People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Larbi Ben M’hidi University-Oum El Bouaghi

Faculty of Letters and Languages Department of English

The Islamic and American Dimensions and Attitudes towards : A Comparative Study

A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Arts in Anglo-American Studies

By: GUERARA Nour El-Houda

Supervisor: Mrs. GHENNAM Fatima

Examiner: Mr. FILALI Billel

2015-2016

Abstract

This dissertation is a comparative study that discusses the issue of slavery as an old phenomenon in both Islamic and American societies. More specifically, it examines the main similarities as well as differences between both the Islamic and American attitudes towards slavery before and after . This research shows that slavery and its practice in both communities share some aspects, but they largely differ in many others. This research demonstrates that the main reasons behind servitude in the Islamic World are different and little known if compared to that in in the United States. The stated aims of enslavement in the

Islamic society surround on the idea of expanding extensively and establishing a unified

Islamic state. Hence, enslavement under the Islamic Law was restricted to only the captives who were captured through a legitimate war against unbelievers. Those captured slaves were in fact treated well and they were employed as domestic servants for their owners. Therefore, this research indicates that Islam through many Islamic injunctions and teachings can be considered as a major source of inspiration that paved the way for many Muslim slaves to get freed and to become active participants in the spread of Islam and the making of the Islamic nation. However, the main reasons behind enslavement in the U.S are the British control over the American economy and the shortage of labor force. Accordingly, African-Americans were enslaved particularly for profit since they contributed in the making of the American economy.

They were legally mistreated and exposed to very hard and humiliating conditions. Moreover, this research reveals that segregation and racism in the U.S remain deeply rooted attitudes towards African-Americans even after abolitionism.

Key words: Slavery, enslavement, Islamic World, Muslims’ slaves, African Americans,

Islam, Islamic teachings, racism, segregation.

Résumé

Ce mémoire représente une étude comparative qui conteste le sujet de l’esclavage comme un phénomène ancien dans les deux sociétés Islamiques et Américaines. Et plus précisément, elle traite les points de ressemblance et de différence entre les deux attitudes Islamiques et

Américaines vers l’esclavage avant et après l’abolitionnisme. Cette recherche montre que la pratique de l’esclavage dans les deux pays participe à certains aspects mais ils diffèrent largement dans beaucoup d’autres. Cette étude montre que les raisons principaux qui ont été conduit à l’esclavage dont les motifs inconnus du monde Islamique par rapport à son application aux Etats-Unis. Les objectifs déclarés de l’esclavage dans la société Islamique baser sur l’idée d’étaler l’islam d’une manière globale et construire un état Islamique unifie.

Par conséquent, la réduction en esclavage par la loi Islamique a été limitée aux seuls prisonniers qui ont été capturés par une guerre légitime contre les infidèles. Ces esclaves capturés étaient en fait bien traités et ils étaient employés comme domestiques pour leurs propriétaires. Donc, cette recherche exprime que l’islam à travers plusieurs lois musulmanes c’est une source majeur de l’inspiration grâce à lui ont été libérés beaucoup d’esclaves qui devient des participants actifs dans la propagation de l'Islam et le développement de la nation

Islamique. Par contre, les principales raisons de l’esclavage aux Etats-Unis sont contrôlées par le colonialisme Britannique sur l’économie de l’Amérique et le manque des mains d’œuvre.

En conséquence, les Afro-Américains ont été réduits en esclavage en particulier pour le profit, car ils ont contribué à la réalisation de l'économie Américaine. Ils étaient légalement maltraités et exposés à des conditions très dures. De plus, cette étude révèle que le racisme envers les esclaves en Amérique continue même après l'abolitionnisme.

ملخص

هذه المذكرة عبارة عن دراسة مقارنة التي تناقش قضية العبودية كظاهرة قديمة في كل من العالم االسالمي

و الواليات المتحدة االمريكية. و بشكل اكثر تحديدا, هذه الدراسة تعالج اوجه التشابه و اوجه االختالف بين

المواقف االسالمية و االمريكية اتجاه العبودية قبل و بعد الغائها كليا. يظهر هذا البحث ان ممارسة العبودية

في كال الدولتين يشترك في بعض الجوانب و لكن يختلف الى حد كبير في جوانب اخرى. باإلضافة الى

ذلك, توضح هذه الدراسة ان االسباب الرئيسية التي ادت الى ممارسة العبودية في العالم االسالمي جد

مختلفة وغير معروفة في تاريخ العالم مقارنة بأسباب تطبيقها في الواليات المتحدة .االمريكية االهداف

المعلنة لالستعباد في المجتمع االسالمي تدور حول فكرة نشر االسالم بشكل شامل و بناء دولة اسالمية

موحدة. لذلك كان االستعباد وفقا للقانون االسالمي مقتصرا فقط على االسرى الذين اسروا خالل حرب

مشروعة ضد الكفار. هؤالء االسرى حقيقة حضوا بمعاملة حسنة و كانوا يعملون كخدم على مماليكهم.

