Flint Mining in Northern France and : a Review

Françoise Bostyn INRAP Nord-Picardie, UMR 8215-Trajectoires, 11 rue des Champs, 59650 Villeneuve d’Ascq, France e-mail: [email protected] Hélène Collet Service public de Wallonie, Service de l’Archéologie de la Direction du Hainaut I, 52 rue d’, B-7032 e-mail: [email protected] Jean-Philippe Collin Université de Namur, LIATEC, Université Paris 1, UMR 8215, Rue de Bruxelles 61, B-5000 Namur, Belgium e-mail: [email protected] François Giligny Université Paris 1, UMR 8215, Trajectoires, Maison René Ginouvès, 21 Allée de l’université, F-92023 NANTERRE Cedex, France e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: This article proposes an overview of current knowledge on flint mines in France and Belgium. Indeed since 1995 there has been no review of the documentation on this question and on the state of research regarding several themes: status of sites, dating, and product distribution. Several new discoveries in France resulted from preventive archaeology, such as Ressons- sur-Matz, Ri-Rônai, Mesnil-Saint-Loup, Espins or Loisy-en-Brie. Other formerly known quarries were rediscovered or partially explored at Soumont-Saint-Quentin, Flins-sur-Seine and in the region of the Saint-Gond marsh. In Belgium, extraction pits were investigated at Rullen, and in the basin, excavation was undertaken at several sites (Harmignies, Villerot, ) and productions were studied on others (Flénu, Douvrain). At the major site of Spiennes, new shafts and workshops were excavated, with discoveries of human skeletons in their fillings. Extensive radiocarbon dating was undertaken on several mining sites, but this was still insufficient to characterize all the extraction activity. While the dates indicate a peak of exploitation in the 4th mil- lennium BC, certain mines such as Spiennes were exploited for a very long period, about 2000 years. The choices of production vary: certain mines with a local impact have productions restricted to rather domestic use, whereas others such as Spiennes and Jablines are massively exploited and diffuse at a regional scale, or even at a greater distance, extracting at depth and producing quality products with a high level level of know-how (Spiennes, Jablines). The analysis of the products distribution from these two mining centres shows that finished products circulated over several hundred kilometres. Keywords: flint mine, France, Belgium, axes, distribution networks, radiocarbon dates

Introduction New archaeological data on flint mines Discoveries and rediscoveries in France The publication of a voluminous catalogue (in 1980, at the Bochum conference; Weisgerber 1980), providing Since the discoveries in the late 1980s of the flint mines the scientific community with a detailed state of at Jablines ‘le Haut-Château’ (Seine-et-Marne district; knowledge on flint mines throughout Europe, marked Bostyn and Lanchon 1992), during construction of a turning point in flint-mining research, at last a high-speed railway link, and in the Othe region, placing it in the position it deserved – at the forefront during construction of the A5 motorway (de Labriffe et of technological and socio-economic studies on the al. 1995a, 1995b; de Labriffe and Sidéra 1995a, 1995b), European Neolithic. This catalogue was updated in some new flint mines have been added to the corpus of a special volume of Archaeologia Polona, published on mining sites in France (Fig. 1). the occasion of the 7th Flint symposium in 1995 at Krzemionki Opatowskie, Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski In 2005, a new flint mine exploiting the Campanian district (Lech 1995). The present special volume in level was discovered at Ressons-sur-Matz, Oise honour of Jacek Lech provides us the opportunity to district (Beaujard and Bostyn 2008). Unfortunately, propose a new synthesis of knowledge acquired over the no excavation was conducted on this site, and only last 20 years on the subject, focusing however on north- the information collected during the archaeological western France and Belgium. Nevertheless, the aim of diagnostic is available today. The removal of subsoil this article is not only to provide an inventory of recent on a surface of 2000m2 in addition to trial trenches discoveries, but also to address some particular topics, helped to delimit the extraction area to the north, where significant progress has been made, such as the south and east, while the site continues westward out status of mining sites, the dating of mining activity or of the excavated zone. Thirty-eight extraction features the distribution networks of specialised productions. were mapped on surface but just one was partially

25 Between History and Archaeology

Fig. 1. Map of the flint mines in France and Belgium. CAD: F. Giligny.

