Reproductive Biology of the Brown Tree Snake, Boiga Irregularis (Reptilia: Colubridae), During Colonization of Guam and Comparison with That in Their Native Range1

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Reproductive Biology of the Brown Tree Snake, Boiga Irregularis (Reptilia: Colubridae), During Colonization of Guam and Comparison with That in Their Native Range1 Reproductive Biology of the Brown Tree Snake, Boiga irregularis (Reptilia: Colubridae), during Colonization of Guam and Comparison with That in Their Native Range1 Julie A. Savidge2,3, Fiona J. Qualls2,4, and Gordon H. Rodda5 Abstract: Since their introduction to Guam shortly after World War II, brown tree snakes, Boiga irregularis (Merrem), have seriously impacted the biota and human population of the island. Understanding the biology of this exotic spe- cies will likely be important to the success of control programs. We compared the reproductive biology of 782 B. irregularis caught on Guam during the 1980s with results from published studies of native-range populations. Average and maximum sizes of mature snakes on Guam were larger than those from Austra- lian populations. The majority of female brown tree snakes matured at snout- vent lengths (SVLs) of 910–1,025 mm, and most males matured at SVLs of 940–1,030 mm on Guam. Based on growth rates from the early 1990s on Guam, sexual maturity is estimated to occur during a snake’s third or fourth year. Only one female (0.3%) in our data set had oviductal eggs. Clutch size was estimated at 4.3 (SD ¼ 2:2), based on large vitellogenic ovarian follicle (b30 mm in length) and oviductal egg counts. Unlike their Australian counter- parts, the Guam population reproduced year-round. Our data offer insights into the likely reproductive patterns of brown tree snakes should they infest other islands in the Pacific region. Brown tree snakes, Boiga irregularis mariannus (Wiles 1987, Wiles et al. 1995). In (Merrem), were inadvertently introduced addition, they are a recognized public health from Australasia to Guam around the end of threat (Fritts et al. 1990, 1994) and a substan- World War II, and by the mid-1980s the tial drain on the island’s economy (Fritts et al. snakes were abundant and distributed island- 1987, Fritts 2002). Accordingly, researchers wide (Savidge 1987). To date, they have been and wildlife management agencies continue responsible for the severe decline or extirpa- to develop tools aimed at controlling and tion of the island’s native forest bird species eradicating brown tree snakes from Guam (Savidge 1987), loss of two lizard species and stopping their spread to other islands. (Rodda and Fritts 1992), and a decline in Consideration of biological factors when de- numbers of the Mariana fruit bat, Pteropus m. signing eradication and control programs al- lows for maximum effectiveness with limited resources. 1 Preparation of this work was supported by the U.S. Despite being the most intensively studied Department of the Interior’s Office of Insular Affairs. Boiga species, relatively little is known about Manuscript accepted 16 June 2006. the reproductive biology of the brown tree 2 Department of Fishery and Wildlife Biology, Colo- snake, either in its native range (Indonesia to rado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523. Solomon Islands and the north and east rims 3 Corresponding author: [email protected]. 4 Current address: Jones County Junior College, 900 of Australia) or on Guam. We present results South Court Street, Ellisville, Mississippi 39437. from a study of the reproductive characteris- 5 U.S. Geological Survey, Fort Collins Science Cen- tics of the Guam population during the 1980s ter, 2150 Centre Avenue, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526. and include comparisons with data collected from native-range populations (in this case, Pacific Science (2007), vol. 61, no. 2:191–199 Australia and Papua New Guinea). Combined : 2007 by University of Hawai‘i Press with data from the 1980s on food habits and All rights reserved population characteristics of brown tree snakes 191 192 PACIFIC SCIENCE . April 2007 on Guam (Savidge 1988, 1991), these data on ever, growth rates over 8.8 to 16.6 months reproductive biology provide a baseline for were available for 36 wild snakes that initially future comparisons and insight into the colo- ranged in SVL from approximately 580 to nization process by supplying a snapshot of 1,250 mm (Rodda et al. 1999). We calculated the reproductive characteristics of a recently an estimated mean age at maturity using our established brown tree snake population. calculated mean sizes for sexual maturation and mean growth rates reported in Rodda materials and methods et al. (16.8 mm/month and 13.1 mm/month for males and females, respectively), assuming Between 1982 and 1987 one of the authors growth is constant