بناء على هذا, هذه الدراسة تبين ان االسالم من خالل عدة تشريعات اسالمية يعتبر مصدرا رئيسيا لإللهام

والذي بفضله تم تحرير العديد من العبيد الذين ساهموا في نشر االسالم و بناء االمة االسالمية اما االسباب

الرئيسية وراء االستعباد في الواليات المتحدة االمريكية هي سيطرة االستعمار البريطاني على اقتصاد

امريكا و نقص اليد العاملة. وفقا لذلك, استعباد االفارقة في الواليات المتحدة االمريكية كان سببه جني

االرباح و يكمن هذا في مساهمتهم الكبيرة في نمو و تطور االقتصاد االمريكي . هؤالء العبيد كانوا عرضة

لإلهانة و الذل نظرا للقوانين الصادرة ضدهم . عالوة على ذلك, يكشف هذا البحث ان التمييز العنصري

اتجاه العبيد في امريكا ال يزال مستمرا بالرغم من الغاء العبودية رسميا. ii

Dedication

I dedicate this dissertation first, to my lovely parents who have supported and encouraged me; to my grandmother; to my brothers Zinou and Mustapha.

To my dear husband Saber who has always supported and encouraged me with patience and used to wish me always a good luck and best things.

To my dear and crazy friends Amel, Linda, Mouna, Rasha, Sihem, and Yassmine.

iii

Acknowledgements

All praise is to Allah who helped me accomplish this dissertation since without his assistance I would not have succeeded.

I would like to express my grateful thanks to my supervisor Mrs. Fatima Ghennam for her advice, feedback, and kindness

I would like to thank my whole family for their help, support, and encouragement in writing this work.

Also, I would like to thank all the teachers who have taught me during my five years.

iv

List of Acronyms

A.A.S.S. American Anti-Slavery Society

I.L. Islamic Law

I.W. Islamic World

P.A.S. Pennsylvania Abolition Society

P.I.E. Pre Islamic Era

R.S.F Religious Society of Friends

v

List of Tables

Page

Table 01: A Comparative Table of Slavery in the Islamic World and in the 48

United States.

vi

Table of Contents

Abstract

Résumé

ملخص

Dedication……………………………………………………………………………...ii

Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………...iii

List of Acronyms……………………………………………………………………..iv

List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………..v

Table of Contents………………………………………………………………….vi-vii

General Introduction…………………………………………………………………1-4

Chapter One: Slavery in the Islamic and American Societies Before

Abolitionism

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………….5

I. Historical Background…………………………………………………………5

1. Slavery in the Pre-Islamic Era…………………………………………………5

a. Ancient Mesopotamia……………………………………………………...7

b. Ancient Egypt……………………………………………………………...8

c. Ancient Greece and Rome…………………………………………………8

2. Slavery during the Colonial Era………………………………………………10 vii

II. Muslims Slave Trade Vs American Slave Trade…………………………….14

III. Analyzing the Issue of Slavery: The Islamic Law Vs The American Law…..17

1. The Treatment of Slaves under the Islamic Law…………………………….18

2. The Status and Occupation of African-Americans in the New World……….22

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………30

Chapter Two: Slavery in the Islamic and American Societies During and After Abolitionism

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...31

I. in Islamic Communities Vs Abolitionism in America………….31

1. The Emancipation of Slavery in Islam……………………………………….31

2. The Abolition of Slavery in the U.S………………………………………….34

II. Post-Abolitionism in Islamic Societies Vs Post-Abolitionism in the U.S……..41

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………47

General Conclusion…………………………………………………………………...52

Works Cited…………………………………………………………………………..54 1

General Introduction

Historically, the issue of slavery is a significant subject and an important phenomenon that existed from ancient times. In fact, all human beings are born free and share the same rights, but through the changing circumstances including colonization, gender, and racism the identity of many people may lost while their freedom is taken forcibly. This research is a comparative study that tends to examine the issue of slavery in two different communities namely the Islamic and the

American nations by stressing on their dimensions and attitudes towards this phenomenon throughout history.

On one hand, the issue of slavery existed in the Arab world before the coming of Islam which was known as the pre- Islamic era or the age of ignorance and continued during and after the revelation of . During the pre-Islamic era, slavery had already existed due to the complexity of social structure. People were living a nomadic life characterized by differences between the masters and the individuals, and there was no sense of national identity. Slavery at that time was considered as a social norm that was deeply rooted in their beliefs and cultural behaviors. It was an accepted institution in which owning slaves was a kind of prestige and wealth. By the coming of Islam in the seventh century, the Prophet peace be upon him tried to reform these inhuman behaviors and to eliminate slavery on a gradual basis.