excavated. The shaft is 2.75m deep and the length of low intensity of extraction underground. The lithic the galleries at the bottom is no greater than 2.5m. The remains testify almost exclusively to axe production, archaeological finds from the filling of the shaft consist even if some cores indicate flake production. This flint essentially of waste, particularly with a fragment of mine belongs to the mining complex of the Othe region bifacial preform. Only one fragment of unworked deer defined at the time of the A5 motorway excavations (de antler was found on the bottom of one gallery and was Labriffe and Thebault 1995), including the flint mines probably a reserve for the manufacture of mining tools. of Villemaur-sur-Vanne ‘les Orlets’ and ‘Le Grand Bois Even if we cannot extrapolate the evidence from one pit Marot’ (de Labriffe et al. 1995a, 1995b) and the mine to the entire flint mine, the proximity of the shafts on of Palis ‘le Buisson Gendre’ (de Labriffe and Sidéra the surface suggests that this mine is composed of small 1995a). It shares many common characteristics, such and relatively shallow shafts. The best comparisons can as the morphological diversity of the features, the low be found on the flint mines of Nointel and Hardivillers intensity of exploitation of the flint levels and the high (Oise district; Dijkman 1980; Agache 1959) and the density of pits on surface. Ressons flint mine seems to match the standard Picardy mining sites exploiting Cretaceous levels through small Recently, another new flint mine was found at Loisy-en- shafts with chambers or short galleries. Brie (Marne district) during the construction of a house (Martineau et al. 2014). The extraction features are also In 2009, another flint mine was discovered at Mesnil- shallow pits or small shafts with a few short galleries. Saint-Loup (Aube district) and the excavations Sometimes the features are several metres wide but no conducted in 2010 on a surface of 8000m2 revealed more more than one metre deep, because the flint levels in than 560 extraction features which were all mechanically the Campanian chalk outcrop here. excavated (Hauzeur et al. 2010). Various types of features have been found, from simple mining pits (on A new flint mine was discovered at Ri-Rônai (Orne average 0.90m deep) to deeper shafts (maximum 2.85m district) in advance of construction of the A88 deep) with short and more or less radiant exploitation motorway between Caen and Sées. A surface area of at the bottom. The high density of pits on the surface, 2.2ha was investigated and 550 features were identified some of them adjacent, probably resulted from the (Ghesquière et al. 2012). Five main types of feature

