over the island candidate Robert Kennedy of Alcatraz to raise awareness (June). Richard Nixon of injustices. In that same defeated Hubert Humphrey year a Senate report was for the Presidency in an issued titled, “Indian extremely close election. The Education: A National Nixon Administration proved Tragedy – A National to be progressive in its

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Challenge.” Robert Kennedy approach to American Indian had initiated the study and people. was involved until his untimely death in 1968. His brother Edward continued the work. 1970-75 The Indian Claims 1970: President Nixon calls The period from 1970-75 was Commission approves a for a new era of SELF- dominated by the Vietnam Winnebago claim for $4.6 DETERMINATION for Native War and the Watergate million. This was for lost people. Crisis. Richard Nixon was re- lands due to fraudulent elected by a landslide in 1972 treaties. 1972: The “Trail of Broken and ultimately initiated Treaties” march on significant changes in the US In 1971 Blue Wing Village Washington, D.C. relationship with both the was built near Wyeville (32 Soviet Union and . acres of land). 1972: The Indian Education Act is passed. The last US combat troops are withdrawn from Vietnam 1973: The Menominee in 1973. Restoration Act is passed. The Arab Oil Embargo of 1973 1973: The Siege at Wounded signals the beginning of Knee, South Dakota takes major changes in the US place. related to energy use and an ever-increasing involvement 1974: Women of All Red in the Middle East. Nations (WARN) is founded. Richard Nixon was forced to 1974: The “Boldt Decision” resign in August of 1974 due finds in favor of Indian to his role in the Watergate fishing rights in the Pacific Affair and Northwest.’ became President.

1975: The Indian Self- The Fall of Saigon in April of Determination and 1975 signals the victory of the Educational Assistance Act is North Vietnamese and passed. reunification of Vietnam under a Communist government. 1976-1980 1976: The Sand Pillow 1976: The Indian Health Care Jimmy Carter is elected Housing site is developed Improvement Act is passed. President in 1976, in large east of Black River Falls. measure, as a reaction to the 1977: Leonard Peltier is events of Watergate. 1980: Continued convicted of shooting two FBI development of tribal agents on Pine Ridge The US enters a period of properties east of Black Reservation. His case draws neo-isolationism as a reaction River Falls (future site of international attention (he to the Vietnam War. Ho-chunk Casino and C- remains in prison in 2015). Store. The nation enters a period of 1978: The “Longest Walk” détente with the Soviet from Alcatraz to Washington, Union leading to the SALT D.C. Agreement. This relaxation

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in tension survives until 1978: The Indian Child December of 1979 when the Welfare Act is passed. Soviets invade Afghanistan. Ultimately, the US will 1978: The American Indian support the Mujahadin (aka Religious Freedom Act is Freedom Fighters) in passed. Afghanistan.

1978: In the case of Oliphant The US economy slides into a v. Suquamish, the Supreme recessionary period with high Court denies tribes the power inflation and high of criminal jurisdiction over unemployment. non-Indian people on reservations. 52 Americans are taken hostage by revolutionaries in 1979: The Archaeological and held for 444 days. Resources Protection Act is The Hostage Crisis signals the passed. start of a generation of conflict with Iran that is currently being played out in a dispute over nuclear weapons. The Crisis also brings an increasing awareness in the United States of Islamic Fundamentalism. Our conflict with Iran also leads to US support for (and Sadaam Hussein) during the Iran-Iraq War.

Republican Ronald Reagan is elected President in 1980. 1980-1990 Continued economic 1980: The US Supreme Court During the 1980s, the United development in the finds in favor of the Sioux in States sees a revival of the Baraboo and the Lake the Black Hills Case. Cold War followed by a Delton area. significant thaw in the 1981: The Reagan relationship due to internal The Tomah and Black River Administration initiates changes within the Soviet Falls Smoke Shops are severe cutbacks in Indian Union and the diplomacy of opened in 1983. social program funding. Reagan and his Soviet counter-part, Mikhail The Sands Bingo Hall is 1982: The Indian Mineral Gorbechev. opened in 1987. This Development Act is passed. ultimately evolves into the The US becomes deeply larger gaming enterprises Treaty-rights related to embroiled in the internal of the Ho-Chunk Nation. fishing became a focal point struggles going on in both El in Wisconsin beginning in Salvador and Nicaragua. The property that the mid-1970s. In 1983, the ultimately will be the site US Court of Appeals for the The Reagan Administration of the Executive Building 7th Circuit ruled in favor of passes the largest tax cut in the Lac Courte Oreilles Band American history, followed by

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and the Tribal Courts is in a ruling known as the dramatic tax increases that secured in 1989. Voigt Decision. The ruling support the largest peace- was further supported when time build-up of the The Language Division the US Supreme Court American military in history. property in Mauston is refused to hear an appeal. Ultimately the nation climbs secured. The Voigt Decision has been out of recession but much upheld in subsequent public debate centers on the challenges. debt and deficit issue.