On the other hand, enslavement in the United States started from the early colonial period in the seventeenth century. Millions of African people were kidnapped, enslaved, and shipped across the Atlantic Ocean to America under very hard conditions. Slaves in America especially in the south were treated harshly and 2 they were considered as owners’ properties and commodities. They were victims of cruelty since they were in charge of mining and planting cash crops such as tobacco and sugar for the benefit of the mother country. In the nineteenth century, early attempts started to weaken and abolish slavery gradually through many Anti-slavery movements such as the Emancipation Proclamation and the thirteenth Amendment.

Many documents were written about the problem of slavery and its impact around the world, especially in the United States. In addition, there are many movies that depict clearly the exploitation and mistreatment of slaves such as “The butler”. In fact, westerners used the issue of slavery as a weapon to fight against Islam since they think that slavery was born in the Islamic World. So, the reason behind conducting a research about slavery is the eagerness of knowing more about this phenomenon, especially in the Islamic World by drawing a comparison between the enslavement of people in the USA and in the Islamic world.

This research aims first at explaining the real reasons behind enslavement and exploitation of people. Second, it aims at uncovering the similarities and differences between Muslim and American attitudes towards slaves. Third, it unveils the different ways or methods used by the Prophet (PBUH) and the political leaders in the USA to abolish slavery. Finally, it attempts to reveal the impact of slavery on both societies and on slaves in particular, especially after being freed.

Our research work attempts to answer the following questions:

- How did slavery originate in the Islamic and American societies?

- How were the slaves treated before and after being freed? 3

- What are the similarities and differences between the Muslim and American attitudes towards slaves?

- What is the impact of slavery on both communities? How it affected slaves?

- Finally, how slavery ended in both societies? Does the abolition of slavery pave the way for slaves to get rid from exploitation and to live freely?

To achieve its aims, this research is a comparative study that depends on the descriptive and analytical approaches. The descriptive approach explains the historical background of the issue of slavery in the Islamic and American societies, and the reasons that led to its emergence and development. Though the analytical approach, this research draws some answers to the previous questions since it analyzes how slavery developed throughout history in both communities. More, it shows how different slaves were treated in the Islamic society Vs the American one. Also, it shows how slavery was abolished in both societies.

This study relies on primary as well as secondary sources. In fact, Quran and

Hadith are considered as the main reliable sources since they constitute the heart of

Islamic Law and Muslims’ lives. The work also relies on a number of secondary sources that include books, articles, and theses. Murray Gordon’s book Slavery in the

Arab World provides information about the occupation and status of slaves in the

Arab world. The book of Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America by

Kenneth Morgan provides an overview about slavery, slave trade, and abolitionism in the British Empire. Robert. W. Fogel’s book Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery provides an explanation of slavery as an economic and social system in the USA and how the political campaigns were against this system.

The book of Life Under Slavery by Deborah. H. Deborah which gives important 4 information about the historical background of slavery in the USA from the early colonial period till the 19th century. The book of Key Concepts in American History:

Abolitionism 19th century by Reyna Eisenstark which is very beneficial and helpful because it provides detailed information about abolitionism in the USA.

It should be noted that when working on this research, I have faced many difficulties. Most important among them is the lack of published sources about slavery in the Islamic World, and this compelled the use of sources. Also, there is no published work that provided a comparative study about slavery in the Islamic and

American societies. So, this research is a result of personal analysis and interpretations.

Structurally, this research includes two main chapters. The first chapter describes and compares the issue of slavery in the Islamic and American societies before its abolition. It gives a historical background of slavery and its existence in both societies by looking at the main reasons that led to its emergence. More, it deals with the Muslims’ and American attitudes towards slavery particularly the treatment, occupation, and status of slaves.

The second chapter is a comparative work about the subject of slavery in both

Islamic and American societies during and after abolitionism. It tries to show the similarities and differences in emancipating slavery in both communities, and to show the status of slaves after being freed. Also, it attempts to answer the stated research questions, particularly how slavery was ended up in both societies by clarifying the different ways of abolitionism.

5

Chapter One

Slavery in the Islamic and American Societies

Before Abolitionism

Introduction:

Slavery is a system of forced labor that existed all around the world from the antiquity. Slavery in general means the control and exploitation of some people by taking their freedom, rights, and treating them inhumanely. Hence, those people became a property of their owners since they are expected to serve for their comfort and economic benefit. This exploitation was due to many circumstances of the day including the illiteracy that was common, complex social structure, and wars. In both

Islamic and American societies, slavery was practiced for thousands of years and it left a profound impact on world history. Accordingly, enslavement in both societies seems to have many similarities and common characteristics as well as many substantial differences that would be tackled in the following lines.