26 Françoise Bostyn et al.: Flint Mining in Northern France and Belgium were encountered: single pits that were not deep but vary from one mine to another. Dating of these sites sometimes several metres wide, shafts with chambers is not firmly established for the moment, as only one or with complete exploitation at the bottom all around date is available (others are in progress), but the close the shaft, approximately 1.2m deep, deeper shafts (2m) relationship between the flint mines and the collective of 2/3m diameter on surface, and deeper shafts (4m), tombs suggests at least one operating phase during the sometimes with two extraction levels. In these cases Late/Final Neolithic. the level of raw material is completely exploited and additional galleries are sometimes dug and extend the Finally, we can mention a collective research project existing ones. Raw material included in the Jurassic directed by François Giligny on the flint mine of Flins- chalk levels comes in the form of regular and very sur-Seine (Yvelines district), first identified by surface compact spheres that do not offer a suitable angle collections of abundant lithic artefacts, especially for knapping. It is necessary to break these spheres flaked axes. The comparison of aerial photographs into two, then use each half independently. The main and geophysical surveys confirmed the existence of production conducted on the mine is also axe blade extraction features (Giligny and Bostyn 2016), but none production, carried out on the half spheres or on large have been excavated. The important work of recording, flakes. mapping and production analysis has clarified the different stages of the operational sequence of axe The last flint mine discovery that may be mentioned, production, which are strictly comparable to those is that of Espins ‘Foupendant’ (Calvados district), made known from the flint mine of Jablines where the same during an archaeological diagnostic (Charraud 2015) tertiary raw material has been exploited. Moreover, when thirty three extraction features were discovered. the terms of distribution of finished or semi-finished Four of them, mechanically excavated, are simple pits products, especially towards western France, was which depth can reach 3.3m. The Cinglais flint exploited clarified. This research enlarged to all raw material in these shafts has been searched exclusively for blade available locally or imported from distant regions production performed by indirect percussion. Two (Britain, Italy for example), highlighted the dynamism radiocarbon dates obtained on charcoal from the filling of axe blade distribution networks, with the river Seine of one of the shafts, allow to situate the mining activity acting as an important axis for travel and circulation. in the early Neolithic, which is perfectly consistent with the lithic remains found. This makes it one of the All these flint mines (excluding Flins), although working oldest flint mining sites in France. at different geological horizons (Cretaceous and Jurassic), have a number of common characteristics, Furthermore, some formerly recorded flint mines were specific types of shallow features, often pits or shafts the subject of new research. In 2008, the flint mine of with chambers or small galleries. The consequence is Soumont-Saint-Quentin (Calvados district) was re- a considerable surface density of shafts, which enables investigated and more than 50 features were observed optimal exploitation of the resources. The deepest (Ghesquière et al. 2008). Only 9 have been partially shafts, present on all sites, are probably tests to identify excavated. Jurassic flint was extracted by means of other exploitable flint levels. In fact, the labour involved simple pits or shafts with galleries about 2m deep. The in digging these features is not excessive and would not aim was to obtain nodules for the production of regular have required a high level of expertise. blades and tranchets. The comparisons with the mine of Espins, which is located about fifteen kilometres to Twenty years of flint mines discoveries in Belgium the west, lead the authors to attribute also this flint mine to the early Neolithic. In Belgium research has continued over the last twenty years, almost exclusively in the Mons Basin. No further In the Saint-Gond marshes region, a research project investigation has improved our knowledge on mining directed by Rémi Martineau enabled a complete review sites formerly identified in Brabant and Hesbaye. of all the old documentation (Martineau et al. 2014). The information on flint mining sites was largely In Voeren near the Dutch border, chipping floors were under-exploited, as previous work had focused mainly spotted at the end of the 19th century at Rullen-Haut, on the hypogea cemeteries. The re-analysis of these Rullen-Bas, Sint-Pieters-Voeren ‘Vrouwenbos’ (a place old data confirmed and documented the flint mines comprising Fouron Saint-Pierre ‘Bois Communal’ and of Villevenard ‘La Craïère’, Coizard ‘La Haie Jeanneton’ ‘Bois des Sapins’) as well as Remersdael ‘Rodebos’ and and Vert-la-Gravelle/Toulon-la-Montage, as well as ‘Hoogbos’ but no extraction feature had ever been Vertus ‘Grandval’ located around 10km to the north. identified and excavated there. The survey of the All these flint mines exploited the same Campanian laying of a gas pipeline in 1998 confirmed the presence level of flint in the Cretaceous chalk. This level forms of a flint extraction site south of the hamlet of Rullen a discontinuous outcrop, the depth of which seems to (village of Sint-Pieters-Voeren). Two flint extraction

