LION Subject matter : Lion Keywords: Lion; Physiologus ; Bestiary; king; Marcus Summary : the lion is a type of feline and it is one of most depicted animals in art throughout history. It is an icon present in all cultures, carrying values of power, strength, courage, dignity or royalty, and it was adopted either in secular as well as in religious contexts. In the medieval world, from a semantic point of view, the lion presents an ambivalent nature, because it can embody opposing positive and negative values. The roots of this double symbolism are present in the authors of Antiquity and the Bible, who claimed, on the one hand, that Christ was “the Lion of Judah” and then compared the lion, on the other hand, to the Antichrist. It has, therefore, a clear Christological dimension enhanced by the exegetes and Christian zoological literature. It is also the symbol of Saint Mark 1 and it accompanies the Maiestas Domini representations as part of the Tetramorphs. The lion is one of the guardian animals par excellence. The lion shape is also a constant resource in political symbolism and the emblems of war. It supplements the image of power and its presence extends to areas as diverse as astrology, embodying the constellation Leo. As in the West, the lion is a common motif in the iconography of power of the Islamic world, and symbolizes courage, strength and royal magnanimity 2. The lion ends up being an attribute of characters, institutions, lineages, territories, etc. Attributes and types of representation : the distinctive features of the lion are its size, its powerful claws, its long tail and especially its hair. However, these elements are not always reflected in the images, which sometimes show a lack of precision which ends up generating confusion 3. Often the animal is stylized by the artist, who alters its real appearance: its body is stretched and deformed, its hair is reduced and it becomes merely a decorative element or it is hypertrophied, as it occurs with its tail. Several factors take part in these changes: conventional designs associated to the absence of a real model, an interest for abstraction, the lack of skill of the artist, etc. From an iconographic perspective, the presence or absence of hair does not always mean sexual differentiation. Due to the influence of sumptuary or luxury goods, especially textiles, it is usual to find the image of the lion in duplicate, such as in pairs facing a tree or another item that functions as an axis of symmetry. This pattern of representation was transmitted to Romanesque sculpture, which adapted it to the surface of the capital in arrangements like that of the couple of felines who share the same head. The rampant position is characteristic of heraldry. In the late medieval period the lion may appear crowned, showing its sovereign status within the animal world. Following this idea, the lion can present other regalia such as the mantle or

1 Its lion-like appearance is inspired by the visions of Ezekiel and Daniel and by the Apocalypse: Ez. 1, 10; Dan. 7, 4; Rev. 4, 7. 2 CHEBEL, Malek (1995): “Lion”, Dictionnaire des symboles musulmans. Rites, mystique et civilisation , Paris, Albin Michel, p. 246. 3 The textual and iconic boundaries of its depiction have been pointed out by BRETÈQUE, François de la (1985): “Image d’un animal: le lion. Sa définition et ses ‘limites’, dans les textes et l’iconographie (XI e-XIV e siècle)”, Le monde animal et ses représentations au Moyen-Âge (XI e-XV e siècles) , Toulouse, Université de Toulouse-Le Mirail, pp. 143-154. the rod, as shown in the images of the Roman de Renart , where it also adopts the body language of royal authority. The image of the lion may appear isolated, as an independent motif, or in narrative contexts. In this sense, it appears in certain biblical episodes where it becomes the protagonist, and it is also present in numerous fables (like the Roman de Renart ), meetings with individuals (such as the lion whose wound was healed by Saint Jerome) and struggles that face the lion with the humans or with other beasts (like Hercules and the Nemean lion, the lions who eat men, lion hunters, etc..). Written sources : the Bible, which mentions the lion 157 times 4, presents an ambivalent image of the animal. In the Psalms (Ps. 7, 3; Ps. 9, 9; Ps. 22, 13. 