I. Historical Background:

1. Slavery in the Pre-Islamic Era:

Slavery is a problematic issue that existed in almost every society around the world. It was a social and economic institution in the Arabian Peninsula before the coming of Islam. This period is known as the Pre-Islamic era, the age of ignorance, or

“Jahiliyya” in Arabic language. At that time, the social structure was complex in which people were living a nomadic life in clans and tribes. Within these tribes, social differences between the masters and the individuals were apparent. Wars and conflicts 6 between tribes were common especially for the purpose of taking revenge and getting superiority. This period may also be defined as the dark age in which people were illiterate, uncivilized, and disobedient to the laws and guidance of God. More, they did not follow the teachings of the earlier Prophets and messengers and most of them worshipped idols and believed in animism. Thus, due to this chaos and separation between people, slavery was created as a social norm that is deeply rooted in their cultures, behaviors, and beliefs.

In this era, slavery as a social phenomenon was not systematic, planned or homogeneous with the existing social and cultural diversity. Slaves came from different origins in which Africa which was known as “Bilad as-Sudan” or the land of blacks and Ethiopia or “Habasha” were considered as the main sources from which slavery originated (Gordon 18). In the Arabian Peninsula, the majority of slaves were

Ethiopians due to their continuous flow to the markets of “” particularly for the benefit of the merchants who used to trade them (19).

In fact, it is noticed that slavery and the ownership of slaves existed in ancient societies due to the circumstances of the day including social class, warfare, and slave trade. Finley in his article “Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology” explained that there were three main factors that led to the emergence of a slave society in ancient times (1). The first factor was the private ownership of the land which was mostly in the hands of the private and wealthy people. The second one was a well-developed production of commodities in the markets. The third and the most important factor was the lack of an internal supply of labor (1). These factors show that there was a clear separation between people in ancient societies since the majority of the populations were defined as free citizens or masters leaving the work force to the 7 laborers or slaves who were brought from other lands. Thus, servitude was prominent in the ancient world since slaves contributed in many ancient economic improvements especially trade. This success can be proved in different ancient civilizations including:

a. Ancient Mesopotamia:

According to the recorded history, Mesopotamia was one of the famous slave states. It was the land of inventions, achievements, and agriculture especially for the production of foods. At that time, wars were common between the Mesopotamian cities over their fertile land. Within these wars, they used to enslave the defeated people as captives rather than killing them (Sylvester). In fact, many historians argued that slavery was the main reason behind the development of ancient civilizations. In

Mesopotamia, war captives and their children were taken as prisoners for life in which they were engaged in doing the hardest work such as irrigation and toiling the fields.

Despite these hard and humiliating conditions, slaves in Mesopotamia were satisfied and for them the loss of liberty and hard labor were better than death (Sylvester).

In most cities of Mesopotamia such as Sumer, Babylonia, and Assyria, slaves were owned privately by kings and priests of the temples. For example; in the kingdom of Babylonia which located in Northern Mesopotamia particularly during the reign of the king “Hammurabi”, slaves and labor force were required for the expansion and the growth of his kingdom. He accepted slavery and regulated it through many laws which are contained in his famous code known as “the Code of

Hammurabi”. Many of those rules which are concerned with slavery were particularly made for the protection and the benefit of the slave owners. Slaves were considered as a private property in which they could be bought, sold, inherited, or treated harshly by their masters. However, his code embodied some legal laws that manumitted slaves to 8 be independent from their masters such as the manumission of children born from a free woman and a slave man (Sylvester).

b. Ancient Egypt:

Many historians stated that slavery has existed in Egypt since the Pharaohnic era. According to the recorded history, Egypt in this period was one of the main nations that contained a great number of slaves. Most importantly, slavery in Egypt reached its climax during the building of the New Kingdom in the 15th century. Slaves were mostly foreigners who were captured in warfare and military raids for the expansion of Egypt’s territory. They were enslaved for life since they belonged to the

“Pharaoh” who was the Egyptians’ God and king (Sylvester). Slaves at that time were involved in the economic and social life of Egypt and they were divided into two types. On one hand, many slaves were considered as the property of the state since they were given by the “Pharaoh” as rewards to government officials or to the temples for work for instance; in the Old Kingdom especially during the reign Pharaoh

“Khufu”, a great number of slaves spent many years in the building of the Great

Pyramid at Giza in 2560 BC which is considered as one of the main monuments in the world (Khan 272). On the other hand, some slaves were given to the private and wealthy people such as the generals and priests. The majority of them were females who were in charge of working in their masters’ households (272).

c. Ancient Greece and Rome :

Historically, ancient Greece and Rome can be considered as two main slave societies in history. In fact, the status of slaves in Rome is similar to that in Greece since they shared the same social division between people. In both societies, there were many sources and ways from which slaves came including captives from wars, piracy, a sale of children to pay debts, a birth from a slave mother or a purchase from 9 slave dealers (Sylvester). At that time, many historians and philosophers like Aristotle argued that there are different kinds of human beings, and he defined slavery as a natural phenomenon and slaves as a property with a soul (Newman 20). In Rome as well as Greece, slaves had no legal rights and they were viewed as things and commodities of their masters as Finley explained: “A slave in ancient Athens, as in

Rome was by definition a man or woman who had no legal rights, being merely an item of property at the complete disposal of his or her owner” (6). Further, slaves were divided into public and domestic types depending on their jobs. Their intensive existence in both societies advanced the economic development. In fact, the majority of the populations were public slaves who were involved in public constructions such as building roads, temples, and factories, whereas the domestic slaves were engaged in domestic tasks such as servants in the houses of the private and wealthy families

(Finley 10-1).

