Plugging the Holes in Hepatitis C Virus Antiviral Therapy
Total Page：16
File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb
COMMENTARY Plugging the holes in hepatitis C virus antiviral therapy Stephen D. C. Griffin1 Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology and Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Mount Preston Street, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom growing number of RNA vi- ruses are now known to de- pend on virus-encoded ion channels for efficient produc- Ation of infectious virions and, in some cases, for the subsequent infection of naı¨ve cells. So-called viroporins are small hydrophobic proteins, usually less than 100 aa in length, and typically con- tain 1 or 2 transmembrane domains (TMDs); oligomerization is therefore necessary for the formation of ion channel complexes. By far the best- characterized viroporin is the M2 proton channel of influenza A virus, which is the target for the antiviral drugs aman- tadine and rimantadine (1). M2 sets a precedent for viroporins as therapeutic targets that has driven research into the ion channels of other clinically impor- tant viruses. In the light of rapid RNA virus evolution generating drug resis- tance, new compounds targeting viro- porins could be a valuable addition to future combinatorial antiviral strategies. Difficulties associated with working with membrane proteins in high-throughput systems lend support to a rational ap- proach for drug development based on the availability of high-resolution molecular structures. In this issue of PNAS, Luik et al. (2), describe the first structure of a complete viroporin complex, the p7 ion channel of hepatitis C virus (HCV), at 16-Å res- olution by using single-particle electron microscopy. The hexameric p7 complex (42 kDa) is one of the smallest objects Fig. 1. Potential sites of action for p7 inhibitors in the HCV life cycle. p7 could function during multiple stages to be visualized by these methods to of HCV particle production and may also play a role during infection. As such, inhibitors could block HCV at date which, combined with the hydro- multiple stages of the life cycle. At early stages (stage 1) p7 may interact with NS2 to promote efficient virion phobic nature of p7, renders this work assembly. p7 channels in secretory vesicles can prevent their acidification (stage 2), which could protect viral an impressive technical achievement. glycoproteins from premature fusogenic change or alter vesicle trafficking during exocytosis. The effect of p7 inhibitors on virus entry suggests that the ion channel is incorporated into secreted virions (stage 3). After virus Whereas high-resolution structural infor- entry (stage 4; for simplicity, only the CD81 receptor is shown), endosome acidification (stage 5) induces mation is available for M2 (3, 4), where fusogenic change in the viral glycoproteins and p7 potentially permits the passage of protons into the viral a short amino-terminal peptide is suffi- core, destabilizing the structure and promoting efficient uncoating (stage 6). cient to form the tetrameric channel complex, p7 channels comprise both TMDs from each protomer and so have served 3D structures not only provides replicate in chimpanzees (10), and com- thus far proved elusive in crystallo- clues to the gating of p7 channels, but pounds that block its activity in vitro graphic or NMR-based studies. This first could pave the way to future rational also inhibit particle production in cul- p7 structure is therefore of great impor- drug design, as a basis for deriving high- ture, validating it as a therapeutic target tance to the HCV field and provides resolution structures in the future, but (11, 12). The precise way in which p7 vital information on channel size, stoi- also in the short term by validating channel activity enhances particle pro- chiometry, and the orientation of p7 these molecular models for use in vir- duction, however, is unknown. Growing protomers within the channel complex. tual compound screening. evidence suggests that p7 behaves simi- The authors include an energy-mini- Like other viroporins, p7 has been mized model for the channel complex shown by several groups to display cat- that fits within the observed density and ion channel activity in vitro (5–7) and is Author contributions: S.D.C.G. wrote the paper. adopts a ‘‘flower petal’’ conformation now known to play a vital role during The author declares no conflict of interest. visible in the EM reconstructions. Com- virion secretion in culture (8, 9). Criti- See companion article on page 12712. bining molecular modeling with ob- cally, p7 is required for the virus to 1E-mail: s.d.c.griffi[email protected]. www.pnas.org͞cgi͞doi͞10.1073͞pnas.0906760106 PNAS ͉ August 4, 2009 ͉ vol. 106 ͉ no. 31 ͉ 12567–12568 Downloaded by guest on October 6, 2021 larly to M2 (13–15), which functions escape as effectively as combining virus- ing that a relatively small number of during both particle assembly and cell specific compounds. This eventuality is amino acid changes might be necessary entry: protecting viral glycoproteins well illustrated in HIV patients