from a hatching size of ( J.A.S.) recorded morphological and repro- 375 mm SVL. ductive data from 782 brown tree snakes We used linear regression to analyze the (455 males, 327 females) that were collected relationship between SVL and testis mass. from numerous sites on Guam. Approxi- We plotted the residual scores from the re- mately 65% of snakes in the study were live- gression (i.e., measures of testis mass cor- captured by hand or by trapping in nonurban rected for the influence of body size) and locations. The remainder was obtained in ur- used analysis of variance (ANOVA) to com- ban areas, including a small number (<10%) pare the mean residual testis mass among of roadkills. After collection, live snakes were months. A square-root transformation nor- killed by freezing. Sex, snout-vent length malized the testes mass data. Statistical signif- (SVL), total length, and mass of thawed icance was set at P a :05. snakes were recorded. In female snakes, ovar- ian follicles and oviductal eggs were grouped results into size classes (<5 mm, 5–19 mm, 20–29 mm, b30 mm), the length of the largest Size and Age of Guam Brown Tree Snakes at ovarian follicle or oviductal egg measured, Maturity and the condition of oviducts recorded. We Female B. irregularis matured over a large considered females sexually mature if oviduc- range of sizes on Guam (Table 1). The small- tal eggs were present, ovarian follicles were est female to show evidence of maturation b5 mm diameter, or oviducts were thickened measured 840 mm SVL. The largest female (Shine 1987, 1991). Oviducts of 57 mature fe- to show no evidence of maturation measured males were examined for presence of sperm 1,110 mm SVL. Removal of outlying data by dissecting out the oviduct, gently washing points (the smallest 5% of mature females it with water, and examining the fluid micro- and largest 5% of immature females) indi- scopically (Shine 1977). To assess activity of cates that 90% of females matured at SVLs females with large follicles or oviductal eggs, between 910 and 1,025 mm. Males matured the stomach was examined for evidence of re- over an even greater size range. The smallest cent foraging. The length of the right testis mature male measured 805 mm SVL, and the and the combined mass of both testes were largest immature male measured 1,135 mm recorded for all males. In addition, the condi- SVL. However, 90% of males matured at tion of the vasa deferentia and the presence SVLs between 940 and 1,030 mm. of spermatozoa were recorded for 147 indi- If sexual maturation occurs at the mean viduals. The latter was determined by exam- sizes estimated here and growth is constant, ining small macerated fragments of the vasa at the mean growth rates reported in Rodda deferentia under a phase-contrast microscope et al. (1999), median age at maturity would (Shine 1977). Males were scored as mature if be 3.1 yr (males) and 3.7 yr (females). they showed fully developed convolutions (an indication of sperm presence) or spermatozoa Females with Large Follicles or Oviductal Eggs were present. We had no information on the maturation Fourteen females (4.3%) had vitellogenic fol- state of wild individuals of known age. How- licles b30 mm long, and an additional six fe- Brown Tree Snake Reproduction . Savidge et al. 193 TABLE 1 Size and Mass at Maturity of B. irregularis Collected on Guam from 1982 to 1987 and from Australian Populations (Shine 1991) Population Trait Males Females Guam SVL (mm) Sample range (n) 375–2,400 (455) 350–1,650 (327) Mature snake mean G SD (n) 1,308 G 298 (191) 1,078 G 138 (124) Mature snake extremes 805–2,400 840–1,650 Total length Sample range (n) 480–2,910 (453) 453–1,990 (326) (mm) Mature snake mean G SD (n) 1,652 G 362 (191) 1,366 G 165 (123) Mature snake extremes 1,030–2,910 1,080–1,990 Mass (g) Sample range (n) 7–2,300 (453) 7–1,800 (327) Mature snake mean G SD (n) 523 G 538 (191) 230 G 228 (124) Mature snake extremes 60–2,300 67–1,800 New South Wales, SVL (mm) Mature snake mean G SD (n) 1,015 G 249 (42) 976 G 157 (21) Australia Mature snake range 624–1,630 637–1,218 Northern Territory, SVL (mm) Mature snake mean G SD (n) 1,035 G 163 (24) 974 G 118 (22) Australia Mature snake range 850–1,535 780–1,225 Queensland, Australia SVL (mm) Mature snake mean G SD (n) 1,012 G 163 (59) 926 G 100 (38) Mature snake range 675–1,470 725–1,185 Note: SVL, snout-vent length; SD, standard deviation; n, sample size. males had follicles between 20 and 29 mm follicles b5 mm long or oviductal eggs were long. Only one female (0.3%) had oviductal captured in every month (Figure 1). Mature eggs. Of females with follicles b30 mm long, male brown tree snakes exhibited a positive 79% had prey items in their stomachs. The linear relationship between SVL and the one female with oviductal eggs had no prey square root of testis mass (r 2 ¼ 0:75; F ¼ items in its stomach.