In ancient Greece particularly in Sparta and Athens as main Greek states, slaves were known as the . They worked in agriculture, silver mines, and other hard activities by returning the benefit to their lords in order to fit their debts (Khan

272). Later, the position of slaves was improved through many legislations because of the extensive economic development, the increased demand for slaves, and their revolts against cruelty. In Athens and through the laws of “Solon” for example, slaves became the property of the state which gave them some of their basic rights such as the prohibition of enslavement because of debts. In Rome as well, many laws have been passed for the sake of saving slaves and improving their status including the laws passed by the Emperor Augustus to protect slaves from cruelty and abuse (Khan 272-

3). 10

After all, it is obvious that slavery as an old system has existed in nearly all cultures and societies. In the (P.I.E), the majority of slaves in ancient societies were foreigners, but through time they integrated in their social and economic life since they held a variety of jobs. As a result, slaves at that time were considered to be an owned property which had few rights and many duties.

2. Slavery during the Colonial Era:

Historically, slavery is a significant subject that is deeply rooted in the

American history from its discovery onward. In fact, the discovery of America by

“Christopher Columbus” in 1492 hooked many European countries like Britain,

France, and Denmark to settle in the New World in the early 1500s. America at that time was considered as the land of opportunities due to its fertile land and the existence of different raw materials. These factors helped the new comers to grow huge farms of sugar, tobacco, indigo… etc. It is recorded that the production of these cash crops was mainly done by the native people or American Indians who were considered as the first enslaved people in the New World. Deford in his book Life

Under Slavery explained that: “The European colonists forced the Indians to clear land and plant, tend and harvest cash crops. The Europeans also made the Indians operate sugar mills, keep livestock, grow food to supply the plantations, and work as house servants” (20).

It is a matter of fact that the enslavement of African people started from the late 1600s, especially when the thirteen American colonies were a part of the British

Empire. In the early 17th century, Jamestown, Virginia purchased twenty African people from the Dutch warship in 1619 and it was the first British colony that received

Africans. They were the first Africans in the British colonies to be purchased 11 particularly as workers for the growing of plantations and serving in the households. It is noticed that those purchased Africans were considered as indentured servants not slaves. They worked mostly under a contract made with their masters for a specific period of time. Accordingly, after the end of their period of service they would be freed (Kachur 42).

Eventually, in the late 17th century, this shortage in labor force led the British colonists to import thousands of slaves directly from Africa and enslave them for life.

For instance; “In 1626, the Dutch imported the first African slaves to their settlement of New Amsterdam . . . Connecticut followed in 1629, Maryland in 1634, and

Massachusetts in 1641” (Deford 44).

It is obvious that Slavery and its practice in the Islamic world had a number of characteristics in common with the American society. The most obvious similarity is the shared factor that led to the creation of slavery as a social institution in both societies. In fact, the social structure in both communities was complex and based on hierarchical order. In this sense, separation and division between people were common since the members of both societies were divided into two categories. The upper class which consisted of the wealthy investors and merchants who controlled the whole society, and the lower class which consisted of the poor members who were usually considered as slaves.

Despite the fact that slavery as a social phenomenon was legitimized in both communities and slaves were considered as an important part of their social structure, it differed in some aspects and principles particularly in historical contexts and origins of slaves. The first difference is that slavery and its historical background was distinctive in both societies in which: 12

Slavery in the Islamic World started in ancient times particularly during the

Pre-Islamic era or the age of ignorance because it was surrounded by different circumstances that caused its creation. First, illiteracy that was common since people were uncivilized and they were living a nomadic life. Second, the complexity of the social structure and the social differences between the members of tribes particularly between the masters and the ordinary people. Third, wars and conflicts between the tribes for the purpose of taking revenge or to be superior. This resulted in the enslavement of the members of the defeated tribe.

However, slavery in the United States started during the colonial era because during this period there were many events and factors that helped in its practice. In fact, this period was preceded by the discovery of America in 1492 as a land of opportunities due to its fertile land and the existence of different raw materials. In the early 16th century, these conditions inspired and attracted greatly many European countries to settle in the New World. In addition, this period was characterized by the growth of the plantation system and the production of various cash crops so that there was an increasing demand for workers.