by the for HCV to escape this class of inhibi- from low pH during secretion, then, as a success of HAART (highly active anti- tors. The genetic barrier to such minor virion component, promoting un- retroviral therapy) and in vitro by the changes, however, may be raised com- coating of the viral core after exposure suppression of resistance in influenza by pared with enzymatic targets, given the to low pH in the endosome during in- using combinations of amantadine with requirement to retain interactions be- fection. Unlike influenza virus, however, oseltamivir (16). Future HCV treatment tween protomers involved in the forma- secreted HCV virions are relatively acid regimes, therefore, will no doubt entail tion of the intricate, flower-shaped, hexameric channel complex observed by stable, and it is not known whether p7 cocktails of several specific inhibitors, Luik et al. (2). resides in virions, although p7 inhibitors making the expansion of available drug What then, does the future hold for partially block virus entry (11). Much targets of paramount importance. the development of p7 inhibitors as work is needed to define precisely how To date, p7 inhibitors identified in HCV antivirals? The lessons learned p7 functions and so elucidate the stage vitro or in culture have been co-opted from HIV and from influenza must be of the virus life cycle where inhibitory from other virus systems, and no tailor- followed if the limited number of avail- compounds act (see Fig. 1). made compounds have been developed. able HCV-specific compounds is to pro- Is there a need for p7 inhibitors to be Adamantanes (amantadine and rimanta- vide ample coverage; use of these com- developed as new HCV therapies? Cer- dine) hail from influenza, whereas both pounds in isolation would no doubt lead tainly there is great demand for new alkylated iminosugars and amilorides to their becoming clinically inexpedient, virus-specific HCV drugs to treat the were originally targeted for HIV ther- as is the situation for rimantadine and 170 million individuals chronically in- apy. Of these, amantadine has been the influenza. Testing documented p7-spe- fected with the virus. A high level of subject of numerous clinical trials along- cific drugs in combination with HCV innate resistance and the rapid evolution side IFN/Rib, although many of these protease or polymerase inhibitors rather of viral quasispecies within individuals were instigated before identifying p7 as than IFN/Rib may provide the required render the current standard of care a target. Inclusion of amantadine over a proof of principle of their clinical effi- therapy comprising interferon ␣ (IFN␣) 48-week treatment has been shown to cacy and a means of rapidly adding and ribavirin (Rib) ineffective in around have little, if any, impact on patient end- drugs already validated in other systems 50% of cases. This lack of efficacy is of-treatment response, although retreat- to the anti-HCV repertoire. The Austra- largely because of the highly prevalent ing previous IFN/Rib nonresponders lian company Biotron has a new p7 in- hibitor, BIT225, in early stage Ib/IIa genotype 1 viruses, which are associated with IFN/Rib/amantadine triple therapy trials, but other examples of such com- with poor treatment outcome and more can improve results (17). This observa- pounds are not forthcoming. The expan- aggressive disease. The immune- tion has led to controversy over the use- sion of newly available p7 inhibitors will enhancing effect of IFN and the uncer- fulness of p7 inhibitors as effective HCV require either a convenient means of tain mode of action for Rib have treatments, yet it is highly likely that this measuring ion channel activity in high- therefore led researchers to pursue spe- lack of efficacy is due to the evolution throughput systems or a rational ap- cific HCV antivirals as a new generation or preexistence of amantadine-resistant proach achieved through an understand- of therapy. Drugs targeting the viral HCV quasispecies early during treat- ing of the channel complex structure. protease and polymerase are forthcom- ment (18). Supportive of this notion, The work of Luik et al. (2) represents ing, yet evidence already suggests that triple therapy nonresponders have been the first major advance toward this goal the virus rapidly becomes resistant shown to acquire specific mutations in and heightens optimism that p7 inhibi- where these drugs are used alone, just the p7 sequence not seen in IFN/Rib tors could become part of the standard as seen for the first HIV patients receiv- dual therapy (19), and amantadine of care HCV therapy. ing AZT (3Ј-azido-3Ј-deoxythymidine). monotherapy can transiently reduce vi- Combination of IFN/Rib with specific ral load (20). Accordingly, the effects of ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Work on p7 in my labora- tory is funded by the United Kingdom Medical HCV antivirals is effective, but is un- p7 inhibitors on particle production in Research Council (G0700124), the Wellcome Trust likely to raise the genetic barrier to viral culture are strain specific (11), suggest- (082812), and the Royal Society (RG081138).