27 Between History and Archaeology pits, a test pit and several flint knapping waste areas of the chalk. Exploited flint comes from the base of the were unearthed. Both pits have a funnel-shaped profile. dissolution pipe, where flint accumulations have been They have a diameter of 5.2m and 7.2m and a depth of identified. The knapping waste on the site, especially 1.7 and 3.2m (Creemers et al. 1998). The exploited flint from the shallow pit, indicates the production of axe- occurs as a flint nodules accumulation layer from the heads and flakes but also the good level of expertise of weathering of upper Maastrichtian chalk. Flint also the knappers. Three deer antler tools have enabled us occurs in secondary position in slope deposits where it to date the structure between 3100 and 2900 BC. is mixed with the Oligocene sand. It was exploited in both stratigraphic positions, especially on the slopes A potential mining site was identified at Villerot of a dry valley where flint is near the surface. One of ‘Lambiez’. Artefacts either present a fresh cortex the features (ST5) could be dated to the Late Neolithic or reflect acquisition in dissolved chalk levels. The (IRPA–1273: 4580 ± 40 BP). According to two radiocarbon matrices have the typical characteristics of local flint. dates from the chipping floors, the exploitation could The presence of shallow extraction pits in the area have been active during the Bronze Age (Lv–1858: 3770 where the flint outcrops cannot be excluded. The ± 80 BP and Lv–1138: 3570 ± 70 BP). Flint was worked tranchets tools, particularly numerous, might have on site for obtaining laminar products and axe-heads. been used for extraction (Van Assche and Dufrasnes The extraction features, knapping workshops and 2009). The lithics recovered from survey suggest an productions are reminiscent of low scale intermittent activity during the Middle Neolithic. The few fragments exploitation. The lithic study indicates that the of polished axe-heads are made of Douvrain type assemblage is technologically unsophisticated and that flint. However, artefacts made of Villerot flint such as knappers did not have a very high level of know-how tranchets and flake tools were identified within a 10km (Creemers et al. 1998; Vermeersch et al. 2005). area around Villerot ‘Lambiez’, on the surface of the settlements of Sirault ‘Notre-Dame de la Délivrance’ In the Mons Basin, excavations have focused primarily (Middle Neolithic), Harchies ‘Rieu’ and Harchies ‘L’étang on the mining site of Spiennes, where research and de Préau’. preventive excavations were conducted from 1997 until now by the Walloon Public Service and the Society of At Mesvin ‘Sans Pareil’ archaeological survey has Prehistoric Research in Hainaut. Also, a critical review confirmed the presence of an extraction feature near of mining sites of the Mons Basin has been drawn up the area excavated in 1957 (Collet and Woodbury 2008). based on existing literature and surveys (Collin 2016). The productions of the site remain to be characterized. On the same plateau, the existence of mines in at If we already know that the existence of flint mines in a place called ‘Trou des Sarrasins’ is unverifiable. The Strépy ‘Carrière Denuit’ and ‘Carrière Roland’ area was completely destroyed in the 19th century by must be rejected (de Heinzelin et al. 1993), we must now the faience and phosphatic chalk industries (Cornet do the same for Saint-Symphorien ‘Le Cerneau / Les 1947: 45). Phosphates’ and ‘Le Moulineau’, as there is no convincing evidence for the mining character of these At Flénu, on the plateau of ‘L’Ostenne’, several 10 sites. The presence of a mining site at Obourg cannot metres deep extraction features have been observed in however be excluded. Indeed, a fortuitous discovery in the past (Briart and Cornet 1872). Survey in advance of a place called ‘The Village’ has raised the question of road development has confirmed the mining status of mining activity in this locality. Mining tools made of the site (Leblois and Pacyna 1994) and ongoing research red deer antler dated between 4600 and 4500 BC were has specified an activity oriented to the production of discovered at depth of 2m (Jadin et al. 2008). However, Turonian axe-heads, generally small in size and with no lithic material was recovered and the mining context a narrow butt. It has to be noted that the density of could not been confirmed by any archaeological features is very uneven on the 40 hectares covered by excavation. the site.

A small-scale preventive operation was undertaken in At Douvrain, the exact position of the extraction 2004 in Harmignies at a place called ‘La Fosse’ (Collet et features remains unknown. However, the study of a al. 2004). The stripping of a surface of 1800m² revealed large collection at the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural a single mining feature partially destroyed by modern Sciences originating from chipping floors discovered in quarrying activity, as well as a shallow pit containing this hamlet has confirmed the presence of flint mines flint knapping waste. The extraction feature was just in this locality. This is a coherent assemblage consisting under 2m deep and included three short galleries about of several hundred axe rough-outs, associated with 60cm high. One is dug into the chalk, and the other a few flint extraction picks. In this vast collection, a two at the boundary between the chalk and indurated significant variability of raw material was observed, sands present in the dissolution pipe located at the top including the type called ‘Ghlin flint’. Current studies