The second difference is concerned with the origins or the sources from which slaves were obtained. In fact, capturing slaves and trading them was a common task in most Arabic societies before the coming of Islam such as the Arabian Peninsula,

Egypt, and Iraq. Enslavement at that time was not systematic since slaves came from different origins. This means that this kind of slavery was not based only on black people who were brought from Africa, but it also included the whites who were obtained from the Byzantine and Persian Empires and from Europe. For instance;

Ethiopia or “Habasha” was considered as the main source of obtaining African slaves.

In the Arabian Peninsula, the majority of slaves were Ethiopians due to their 13 continuous flow to the markets of “Mecca” (Gordon 18-9). Also, many white slaves were sold to the Muslim communities, and they were purchased from central and

Eastern Europe. They were known as “Slavs” who were appreciated, highly priced, and there was an increasing demand for them in the Islamic World (Gordon 106-7).

Further, by the coming of Islam and the expansion of the Islamic Civilization, the capture of slaves and their enslavement continued to spread world widely. Hence, many slaves were captured and brought from different parts of the world through the

Islamic conquests, in fact:

The greatest number of slaves were obtained through military conquest

in central Asia, Africa, and Eastern Europe. Islam’s intermittent wars of

conquest, which continued through the Middle Ages, produced an

almost unending stream of male and female prisoners, many of whom

were made into slaves. (Gordon 105)

Whereas, in the USA, Africa was recognized as the only and the main source of obtaining slaves. During the colonial period particularly in the late 17th century and the beginning of the 18th century, a great number of slaves were shipped from the

African coasts to the New World each year. This continuous shipment of slaves with cheap prices led to the increase in the proportion of African-Americans in the New

World if compared to that of the native population.

II. Muslims Slave Trade VS American Slave Trade:

Slave trade was one of the major profitable processes that played an important role throughout ancient history. By the coming of Islam in the 7th century, 14 enslavement of people and trading them was already prevailed and practiced in the

Islamic World and continued till the expansion of the Islamic Civilization through the

Islamic conquests (Gordon 105). At that time, people were still influenced by the past in which they considered slavery as part of their social order and a symbol of wealth.

Slaves were obtained through raids, they could be enslaved by birth, or purchased in the markets to be mainly a property of their owners as it is highlighted:

By degrees, the system became so wide-spread that in some countries

the slaves even outnumbered the free inhabitants, and slavery became

an integral part of civil life. These slaves were looked upon as the sole

property of their masters who could treat them in any way they liked,

could exact from them any work they pleased, inflict on them any

punishment they desired, and could sell them to others whenever they

choose to do. (Ahmad 2)

In fact, from the 9th till the 19th centuries, Arabs were considered to be the first slave traders who were involved in the transatlantic slave trade. This was due to their early contacts with the other old Continents and the increased demand for large numbers of foreign slaves (Wright 3). During this era, Sub-Saharan Africa was seen as the main source of slaves because of their existence in almost all the markets. More importantly, Omotoso in his article “Slavery, Slave Trade and the Reparation

Movement in Africa” noted that Slaves in the (I.W) were exported through two different routes namely; the Trans-Saharan and the Oriental routes. On one hand, many Arab traders brought slaves from Ghana, Gambia, Mauritania, and Nigeria across the Sahara to be exported to the Middle East. On the other hand, they brought slaves from different parts of Eastern Africa including Kenya, Mozambique, 15

Tanzania, and Ethiopia and exported them across the Indian Ocean and the Red sea to the Middle East and South Asia (2).

Another kind of slave trade at that time particularly during the Middle Ages was between Europe and the (I.W). It is noticed that central and Eastern Europe were the major sources of slaves who were sold to the Muslim communities. They were known as “Slavs” who were highly appreciated, prized, and there was a strong demand for them in the (I.W). This appreciation is based on the fact that the majority of them were eunuchs or slaves who could not give children (Gordon 106-7).

Moreover, those traded slaves were needed economically and socially in the Islamic society. The majority of them were females because of the growing demand for them.

Sometimes, they were considered as a tribute or gift from the weaker states. They were employed as household servants and concubines, whereas male slaves worked as servants, soldiers in armies or laborers of their masters (Wright 3).

Thus, slave trade is considered to be the main historical process in the history of the Muslim’s contacts and relations with the other continents. Consequently, trading slaves sparked and maintained the commercial and cultural ties between the

Islamic African countries and the Europeans such as the trans-Saharan slave trade in which a great number of enslaved men, women, and children moved from West and

East Africa to the North, the Middle East, and India.

In the American history particularly during the early years of British colonization and settlement in the 17th century, British colonists started to organize agricultural plantations due to the existing fertile land. However, the decrease of

Native Americans’ labor force increased the need of more workers for the plantations.