1984: Angry protests began In 1984 Reagan is re-elected when the Ojibwe began in a landslide. spearing fish in off- reservation lakes. Groups During his second term, the such as Stop Treaty Abuse Administration becomes (STA) and Protect American entangled in the Iran-Contra Rights and Resources (PARR) Scandal. used various forms of political pressure to prevent George Bush is elected spear-fishing by tribal President in 1988 and will members. By the late 1980s, serve for one term. protests had become violent. The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1985: Wilma Mankiller 1989 signals major changes becomes the principal Chief for eastern Europe and the of the . Soviet Union.

1988: The Cabazon Decision The invasion of Kuwait by opens the door to tribal Iraq (under the leadership of gaming in the United States Sadaam Hussein) prompts and signals a major change the US action in the Gulf that currently impacts War. roughly 1/3 of the tribal nations.

1989/90: Act 31 was passed by the Wisconsin Legislature mandating curriculum changes aimed at increasing awareness of Wisconsin Indians, issues of sovereignty, and civil rights.

1990: The Native American Grave Protection and Repatriation Act is passed. 1991-2000 1992: The Ho-Chunk 1993: Ada Deer (Menominee) The fall of the Soviet Union Nation signs its first is the first woman appointed in 1991 and the establishment gaming compact with the as Assistant Secretary for of the Commonwealth of state of Wisconsin. Indian Affairs. Independent States (Russian Federation) ushers in the 1993: Majestic Pines, “Post-Cold War world. Rainbow Bingo and Casino,

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and Ho-Chunk Casino hold 1994: Native American Free Bill Clinton is elected grand openings. Exercise of Religion Act is President in 1992. passed. 1994: On November 1st, the Throughout the 1990s, the US Wisconsin Winnebago 1998: President Clinton signs will consistently confront the officially adopt their new Executive Order on American growing threat of terrorism. constitution. They change Indian and Alaska Native their name to the Ho- Education. The US economy will Chunk Sovereign Nation, experience the so-called derived from “Hochungra,” “Dot-Com” bubble in the the name they always latter 1990s ushering in a called themselves. The BIA period of economic recognizes the new prosperity and deficit constitution. reduction.

1995: The Tribal Executive Clinton is elected for a Building is opened in Black second term in 1996. The River Falls, the seat of tribal majority of his second term is government. clouded by the Lewinsky scandal and ultimately With increasing revenues, Clinton is impeached by the the Ho-Chunk Nation US House. The Senate fails to initiatives major economic convict him and he completes development activities his term. throughout their land- holdings. By the early 21st Century, HCN becomes the largest employer in Jackson County. 2001- The current period is 2002: President George W. George W. Bush assumes the Present witnessing dramatic Bush reaffirms the federal Presidency after the dramatic changes in all aspects of government’s commitment to and disputed election of the Ho-Chunk Nation’s tribal colleges and 2000. activities. Economic and universities. political developments are In of 2001, the US ongoing. Language and 2004: US v. Lara reaffirms is attacked by terrorists and cultural preservation, the power of Indian tribes to nearly 3000 people are killed. always important, continue prosecute non-member “9-11” signals the start of an to challenge the Nation. Indians for crimes on ongoing and dramatic reservations. confrontation between the The relationship between US and its allies and the the HCN and the BRF 2006: The Canadian forces of terrorism, primarily School District continues Government pays $8 billion located in the Middle East. to evolve. Beyond the full in reparation to 80,000 integration that occurred in former students of Indian In February of 2002 the US 1963, a significant change Boarding Schools. invades Afghanistan came in 2006 with the (Operation Enduring advent of “Grade Centers” Freedom) in response to the in the district elementary 9-11 attacks. The war will schools. Grade Centers continue through December meant more mixing of all of 2014. students beginning in

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Kindergarten, a subtle In March of 2003 the US though dramatic change. invades Iraq in response to ongoing conflicts with In 2010, the BRF District Sadaam Hussein. The war and HCN signed a will continue through 2010. “Memorandum of Understanding,” signaling a George Bush is re-elected in more systematic and 2004. In the final year of his thorough ongoing dialogue second term, the US sinks than had occurred into the “Great Recession” of previously. 2008. Senator Barack Obama will be elected in 2008, in Beginning in 2011, Ho- part, due to his opposition to Chunk Language classes the Iraq War. His election have been offered at initiates much discussion in BRFHS and in the fall of the nation concerning issues 2014 a new dual-credit class of race. He is re-elected in was initiated in the 2012. History/Social Studies Department in affiliation with the First Nations Study Department of UW- Green Bay. The class is one of two such offerings in Wisconsin high schools (Prescott is the other).

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