21; Ps. 56, 5; Ps. 90, 13 5) or in other passages such as 2 Tim. 4, 17 the lion is a creature who is clearly hostile and dangerous. The feline is the protagonist in some famous passages from the Old Testament, such as the punishment of Daniel in the den (http://www.ucm.es/centros/cont/descargas/documento19546.pdf ) or the confrontations of David and Samson with lions (for more information see http://www.ucm.es/centros/cont/descargas/documento19207.pdf ). In these three cases the animal has a negative connotation, and this will be the dominant symbolism of the lion in the biblical texts and the exegesis of the Church Fathers: a fearing and violent being, who embodies the forces of evil and becomes the image of the devil, as recalled by Saint Peter in one of his letters: “Be alert and of sober mind. Your enemy the devil prowls around like a roaring lion looking for someone to devour” (1 Pet. 5, 8). Nevertheless, the Bible also provides a positive vision of the lion. Not in vain is Christ hailed as “Lion of Judah” in Revelation: “See, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David, has triumphed” (Rev. 5, 5). The lion is recognized as the strong and courageous animal par excellence and the emblem of the lineage of Judah in the Old Testament (Gen. 49, 9; Nm. 24, 9, 2 Sam. 1, 23, 2 Mac 11, 11, Prov. 30, 30). That is why the Church Fathers such as Ambrose and Origen see the lion as prefiguring Christ. The image of the throne of Solomon guarded by lions as described in 1 Kings 10, 18-20, and 2 Chronicles. 9, 17-19 had a special prestige in medieval iconography, in which the lion was associated with the throne on many occasions 6. The animal literature is generous in references to the lion during the Middle Ages. Many of the statements referring to the feline repeated in the medieval period come from ancient authors like Aristotle, Aelian 7, Solinus 8, Pliny the Elder 9 or Horapollo 10 , subsequently taken

4 PASTOUREAU, Michel (1985): “Quel est le roi des animaux”, Le monde animal et ses représentations au Moyen-Âge (XI e-XV e siècles) , Toulouse, Université de Toulouse-Le Mirail, p. 135, n. 9. 5 The lion is considered an enemy of the spiritual man when, according to this psalm, the feline and the dragon are represented trampled by the Savior. The quotation is discussed among others by St. Augustine (PL , XXXVII, col. 1168), Cassiodorus (PL , LXX, col. 654), the Glossa Ordinaria ( PL , CXIII, col. 1000), Bruno of Asti (PL , CLXIV, col. 1055), Saint Bernard (PL , CLXXXIII, col. 242), and Peter Lombard (PL , CXCI, col. 853). These authors identify the lion of the psalm as the one who killed the martyrs, and even as the devil. Unless otherwise stated, quotations from the Patrologia Latina used in the text are taken from FAVREAU, Robert (1991): “Le thème iconographique du lion dans les inscriptions médiévales”, Comptes rendus des séances de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres , año 1991, fasc. III, pp. 613-636. 6 GARCÍA GARCÍA, Francisco de Asís (2008): “El león y el trono en la iconografía medieval: imagen de poder y exégesis teológica”, CEHA. XVII Congrés Nacional d’Història de l’Art. Art i Memòria. Pre-Actes , pp. 282-284 [Available online: http://www.ub.edu/ceha-2008/pdfs/09-m04-s02-com_13-fag.pdf ] 7 De animalium natura , book V, chap. 39. 8 Polyhistor , XXVIII. 9 Historia naturalis , book VIII, chap. 19. up by Saint Isidore and Hraban Maur, among others. All of them describe carefully the animal and its characteristics. Saint Isidore recognizes him as “rex, eo quod princeps (…) omnium bestiarium,” 11 and is followed by Hraban Maur, who assimilates the lion to Christ 12 , and the De Bestiis attributed to Hugo of St. Victor 13 . The Physiologus , a 2 nd -3rd century alexandrine text translated into Latin in the 4 th century, formed the basis for Medieval Latin Bestiaries . These describe the different parts of the body of the lion: the head, where its ferocity lies; the neck and the hair; the chest, strong and powerful as opposed to the hindquarters, thin and weak (an antithesis which involves moral values of virtue and vulnerability); the feet, the claws, and finally the tail. Besides the physical features there are some behaviour or “natures” of the animal also mentioned, some of them already described in the zoological literature of antiquity. The Physiologus and the Bestiaries that were derived from it, interpret these “natures” in a moral and religious perspective full of Christological overtones 14 . The main characteristics, and those which had the greatest impact in the iconography of the lion, are: - when the lion is going to be hunted down, it erases its tracks or paw prints with its tail to distract its pursuers: a simile of the Incarnation, through which Christ “hided” his divine nature under human aspect. - when the lion sleeps it does it with alert open eyes: an idea of perpetual surveillance applied to Christ, who looks after those who are with him 15 , and whose divinity was veiled in the grave while his human nature slept 16 . - After three days, the lion is able to revive the cubs born dead through its breath or roar: one of the most obvious metaphors of the Resurrection 17 , which had a special echo in the liturgy 18 .