This resulted in the shipment of Africans including males, females, and children to the

New World through the transatlantic slave trade “which had already been established 16 between Africa and Europe” (Deford 20; Morgan 11). This trade was known as the triangular slave trade due to its three main routes. The first route was from the British ports to the West African coast in which the English ships charged manufactured products in order to be exchanged by African slaves. The second one was from their native lands to the New World in order to be sold usually with cheap prices. The third and the final way was the return of the ships to the British ports carrying goods such as sugar, tobacco, and rice which were produced by slaves (Morgan 54).

Consequently, slave trade was a shared social and economic system that was practiced in Muslim as well as the American societies. This can be evident through their participation in the transatlantic slave trade. Also, in both societies, trading slaves can be considered as one of the main sources of obtaining slaves. This means that the ownership of slaves was legitimized since they were purchased by wealthy merchants and investors who controlled both nations’ economy. This can be clarified through the system of “Chattel Slavery”, in which the traded slaves were considered as a chattel or a property of their owners who controlled them and could do whatever they want to them. In this sense, J. Alexander in his article entitled “Islam, archeology and ” explained:

A slave is human being who is the property of, and entirely subject to

another human being under the religious, social and legal conventions of

the society in which he or she lived: Being “the property of” means that an

owner, restricted only by the conventions of his society is able to buy, sell,

free, adopt, ill-treat or kill his slave whose children belong to their owner

and can be treated in the same way. A slave has no freedom or personal 17

rights and can become one voluntarily, by a legal decision or by force.

(45)

Moreover, it is noticed that the only difference between the Muslims and

American slave trades is that the majority of traded slaves in Muslim markets were females who were brought as concubines and household servants. However, slave trade in the USA based on the purchase of African males and females without exception.

III. Analyzing the Issue of Slavery: The Islamic Law VS The

American Law:

Being a Muslim means being a follower or believer of Islam which is a religion that has to be taken for granted by all Muslims since it is a religion of monotheism, peace, and tolerance. It refers to the submission and obedience of human beings to the will and guidance of God. With respect to Islam, many accusations have been directed to Islam. In its early revelation especially when the Prophet Mohamed, peace be upon him, brought the message of God to humanity, both Christians and

Jews believed that his message is not original and it is derived either from Judaism,

Christianity, or other pre-Islamic Arabian religions. Yet, Muslim scholars argued that the Prophet’s message is original since its main source was God rather than any

Christian or Jewish influence (Goddard 19).

Further, many European scholars claimed that Islam accepted and sanctioned slavery, and for them Muslims are slaves of God due to their surrender to his guidance. However, enslavement existed before the coming of Islam which sought to reduce and stop it from continuing. Consequently, both Quran and “Sunna” can be 18 described as two main sources of the Islamic Law that all Muslims should refer to in dealing with their various matters including the issue of slavery and its practice in the

(I.W) by seeing how “” addressed the reality of slavery and brought new legislations which aimed at raising the slaves’ social status and emancipating slavery on a gradual basis.

Accordingly, slavery can be regarded as one the major issues that was discussed in both Islamic and American laws.

1. The Treatment of Slaves under the Islamic Law:

By the coming of Islam, slavery was a universal system that is recognized in most societies around the world and it continued to thrive after the rise of Islam.

However, Islam as a religion of monotheism and generosity sought to reduce and regulate its practice in the (I.W). Many Quranic injunctions and “Sharia” rules showed that Islam advocated a legal and limited practice of slavery. Under the (I.L), especially during the Islamic raids and conquests, all kinds of slavery such as enslavement by birth and slave trade have been abolished. The only exception was the enslavement of the captives who were captured in the Holy war “Jihad” against the unbelievers

(Samara and Hwamda 246). In order to be freed, those captives had to convert to

Islam and if they refused to surrender, they had to pay a tribute “Jizya” to Muslims who kept holding and protecting them. For example; the last agreements between

Muslims and non-Muslims that were at the end of the Prophet’s life in 630 with the delegations which came from “Himyar” and then in 631 A.D from “Najran”. They came to the Prophet (PBUH) to negotiate about their relationship with the Muslim community in which Muhammad (PBUH) allowed them to retain their religion and faith on condition that they pay a tribute to Muslims (Goddard 30-1). On this basis, 19 this conditional agreement between Muslims and non-Muslims can be considered as the best way to expand the religion of Islam world widely and to unify people under one faith rather than oppressing and humiliating people in order to be famous as God said: “And fight in the way of Allah those who fight you, but transgress not the limits.

Truly, Allah likes not the transgressors” (Quran 2:190).