Recommended publications
  • Guidelines for Keeping Venomous Snakes in the NT
    GUIDELINES FOR KEEPING VENOMOUS SNAKES IN THE NT Venomous snakes are potentially dangerous to humans, and for this reason extreme caution must be exercised when keeping or handling them in captivity. Prospective venomous snake owners should be well informed about the needs and requirements for keeping these animals in captivity. Permits The keeping of protected wildlife in the Northern Territory is regulated by a permit system under the Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 2006 (TPWC Act). Conditions are included on permits, and the Parks and Wildlife Commission of the Northern Territory (“PWCNT”) may issue infringement notices or cancel permits if conditions are breached. A Permit to Keep Protected Wildlife enables people to legally possess native vertebrate animals in captivity in the Northern Territory. The permit system assists the PWCNT to monitor wildlife kept in captivity and to detect any illegal activities associated with the keeping of, and trade in, native wildlife. Venomous snakes are protected throughout the Northern Territory and may not be removed from the wild without the appropriate licences and permits. People are required to hold a Keep Permit (Category 1–3) to legally keep venomous snakes in the Northern Territory. Premises will be inspected by PWCNT staff to evaluate their suitability prior to any Keep Permit (Category 1– 3) being granted. Approvals may also be required from local councils, the Northern Territory Planning Authority, and the Department of Health and Community Services. Consignment of venomous snakes between the Northern Territory and other States and Territories can only be undertaken with an appropriate import / export permit. There are three categories of venomous snake permitted to be kept in captivity in the Northern Territory: Keep Permit (Category 1) – Mildly Dangerous Venomous Keep Permit (Category 2) – Dangerous Venomous Keep Permit (Category 3) – Highly Dangerous Venomous Venomous snakes must be obtained from a legal source (i.e.
    [Show full text]
  • Operational Control of the Brown Tree Snake on Guam
    OPERATIONAL CONTROL OF THE BROWN TREE SNAKE ON GUAM THOMAS C. HALL, USDA/APHIS/ADC, 2800 N. Lincoln Blvd., Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73105. ABSTRACT: An operational control program for brown tree snakes (Boiga i"egularis) on Guam began in April 1993. The program focused on minimizing the dispersal of brown tree snakes to other Pacific islands and the U.S. mainland. During the first year of operation, more than 3,000 snakes were caught within a kilometer of high risk port facilities using traps, detector dogs, and spotlighting. Additionally, habitat modifications and prey-base removal were used to reduce the attractiveness of these facilities to brown tree snakes. Public awareness was also an important part of the program such as the education of cargo packers, shippers, and Customs inspectors who could further minimiu brown tree snake dispersal off-island. Initial control efforts in the program became more efficient with the recognition of brown tree snake characteristics, i.e., it was discovered that perimeter trapping a 5 ha patch of jungle was sufficient to remove most snakes instead of saturating the area with traps. KEY WORDS: brown tree snake, snake control Proc. 17th Vertebr. Pest Conf. (R.M. Timm & A.C. Crabb, Eds.) Published at Univ. of Calif., Davis. 1996. INTRODUCTION methods for resolving the problem. Background Brown tree snakes have caused significant information is given here so that the complexity of this environmental and economic impacts since their problem can be understood. inadvertent introduction to the island of Guam in the late 1940s. Other islands in the Pacific and the U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • Stop the Brown Tree- Snake
    BROWN TREESNAKES WHAT TO DO FOUND IN HAWAI‘I IF YOU SEE A SNAKE APRIL 1981: A live snake is found crawling in 1. Call the Pest Hotline immediately: 643- the customs area at the Honolulu Airport. PEST. Monitor the snake until trained authorities arrive. If the snake is resting or JULY 1981: A dead snake is found at Barbers hiding in an enclosed area, do not disturb it. Point Naval Air Station. 2. If it is moving and you are unable to contain MAY 1986: A live snake is found on a post it, track its location until authorities arrive. guide-wire at Hickam Air Force Base. 3. If the snake attempts to flee, and it is safe to OCTOBER 1989: A dead snake is found next to do so, kill it by striking the back of its head a cargo jet at Hickam Air Force Base. with a heavy object, or cut it in half with a machete or other implement. SEPTEMBER 1991: A dead snake is found on a runway at Honolulu Airport and a live snake 4. If the snake is dead, put it in a plastic bag is found under a cargo jet at Hickam Air Force labeled with the location, date and time of Base. capture. Store it in the freezer for pick up and examination by authorities. DECEMBER 1994: A live snake is discovered in a warehouse on Schofield Barracks. 5. If you have a pet snake, voluntarily turn it in by calling 643-PEST which offers immunity AUGUST 1998: A dead snake is found in the from prosecution.