10 HORAPOLLO (1991): Hieroglyphica , edition by J.M. González de Zárate, Torrejón de Ardoz, Akal, pp. 70,71, 103, 105, 107, 110, 308, 329, 399 y 453. 11 SAINT ISIDORE, Etymologies , book XII, chap. II, 3 ( PL , LXXXII, col. 434). 12 PL , CXI, col. 217 13 PL , CLXXVII, col. 56. Rupert of Deutz mentions that Christological dimension of the lion -emphasized in the 12 th century by the spread of the Bestiaries- pointing out that although the ancients saw in the lion the figure of the devil, he, instead, prefers to contemplate it as the image of Christ (PL , CLXVIII, col. 566). Honorius of Autun summarizes in his Speculum ecclesiae the different Christological meanings of the lion (PL , CLXXII, cols. 935-936). 14 This idea is reflected in Bestiaries like that of Philippe de Thaon, which states: “Le lion signifie / Le fils sainte Marie”, quoted by PASTOUREAU, Michel (1985), p. 134, n. 4. On the lion as a Christological animal see CHARBONNEAU-LASSAY, Louis (1996): El Bestiario de Cristo. El simbolismo animal en la Antigüedad y la Edad Media , vol. I, Palma de Mallorca, José J. de Olañeta (1941), pp. 35-53. 15 “Tu nos custodis, tu nullo tempore dormis. Ne demat quemquem proprio lupus e grege raptum” ( PL , CLXXI, col. 1217); “Secunda natura leonis est quod cum dormit oculos apertos habere videtur. Quod bene dicitur de Christo in Canticis canticorum: Ego dormio et cor meum vigilat” ( De Bestiis , PL , CLXXVII, col. 57) 16 GREGORY THE GREAT, Homiliae in Hiezechihelem prophetam ( PL , LXXVI, col. 815); RAOUL ARDENT, PL , CLV, col. 1515; “Dormivit enim caro in cruce moriendo, divinitas vero vigilabat cuncta protegendo” ( De Bestiis , PL , CLXXVII, col. 57). 17 SAINT ISIDORE, Etymologies ( PL , LXXXII, col. 434); HRABAN MAUR, De Universo ( PL , CXI, col. 218); De Bestiis , libro II, cap. 1: “Cum leaena parti, suos catulos mortuos parit, et ita custodit tribus diebus, donec veniens pater forum in faciem forum exhalet ut vivificentur. Sic omnipotens Pater Dominum nostrum Jesum Christum, filium suum, tertia die suscitabit a mortuis” ( PL , CLXXVII, col. 57); HILDEGARD OF BINGEN, Liber subtilitatum diversarum naturarum creaturarum, VII ( PL , CXCVII, cols. 1314-1315). - the lion spares the one prostrated before him, as does Christ with the one who repents 19 (as illustrated in the tympanum of the cathedral of Jaca). The Encyclopaedic literature developed in the thirteenth century establishes the lion as rex animalium and devotes many pages to it. In this sense, Thomas of Cantimpré ( De Rerum Naturis ), Bartholomaeus Anglicus ( De propietatibus rerum ) and Vincent of Beauvais (Speculum naturale ) stand out. The primacy of the lion is also recognized by the treaties of heraldry composed since the fourteenth century, associating to the feline the same virtues of the leader that the Bestiaries and the encyclopaedia enumerate. Medieval narrative also reflects this “monarchical” concept of the lion, as in the Roman de Renart (c. 1170-1175), where King Noble is just a lion. Other sources, non-written sources : the role of orality in the transmission of stories and legendary material and its impact on the iconography of the lion, must be taken into account at this point alongside the written literature. The direct observation of the animal has been also considered as the source of inspiration for artists in some cases 20 . Geographical and chronological framework : the lion is an iconographic motif of universal extension since Antiquity. Its continued representation extends throughout the Middle Ages, both Western and Eastern, and throughout all its periods, even though the existence of wildness lions didn’t occur in most of these territories -not so in captivity, as they were common and present in menageries and travelling fairs. In the Romanesque period a massive spread of the image of the lion took place in the visual imaginary of the West, nurtured since time ago by the influx of textiles and sumptuary pieces from the East. It is at that time when its image got a special monumental presence. Artistic media and techniques : given the universality of the image of the lion, its depiction can be found in all types of artistic media and techniques. The sumptuary arts were especially rich regarding this issue, as well as one of the