28 Françoise Bostyn et al.: Flint Mining in Northern France and Belgium indicate that Douvrain axe-heads are distributed as far An intense development of the extraction activity at as 45km, including Final Neolithic contexts (Gillet et al. the end of the 5th millennium and at the beginning 2015). of the 4th: an illusion from radiocarbon dates or a reality? At Spiennes, three shafts of 9 and 10m depth have been investigated thoroughly since 1997. These excavations With a few rare exceptions, the mining sites yield complement the data available in this sector and reveal very few artefacts other than lithic products. This a complex stratigraphy, reflecting long-lasting filling constantly raises the question of chronology and processes as well as interruptions in backfilling. This is especially the attribution of mining sites to a specific evidence for seasonal organization of mining activities cultural group. A link can sometimes be established on the site (Collet et al. 2016). These excavations have with nearby settlement sites, as is the case with the provided new environmental data (Collet and Van Jablines mine and settlements in the Marne valley such Neer 2002; Defgnée and Collet 2003). Human skeletons as Vignely ‘Noue Fenard’, to which we can associate were also found in the fills of these features (Collet several graves containing polished axes (Bostyn 2015), and Toussaint 1998; Lavachery et al. 2015). Various or with Spiennes where a Michelsberg enclosure was preventive excavations in the vicinity of deep shafts built (Vanmontfort et al. 2008). But in certain areas, such and in two other places at the ‘Camp-à-Cayaux’ and as the ‘Pays d’Othe’, the evidence is very incomplete along the valley of the river La Trouille, combined with and such relations cannot be established. Thus use systematic surveys conducted by François Gosselin, of radiocarbon dates is an essential solution, even if helped clarify the extent of the mining areas and better the method is not entirely satisfactory, due to error define the site’s size (Collet et al. 2008). Chipping floor margins for all dates, even using AMS, and the problem excavations were also carried out at ‘Camp-à-Cayaux’ of plateaus on the calibration curve. Over the last 20 and ‘Petit-Spiennes’. The study of the raw material years, archaeological operations have nevertheless economy shows a drastic selection practiced from the provided large series of dates which complete the data extraction phase and confirms a whole activity oriented acquired in the 1990s. In France, the most significant towards the production of axe-heads and blades (Collet series come from excavations of the mines at Ri- et al. 2014; Collet et al. 2016). These new excavations, as Rônai (Ghesquière et al. 2012) and Mesnil-Saint-Loup well as the analysis of results from older excavations, (Hauzeur et al. 2010; Bostyn et al. 2018). These large helped to increase significantly the number of dates series of dates (52 at Ri-Rônai and 30 at Mesnil-Saint- available for the site. There are now forty dates for Loup), are particularly interesting because they relate the three mining areas and for the ditched enclosure to vast sites, occasionally with complete transects of (Collet et al. 2016). the mine, as at Ri-Rônai (or Jablines). This improves the representativeness of the sample. Socioeconomic and cultural contexts of mining At Spiennes, where preventive and research excavation While fieldwork in France over recent years is mainly has been continuous for 20 years, 32 dates have been related to preventive archaeology, several research obtained for the various exploited sectors. The interest projects, some of which involve both France and here is that, thanks to intensive re-examination of Belgium, have enabled work to be completed on areas information obtained in 150 years of research on this surrounding mining sites, in a wide range of domains.1 site (Collet et al. 2008), the dated samples concern We shall return here to three particular domains: varied contexts and all the investigated sectors of the progress in the dating of the mining phenomenon in mining site. Furthermore, the last excavations at Petit- France and in Belgium, a reflection on the status of the Spiennes, some of which are still in progress, offered mining sites and an approach to the question of the the opportunity to obtain several dates on the same diffusion of mining products. shaft but from different phases, from its exploitation then from its abandonment. This approach enables one to estimate the length of time involved in the complete 1 We should mention here the Programme collectif de recherches sur filling of rather deep shafts, the stratigraphy of which le Néolithique de l’Ouest parisien (Giligny and Bostyn 2016), which already testifies to a long and complex history. was especially focused on the Flins-sur-Seine flint mine, the Programme collectif de recherches sur la géoarchéologie du silex 2 dans le nord-ouest de la France (Allard et al. 2005), the French-German The compilation of radiocarbon dates available (fig ANR DFG project on the Michelsberg directed by J.-P. Demoule and 2) adds up to 93 dates for the sites of Spiennes (32), F. Lüth (Aubry et al. 2014), the JADE ANR project directed by Pierre Harmignies (3), Obourg (2), Rullen (1), Ri-Rônai (28)3, Petrequin (Giligny et al. 2012), the cooperation program with RBINS and IAE PAN (Collet et al., 2008); the Spiennes flint mining site dating project and the study of human remains conducted by the public 2 Six dates have been excluded: one from Saint-Mihiel, one from Service of in collaboration with the Royal Belgian Institute Jablines, one from Nointel, two from Bretteville-le-Rabet, due to their of Natural Sciences and AWEM (Toussaint et al. 2010), as well as high standard deviations (+- 190 or more), and a date with old wood doctoral research on productions from flint mines in the Mons Basin effect from Mesvin. and their diffusion (Collin, in progress). 3 A total of 52 dates were made on the Ri-Rônai mine, but some of