    [Show full text]
  • Myths Surrounding Snakes
    MYTHS SURROUNDING SNAKES MYTH 1: Bites from baby venomous snakes are more dangerous than those from adults because they always deliver a full dose of venom. The legend goes that young snakes have not yet learned how to control the amount of venom they inject. They are therefore more dangerous than adult snakes, which will restrict the amount of venom they use in a bite or “dry bite”. This is simply untrue and all the evidence points towards bites from adults being more severe. Tests have shown that juvenile snakes can control their venom just as much as adults. Furthermore lets consider the following factors: adults have significantly larger fangs to deliver their venom and considerably more venom available than a juvenile. Therefore if a juvenile has venom glands only big enough to hold a 2ml of venom compared to an adult that can hold 30ml or more, then the bite from an adult will always have the potential to be more severe. I presume the reason this myth came into existence was to dissuade people from having a carefree attitude towards the potential dangers of a juvenile snake. The moral of the story is to treat every snake as a potentially dangerous and never expose your self to a situation where a snake of any size can bite you. MYTH 2: If you see a snake they’ll always be more Although it is possible to see more than one snake, for the most part this statement is untrue. Snakes are solitary animals for most of their lives so generally you will only ever encounter individuals.
    [Show full text]
  • Common Snakes of the Fraser Coast
    Chris Muller pictured above Common Snakes of the Fraser Coast By Jenny Watts At the end of an informative and entertaining talk by Chris Muller in front of 35 people I was left feeling how lucky we are to have a such an knowledgeable and reptile passionate person living in our area. We want Chris to come and talk to us more! Chris is currently working in a team contracted by our local council to revegetate natural areas. But he came to talk to us about his passion - snakes – and the association he has that goes back a long way. Chris’s dad was a scientist and Chris grew up around snakes. He was a member of a National Parks and Wildlife crew catching snakes even before he left school! Interspersed with information about the most commonly found snakes in our backyards (he included a legless lizard as well as pythons, tree snakes, freshwater keelbacks and a number of Elapids – venomous snakes) Chris told us hairy stories of snake catching. The most jaw dropping was handling a death adder while driving a tourist bus (“I didn’t realise they were so strong”) and extracting a big brown from under the bonnet of a car (“lucky it was contained by the radiator grill as it was directly under me”). So here are some of those snakes and some information: Burtons Legless Lizard This is a very common reptile found in our backyards where it is an aggressive feeder of small skinks. It is often mistaken for a snake but is a lizard – having ear holes, a broad flat tongue and small vestigial legs.
    [Show full text]
  • Distribution of Cane Toads (Rhinella Marina) in Florida and Their Status in Natural Areas
    DISTRIBUTION OF CANE TOADS (RHINELLA MARINA) IN FLORIDA AND THEIR STATUS IN NATURAL AREAS By AUDREY C. WILSON A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2016 © 2016 Audrey C. Wilson To my family ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my advisor, Steve A. Johnson, for his guidance throughout this project and for providing financial support. I am grateful to my committee members, Christina Romagosa and Betsie Rothermel, for their constant support. Jamie Barichivich provided invaluable advice during the planning and analysis of my thesis. The USGS loaned me the equipment necessary for the fieldwork, without which this project would not have been possible. Camila Rodriguez frequently assisted me in the field. James Colee from IFAS statistical consulting helped with analysis. I am also grateful to the faculty, students, and staff of the Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation for their patience and support. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. 4 LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ 7 LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... 8 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Nest Sites, Clutch Size and Incubation Behavior in the Golden White-Eye