main propagating media of the iconography of the feline. The textiles usually included the image of the lion, and its figure was also the pretext for making three-dimensional pieces with its shape: aquamaniles, gargoyles and spouts of fountains usually adopted the lion morphology, both in the Islamic and Christian world. By virtue of its vigilant and protective nature, the lion was placed at the thresholds 21 acquiring an apotropaic value. It was also the case of the tombs, where it embodied additional resurrection meanings. The lion has an outstanding presence in Romanesque sculpture. It occupies preferentially the surface of capitals, but it was also used in the base of columns in

18 See the references provided by FAVREAU, Robert (1991), p. 628. 19 “Circa hominem leonum natura est benigna, ut nisi laesi nequeant irasci. Pater enim misericordia exemplis assiduis. Prostratis enim parcunt” (SAINT ISIDORE, Etymologies , PL , LXXXII, col. 434), followed by Hraban Maur ( PL , CXI, col. 217) and the De Bestiis ( PL , CLXXVII, col. 57). Ruperto de Deutz comments that “naturalists report that the lion forgives the prostrate man. The anger of the Lord will be terrible, but He will forgive those who bow down and recognize their sins” (free translation from PL , CLXVIII, cols. 193-194) 20 So says Villard d’Honnecourt for the lion of the folio 24v. of his famous Album , but the actual criticism seems to tule out the fact that Villard saw a real lion and is in favor of a possible copy of another drawing or illustration. 21 Hraban Maur points out that “Leones praepositi Ecclesiae intelliguntur. Unde in templo Domini leones, cum bubas, ex aere, in basibus templi fieri praecipiuntur” ( PL , CXI, col. 218). several protiri of Puglia and the north of Italy 22 , and in corbels supporting tympanums - often under the appearance of a man being eaten. Due to its association with the image of power, the presence of the lion can be found in sigillography, medals and coins, as well as the top or complement of sceptres, mantles and other insignia of sovereignty, among which the thrones stand out. In this last example, the image of the lion recalls the Solomon’s throne. Precedents, transformations and projection : the image of the lion in the arts of Antiquity, developed in Mesopotamia, Egypt or Persia, was crucial in the transmission of formulas to the Middle Ages; either through the Greco-Roman world or directly from the Eastern influences. In addition to the aulic and allegorical connotations of its image that came from ancient times, the medieval iconography introduced new readings from a religious and moral perspective that sometimes modified the initial models. Christianity certainly had an impact in the widespread use of the lion in images. With the birth of heraldry in the twelfth century, the lion became the favourite figure in medieval coats of arms 23 . In the late Middle Ages, the depiction of the lion got more realistic and objective 24 , not only due to the naturalistic interest that the arts developed, but also thanks to the direct contemplation of these felines, which could be seen more easily in the aristocratic zoos. The lion appears crowned as king already in the late medieval period. This innovation reflects the promotion of the lion as king of the animals, displacing other species like the bear since the late eleventh century 25 . Despite the extreme wealth of meanings that could be expressed through the image of the lion, it is undeniable that many of its depictions were intended to have a mere ornamental value. Lots of lions, as it happens with other zoomorphic motifs, were used as simple images of repertoire, and it is useless to look for a semantic content in them. Typology and related themes : the morphological affinity of the lion with other quadrupeds creates difficulties for their correct identification, especially when there is an absence of distinctive features such as the hair or the lack of explanatory inscriptions 26 . It is very common, therefore, to have the lion confused with neighboring species 27 . The appearance of the leopard in heraldic language is a well example of this. The leopard is a lion which adopts a particular position, walking instead of rampant and keeping its head frontally 28 .