29 Between History and Archaeology

Jablines (20), St-Mihiel (2), Ressons (1), Sèvres (1) and Hallencourt (1), which we can compare to the 60 dates from the ‘Pays d’Othe’ and the Yonne (Serbonnes – 14, Palis 4, Villemaur-sur-Vanne ‘Bois Marot’ – 4, Villemaur-sur-Vanne ‘Les Orlets’ – 8 and Mesnil-Saint- Loup – 30). These dates indicate that the beginning of the exploitation of certain sites may have started in the middle of the 5th millennium BC, as at Obourg ‘Le Village’, and more certainly from the end of the 5th millennium BC, as at Mesvin. At Villemaur-sur- Vanne, the majority of the extraction features are also connected with this phase and the radiocarbon dating is coherent with one of the rare finds from the features, in this particular case a complete pottery vessel attributed to the beginning of the regional Middle Neolithic II (de Labriffe et al. 1995b). But intensive mining activity is clearly dated to the first quarter of the 4th millennium on the majority of sites (Ri, Jablines, Spiennes ‘Camp à Cayaux’ and ‘Petit-Spiennes’, Mesnil-Saint-Loup). Nevertheless, in the sector of Petit-Spiennes, the main exploitation phase takes place during the second half of the 4th millennium, which is also the time when activity seems to develop at Rullen, Harmignies, Palis and Serbonnes. Lastly, even if it appears less intense, the extraction of raw material continues on the mines, sometimes right up to the end of the Neolithic.

If we compiled all the available dates for France and Belgium according to the same principles as those implemented by Tim Kerig and his collaborators on the scale of Europe (Kerig et al. 2015), it is likely we would obtain a curve rather close to theirs (op cit, Fig. 2), at least for the second part of the Neolithic from 4200 BC, with a very marked peak around 4000 BC. The parallel evolution of the curves of fluctuation in mining activities and population density suggests quite strong links between demography and mining, with increases and reductions in lithic production reflecting actual economic cycles. However, although this cumulative approach effectively highlights broad evolutionary trends, it does mask regional disparities. First of all, as regards the early Neolithic of regions concerned by this study (between 5100 and 4750 cal BC), while we observe a considerable increase in the number of sites and thus probably in population, together with an intensification of long distances exchange networks (Allard 2005; Bostyn and Denis 2016), the indications of mining remain so far particularly tenuous (cf. above). There are still very few radiocarbon dates confirming the presence of mining features during the early Neolithic.

Besides, we can probably see in the increase of mining activities at the end of the 5th millennium BC, Fig. 2. Radiocarbon dates from flint mines (except Pays d’Othe), ordered chronologically by site. After Bostyn and these have yet to be published. The whole set of dates is Lanchon 1992; Collet et al. 2004; Vermeersch et al. 2005; coherent, according to oral information kindly provided by Beaujard and Bostyn 2008; Jadin et al. 2008; Toussaint et al. Emmanuel Ghesquière and Cyril Marcigny, to whom we express our gratitude here. 2010; Ghesquière et al. 2012; Collet et al. 2016.