    j. Field Ornithol., 65(1):65-69 NEST SITES, CLUTCH SIZE AND INCUBATION BEHAVIOR IN THE GOLDEN WHITE-EYE COLLEEN M. STINSON USDA Sod Conservatzon Service P.O. Box 5082 Saipan,MP 96950 USA DEREK W. STINSON 1 Dwzsionof Fzshand Wildhfe Commonwealthof the Northern ,VlarzanaIslands Saipan,MP 96950 USA Abstract.--The GoldenWhite-eye (Cleptornismarchez), a little-known endemicof the Mar- iana Islandsin the westernPacific, neststhroughout the year in a variety of forestedand semi-openhabitats. Data from 11 nestsindicate the typical clutch size is two. Incubation at three nestslasted 14 d and the altricial young fledge 10-14 d after hatching.The parents seemto shareequally in broodingand rearing tasksduring daylight. LUGARESDE ANIDAMIENTO, TAMAI•IO DE LA CAMADAY CONDUCTA DE INCUBACI(SN DE CLEPTORNIS MARCHEl Sinopsis.--Cleptormsmarchei es una especieendSmica de las Islas Marianas, de la cual se conocemuy poco.E1 ave anida a travis de todo el afio en una gran variedadde habitats forestadosy semi-abiertos.E1 tamafiotipico de la camadaes de dos huevos(n = 11). En tres nidosestudiados el periodode incubaci6nresult6 set de 14 dias y los pichones,que son altriciales, dejaron el nido de 10 a 14 dias luego de haber nacido. Los adultos parecen compartirde igual forma la incubaci6ny cuidadode los pichonesdurante las horasdiurnas. The Golden White-eye (Cleptornismarchei), is a little known endemic to Saipanand Aguiguanin the Mariana Islands(Fig. 1). It was previously consideredan aberrant honeyeater(Meliphagidae), but is now considered a white-eye (Zosteropidae)perhaps related to Rukia (Bruce 1978, Pratt et al. 1987, Sibley and Monroe 1990). Although the Golden White-eye is common in all wooded habitats, the nesting behavior has not been previouslydescribed (Craig 1990, Engbring et al.
    [Show full text]
  • An Overview of the Biology of the Brown Treesnake* (Boiga Irregularis), a Costly Introduced Pest on Pacific Islands
    University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln USDA National Wildlife Research Center - Staff U.S. Department of Agriculture: Animal and Publications Plant Health Inspection Service April 1999 An Overview of the Biology of the Brown Treesnake* (Boiga irregularis), a Costly Introduced Pest on Pacific Islands Gordon H. Rodda Thomas H. Fritts Michael J. McCoid Earl W. Campbell III Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdm_usdanwrc Part of the Environmental Sciences Commons Rodda, Gordon H.; Fritts, Thomas H.; McCoid, Michael J.; and Campbell, Earl W. III, "An Overview of the Biology of the Brown Treesnake* (Boiga irregularis), a Costly Introduced Pest on Pacific Islands" (1999). USDA National Wildlife Research Center - Staff Publications. 659. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdm_usdanwrc/659 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the U.S. Department of Agriculture: Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in USDA National Wildlife Research Center - Staff Publications by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. 2 An Overview of the Biology of the Brown Treesna ke* ( Boigo irreguluris), a Costly Introduced Pest on Pacific Islands THE GENUS BOlGA The 2&30 species of the genus Boiga (Colubridae, Boiginae) range from tropical Africa through southern Asia to Melanesia and Australia (Leviton, 1968). Collec- tively, they are known as catsnakes, mangrove snakes, or treesnakes (Obst et al., 1988; Greene, 1989). The common name "catsnakes" is sometimes used for snakes in the genus Telescopus as well (Obst et 1,1988).
    [Show full text]
  • Boiga Irregularis (Brown Tree Snakes) on Guam and Its Effect on Fauna
    Boiga irregularis (Brown Tree Snakes) on Guam and Its Effect on Fauna Alexandria Amand Introduction The island of Guam, a U. S. Territory, is located in the tropical western Pacific, nearly equidistant from Japan to the north, the Philippines to the west, and New Guinea to the South (Enbring & Ftitts 1988). The island is longer than it is wide and is divided into a diverse landscape with forests and cliffs in the north and primarily savannas and river valleys in the south (Savidge 1987). Guam is also a land of great biodiversity including small mammals, reptiles, and numerous bird species; however, snakes are not a natural part of this biodiversity. The burrowing blind snake (Rhamphotyphlops braminus), the only native snake to Guam, does not pose a threat to the fauna, yet the introduction of Boiga irregularis (brown tree snake) has threatened the island’s biodiversity. Boiga irregularis a native to Indonesia, New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Australia, was introduced to Guam by way of navy vessels shortly after World War II where it is an exotic and invasive species (Butler 1997). As a result of its accidental introduction and population explosion, Boiga irregularis is responsible for a loss of biodiversity through predation. Boiga irregualris has had devastating effects particularly on avifauna such as the Guam rail and Guam flycatcher, small mammals including the Mariana fruit bat, and reptiles such as geckos and skinks. This paper will outline the negative impact that Boiga irregularis has had on the biodiversity of Guam, as well as the techniques being used to control the snakes population and discuss their effectiveness.