22 See ANGHEBEN, Marcello (2002): “Les animaux stylophores des églises romanes apuliennes. Étude iconographique”, Arte Medievale , new series, year I, nº 1, pp. 97-117. In a broader framework, DÉONNA, Waldemar (1949): “Les lions attachés à la colonne”, Mélanges d’archéologie et d’histoire offerts à Charles Picard à l’occasion de son 65 e anniversaire , vol. I, Paris, PUF, pp. 289-308 ; DAVID ROY, Marguerite (1983): “Les lions stylophores des églises du Haut-Dauphiné”, Archéologia , nº 176, pp. 12-19. 23 According to PASTOUREAU, Michel (1985), p. 133, the lion is present in 15% of them. 24 On the gradual iconographic definition of the lion see BRETÈQUE, François de la (1985), p. 143-154. 25 This process of promoting the lion as king of the animals has been studied in detail by PASTOUREAU, Michel (1985); PASTOUREAU, Michel (2006): “La coronación del león. Cómo el bestiario medieval se asignó un rey”, Una historia simbólica de la Edad Media occidental , Buenos Aires, Katz, (2004), pp. 51-68. 26 DEBIDOUR, Victor-Henri (1961): Le bestiaire sculpté du Moyen Age en France , París, Arthaud, p. 26. 27 PASTOUREAU, Michel (2006), p. 56. These confusions and transfers also occur in the textual field, where characteristics or behaviors of other animals are attributed to the lion: BRETEQUE, François de la (1985), p. 151. 28 PASTOUREAU, Michel (2006), p. 60-61. On the other hand, the phenomenon of hybridization, characteristic of medieval zoological culture, should be taken into account too. The combination of the lion-like shape with other animal species led to a wide range of fantastic beings that not only shared with the lion their morphology, but also some symbolic values, as is the case of the griffon. Images: - Sarcophagus, mid. 3 rd century. Paris, Musée du Louvre, MR 887. - Echternach Gospels , 8 th century. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Ms. Lat. 9389, fol. 75v. - Textile fragment, Zandaneh (Central Asia), 9th century. Nancy, Musée Lorrain. - Lions of the fountain in the Patio de los Leones of the Alhambra (Granada, Spain), 11 th century. - West tympanum of the cathedral of Jaca (Huesca, Spain), late 11 th century. - Chancel of the cathedral of Torcello (Italy), 12 th century. - Capital with David fighting the lion in the nave of Saint Mary Magdalene in Vézelay (Burgundy, France), c. 1120-1130. - Low part of the portal of Santa María de Ripoll (Gerona, Spain), mid. 12 th century. - Mantle of Roger II, Palermo, c. 1134. Wien, Kunsthistorisches Museum, nº inv. XIII 14. - Mosaic of the Palace of the Norman Kings, Palermo (Italy), c. 1130-1140. - Lion of the monument to Henry The Lion, Braunschweig (Germany), 1166. Beaunschweig, Dankwarderode Castle. - Mural paintings of San Pedro de Arlanza (Burgos, Spain), post. 1200. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art. - New Alliance window, deambulatory of the cathedral of Bourges (France), early 13 th century. - Andalusi bronze lion, 12 th -13 th centuries, Paris, Musée du Louvre, inv. nº 7883. - Ashmole Bestiary , England, early 13 th century. Oxford Bodleian Library, Ms. Ashmole 1511, fol. 10v. - Album of Villard d’Honnecourt, c. 1220-1240. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Ms. Fr. 19093, fols. 24r. y 24v. - Georgius Zothorus, Liber astrologiae , Sicily, second quarter of the 13 th century. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Ms. Lat. 7330, fol. 16. - Roman de Renart , north France, late 13 th century. Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Ms. Fr. 1280, fol. 1. - Aquamanile, Lower Saxony (Germany) late 13 th century – early 14 th century. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art.

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