30 Françoise Bostyn et al.: Flint Mining in Northern France and Belgium accompanied by massive production of axes blades, standard (Harmignies ‘La Fosse’), is restricted and the reflection of an evolution of economic activities. anecdotal in terms of socio-economic impact. On the The forest clearance attested by palaeo-environmental contrary, the significant investment in the form of deep studies could indicate not only forest exploitation shafts at Spiennes and Flénu is explained by the choice linked to a high demand for timber used for buildings to exploit specific flint seams, in line with defined and fences, but also an evolution in the management of productions. Besides the quality of the raw material, fields and pastures. richness of the seams and morphometry of blocks are essential. This is not the raw material as such which Furthermore, we cannot avoid the question of the was sought, but blanks conducive to mass production representativeness of the series of dates available of axe-heads and regular blades. This enables one to today. They may appear numerous, but they only date determine which extraction sites had a structural small parts of the mining sites, which always cover vast economic function: Douvrain, Flénu and Spiennes. This surface areas but have never been very extensively correlation between investment in the acquisition and explored. So, it is very likely that the durations of production of blanks and the importance of the site mining exploitation would be considerably extended if in exchange networks peaked with the deep shafts of these sites were more exhaustively investigated, as at the Camp-à-Cayaux at Spiennes. Regular slabs of 500kg Spiennes where various sectors of the site were studied were quarried there to a depth of 16m, despite the and where the exploitation covers about two millennia. presence of shallower seams of exploitable nodules. Spiennes is also the only site of the Mons Basin where To conclude on the question of radiocarbon dates, the production of long blades is attested, and this is the available data in our study area show very intense particularly well documented in the ‘Camp-à-Cayaux’. mining activity throughout 4th millennium BC, marked however by some variability between the mining sites, In the northwest of France, similar observations can resulting from the conjunction of various factors. The be made between mining sites. The Bartonian Tertiary small number of dates testifying to mining activity in flint worked at the Jablines mine comes in the form of the 3rd millennium is probably more attributable to slabs, certainly less voluminous than those of Spiennes, a deficit of data than an actual population decline – a but larger than the nodules from the Cretaceous decline which is in fact contradicted by the numerous horizons. In addition, their tabular morphology is a discoveries in recent years of settlement sites in major asset for the production of bifacial pieces that northern France (Joseph et al. 2011). naturally fit into the initial volumes, while the more Spatial structure of territories: towards a hierarchy irregular morphology and less suitable Cretaceous between mining sites? nodules require a prior trimming of blocks with an inevitable loss of volume. The search for high-quality In the various research projects, particular attention raw material at Jablines is attested by features over was paid to the theme of the location of flint mines 7m deep, requiring a significant investment not only within territories and their impact on the socio- for sinking the shaft but also for digging galleries economic structure of Neolithic populations. that also reach out more than 7m horizontally. On the other hand, the extraction features that exploited the To consider the mining phenomenon as a whole is not Cretaceous horizons are mostly around 2–3m deep, and a satisfactory approach, as we have seen previously: are sometimes simple pits. Underground features are mining sites have not all been operating simultaneously. rarely extensive, consisting of alveoli and a few small, Moreover, other factors such as the characteristics of shallow galleries. The use life of these structures is the material used and the means used for its acquisition rather short. Furthermore, in addition to providing the need to be considered. There are significant differences raw material for axe production, the shafts probably in the morphology of the extraction features and in supplied the vast majority of the raw material used for particular in the depth of the shafts. the domestic productions, most of which come from Chasséen settlement contexts (Augereau et al. 2016). At a macro-regional scale, the various mining sites of Lastly, in the well-documented areas such as the middle the Mons Basin are distinguished by the investment in Oise valley, there is good evidence for links at local the acquisition of flint blanks (dissolution pipe versus level between flint mines, plateau and valley enclosures deep mines), their flagship products (blades, axe-heads, and open settlements, all spread over an area of about flake tools) and, as a corollary, their distribution. Two 20km in diameter (Aubry et al. 2014). The flint mines trends in acquisition-production strategies stand out. seem well integrated into the spatial structure of the The first, as at Villerot and Harmignies, is to limit territories and the axe-heads produced on these mines investment in terms of raw material acquisition, which did not circulate over long distances, remaining in use results in a production that, even if it can be of high in a local context.