    [Show full text]
  • The Ecological Impact of Invasive Cane Toads on Tropical Snakes: Field Data Do Not Support Laboratory-Based Predictions
    Ecology, 92(2), 2011, pp. 422–431 Ó 2011 by the Ecological Society of America The ecological impact of invasive cane toads on tropical snakes: Field data do not support laboratory-based predictions 1 GREGORY P. BROWN,BENJAMIN L. PHILLIPS, AND RICHARD SHINE School of Biological Sciences A08, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia Abstract. Predicting which species will be affected by an invasive taxon is critical to developing conservation priorities, but this is a difficult task. A previous study on the impact of invasive cane toads (Bufo marinus) on Australian snakes attempted to predict vulnerability a priori based on the assumptions that any snake species that eats frogs, and is vulnerable to toad toxins, may be at risk from the toad invasion. We used time-series analyses to evaluate the accuracy of that prediction, based on .3600 standardized nocturnal surveys over a 138- month period on 12 species of snakes and lizards on a floodplain in the Australian wet–dry tropics, bracketing the arrival of cane toads at this site. Contrary to prediction, encounter rates with most species were unaffected by toad arrival, and some taxa predicted to be vulnerable to toads increased rather than declined (e.g., death adder Acanthophis praelongus; Children’s python Antaresia childreni). Indirect positive effects of toad invasion (perhaps mediated by toad-induced mortality of predatory varanid lizards) and stochastic weather events outweighed effects of toad invasion for most snake species. Our study casts doubt on the ability of a priori desktop studies, or short-term field surveys, to predict or document the ecological impact of invasive species.
    [Show full text]
  • Snakes of the Wet Tropics
    Snakes of the Wet Tropics Snakes are protected by law Snakes are shy creatures. When confronted by humans, they will usually retreat if given the opportunity to do so. As most bites occur when people try to catch and kill snakes, they should always be left well alone. Snakes in the Wet Tropics The Wet Tropics region is home to 43 species of snakes, representing an impressive 30% of Australia’s snake fauna. These images represent a selection of the more common species, most of which have ranges extending beyond the Wet Tropics. Of the species pictured, only the northern crowned snake is unique to this region. The snakes of the region range from small, worm-like blind snakes to six metre pythons. Only a handful fall into the dangerously venomous category, but these few play an important role in balancing the natural environment, as they are significant predators of rats and mice. Snakes in the backyard If you live near bushland or creeks you are more likely to encounter snakes in your garden, especially if there is habitat disturbance such as burning or clearing of vegetation in the local area. To discourage snakes from taking up residence around your home remove likely hiding places such as logs, building materials, long grass, loose rocks, discarded flower pots and corrugated iron. Snakes in the house Snakes will sometimes enter a house in search of food and shelter - particularly during periods of extended rain. The risk of this happening can be reduced by having well-sealed doors and screens over external windows.
    [Show full text]
  • A Review of the Impact and Control of Cane Toads in Australia with Recommendations for Future Research and Management Approaches
    A REVIEW OF THE IMPACT AND CONTROL OF CANE TOADS IN AUSTRALIA WITH RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH AND MANAGEMENT APPROACHES A Report to the Vertebrate Pests Committee from the National Cane Toad Taskforce Edited by Robert Taylor and Glenn Edwards June 2005 ISBN: 0724548629 CONTENTS AUTHORS................................................................................................................. iii MEMBERSHIP OF THE NATIONAL CANE TOAD TASKFORCE ............... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................... iv SUMMARY .................................................................................................................v DISCLAIMER.......................................................................................................... xii 1. INTRODUCTION Glenn Edwards.......................................................................1 2. THE CURRENT THREAT POSED BY CANE TOADS Damian McRae, Rod Kennett and Robert Taylor.......................................................................................3 2.1 Existing literature reviews of cane toad impacts ...................................................3 2.2 Environmental impacts of cane toads ....................................................................3 2.3 Social impacts of cane toads................................................................................10 2.4 Economic impact of cane toads ...........................................................................16 2.5 Recommendations................................................................................................17
    [Show full text]