31 Between History and Archaeology

Thus one can see a hierarchy between mines with a assemblages from sites located at 20–60km distance, high level of investment in the methods of acquisition such as Spiere, Ottenburg/Grez-Doiceau and Schorisse, at depth of quality raw materials and shallower show that the mining site of Spiennes plays a definite mines apparently dedicated to the supply of material role in raw material procurement strategies. This can for domestic productions. So one last factor is also be partially linked to the deficit of raw material near involved in the territorial organization, directly related these settlements, especially in Brabant. For sites to the quality of the productions in mining contexts: located at 60–80km distance, Spiennes flint is found in the destination of products. This can either be local, much lower quantities and above all, beside finished regional or extra-regional. products like polished axes and blades, there are flakes or flake tools whose size and presence of cortex confirm Production and distribution of mining products: that they do not originate from re-shaping axes. Over the middle Neolithic case (Chasséen, Michelsberg, 80km, up to 150km, there are only finished products Spiere) (blades and axes) from the specialised productions, but they appear to be rare. However, Spiennes type The distribution of productions from mines has been flint (or light grey Belgian flint) has been reported studied through different research projects, but work on the Michelsberg site of Koslar (Germany), where has mostly focused on the middle Neolithic, due to the Rijckholt flint predominates, although this remains to high number of settlements, some of which have been be clarified (Hamard 1993; Schön 2008). If confirmed, recently excavated, providing large and varied lithic this would provide additional evidence for a privileged assemblages which have been exhaustively studied. distribution of Spiennes flint in the Michelsberg area. The remainder of the artefacts come from enclosure sites, providing a homogeneous type of context for As regards the Bartonian flint, the situation is more study. Given the ranking proposed above, it seemed difficult to understand because of the potentially important to estimate the respective influence of the simultaneous working of the flint mines at Jablines mines of Spiennes and Jablines on the lithic economy and Flins. Also there is very probably a third mine of settlements, and to evaluate the influence of these at Lhery (Marne), although this has not yet been large mining complexes (Bostyn and Collet 2011). The formally identified. Therefore, we will only take into research conducted on the flint mine of Flins-sur-Seine, account sites located over 40km from these three the second one exploiting Bartonian flint, provided mines. It is interesting to note that the data are quite the opportunity to carry out a detailed study of the similar, because on all the sites located between 40 operating sequences and the distribution of Bartonian and 70km, such as Boury-en-Vexin, Catenoy, Bercy, axes to the west (Giligny et al. 2012). Others projects Maison-Alfort, next to the blades and axe-heads which are now underway, notably an inventory of flint arrived as finished products, there are some flakes resources in the Mons basin, supplemented by a study and flake tools. Over 70–80km, only finished products of the distribution of mining tools between the middle are found. We must insist on the fact that the type of Neolithic and the final Neolithic (Collin in progress). imported product differs according to the site’s cultural background. At Louviers (Eure) for example (Giligny Focusing on the mining complex of Spiennes, various 2005), a site belonging to the Chasséen culture, axes studies (Colman 1957; Hubert 1969; Collet 2012) have and two roughouts were imported and they represent shown that there were two main productions: axe- two third of this type of tool. Further east, at Mairy heads, the largest of which are 28cm long, and long (Ardennes), where Spiennes flint is abundant despite blades (up to 20cm) from blade cores with posterior the distance from the mine, Bartonian flint axes are crest preparation. There are also chisels. On the rare and represent only 6% of the whole assemblage. flint mine of Jablines, only the production of axe- Bartonian blades are present here even though they heads is attested, with the largest reaching 30 cm in form a minority in the assemblage (6.5% of waste, 5.3% length. The distribution of the Spiennes flint takes of blade tools). Over 100km to the north, Bartonian on various forms, depending on the distance from artefacts become uncommon but are still present: they the mine. Except for the Petit-Spiennes enclosure indeed occur on the Belgian sites of Spiere, Ottenburg/ where all flint artefacts come from the mine, two Grez-Doiceau and Kemmelberg (Collet and Collin settlements located within a distance of 20km provide unpublished). To the south-east, Bartonian flint was a contrasting picture. At Thieusies ‘Ferme de l’Hosté’, not distributed, strongly suggesting that this was due specific products like axe-heads, chisels and blades are to a cultural frontier. brought in as semi-finished products and about 80% of the assemblage is Spiennes flint. The picture is slightly Conclusion different for the Neufvilles settlement, located 17km from Spiennes, where specific mined products are The wealth of knowledge both from new excavations very rare (less than 15%). There are no flint axes and and from research projects targeting specific problems only a few blades possibly come from Spiennes. The enables us to put into perspective all the information

32 Françoise Bostyn et al.: Flint Mining in Northern France and Belgium from the mining sites and the settlements. Differences Bostyn, F. and Lanchon, Y. (eds). 1992. Jablines ‘ Le appear between materials selected for productions that Haut Château ‘ (Seine-et-Marne) : une minière de silex required a particular level of know-how (large blades au Néolithique. Paris. Documents d’Archéologie and large axes) and materials used for a production Française 35. of medium-sized axes or simple flakes in domestic Bostyn, F. 2015. Characterization of flint productions contexts. The investment involved in the search for and distribution networks at the end of the 5th these materials is shown by the digging of deep shafts and the begining of the 4th millenium BC in north- and is highlighted by the distribution of finished western France and western Belgium. In T. Kerig and products over long distances, up to 200km. Thus S. 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