After this narrowing in the practice of enslavement in Islamic lands, many

Islamic teachings stressed on the treatment of the captured slaves who are known in

Quran as “Abd” for the boy and “Ama” for the girl. According to “Sharia”, the slave should be treated as a human being who has the right to live and to do his duties as any other free person. Islam granted equal rights to slaves in order to prove that all people are equal and there is no difference between them since they came from one origin as God said: “O mankind! We have created you from a male and a female, and made you into nations and tribes, that you may know one another. Verily, the most honorable of you with Allah is that who has Al-Taqwa. Verily, Allah is all-knowing, well acquainted” (Quran 49:13). More, it is noticed that many Islamic injunctions urged all Muslims to treat their slaves kindly. It is recorded that Muhammad (PBUH) used to urge and recommend his companions to be kind with their slaves. This can be illustrated through the story of “Abu Dhar” a companion of the Prophet (PBUH) when he mistreated his slave (Al-Tarmanini 58). The Prophet (PBUH) said to him:

O Abu Dhar! Did you abuse him by calling his mother with bad names;

you still have some characteristics of ignorance. Your slaves are your

brothers and Allah has put them under your command. So whoever has

a brother under his command, he should feed him of what he eats and

dress him of what he wears. Do not ask them (slaves), to do things 20

beyond their capacity (power) and if you do so, then help them. (Sahih

Al-Bukhari 18)

From this , it seems clearly that the slave owners should treat their slaves as their own brothers and their social status and standards of life should be raised as those of their masters.

Further, many of the Prophet’s reports and recommendations that tackled the issue of slavery revealed that the Prophet (PBUH) advocated and insisted on the freedom of human beings from servitude. He even prevented Muslims from calling human beings by the term “slave” because all of them are servants of the only master who is God; he said: “You should not say, feed your lord, help your lord in performing ablution, or give water to your lord, or my guardian, and one should not say, my slave, or my girl-slave, but should say, my lad, my lass, and my boy” (Sahih

Al-Bukhari 581).

It is a matter of fact that women in ancient times were living under a great oppression and cruelty. In the (P.I.E), the birth of females was considered as the coming of shame and evil not a human being and for this reason they were buried alive. Then, women suffered oppression because they were living in a patriarchal society dominated by men. They were exposed to different kinds of humiliations since they were viewed as a property of their owners. Hence, the status of female slaves was determined by their economic role and their position in society. They were known as

“Jawari” in Arabic and they were considered as domestic servants and concubines of their masters (Sikainga 5).

After the rise of Islam, many changes have been brought for them in which their conditions improved and their social status raised. Accordingly, it has been explained by Mirza Bashir Ahmad in his book Islam and Slavery that marriage was 21 legitimized between free Muslim men and slave women after being freed (5). As

Allah indicated through the following verse: “And do not marry Al-Mushrikat

(idolatresses) till they believe. And indeed a slave woman who believes is better than a Mushrika (idolatress) even though she pleases you. And give not in marriage to Al-

Mushrikun till they believe and verily, a believing slave is better than a Mushrik, even though he pleases you” (Quran 2:222). Also, in this context of marriage, Muhammad

(PBUH) admonished the slave owners to respect, teach, and marry their female slaves as he said: “Three persons will get their reward twice. A person who has a slave girl and he educates her properly and teaches her good manners properly and then manumits and marries her. Such a person will get a double reward…” (Sahih-Al

Bukhari 693). The best example of this report is the story of the Prophet (PBUH) himself when he manumitted and married “Safia Bint Hayi” and “Juwairia Bint Al-

Harith” who were enslaved in the raids of “Khaybar” and “Bani Al-Mustalak”.

Through time, the status of slave women in many Islamic societies is more improved in which they gained their legal rights and privileges as equal as men.

Nowadays, they reached the overwhelming majority as active members in those societies since they are educated and qualified.

In fact, the companions and the successors of Muhammad (PBUH) were influenced by these Islamic rules and attitudes towards enslavement. They obeyed the

Prophet’s teachings and recommendations faithfully by treating their own slaves well and kindly and giving them their rights (Al-Tarmanini 58). There are many recorded instances in Islam that show this obedience such as “Abu Nawar” who was a cloth dealer when he said: “Ali, son of Abi-Talib (fourth successor of the Holy Prophet), once came to me with a slave and purchased two linen shirts: Then he said to his slave, ‘choose whichever of the two you please’. The slave chose one, and Ali took 22 the remaining one and put it on” (qtd. in Ahmad 9). Another good illustration was that the second caliph “” was interested in the owners’ behaviors towards their slaves. He used to visit the suburbs of Medina every Saturday and if he found a slave who was given work beyond his power, he ordered mitigation in the work (Al-

Tarmanini 58). Thus, all these traditions concluded that it was a humanistic behavior to treat slaves kindly because all human beings are brothers in the religion of Islam.

2. The Status and Occupation of African Americans in the New

World:

By the end of the 17th century and the beginning of the 18th century, the importation and ownership of African-Americans by the British colonists can be considered as the main reason behind the success and the growth of the American economy. At that time, the proportion of shipped slaves increased each year to the extent that the number of African-Americans overrode that of the white population in the early 18th century. This increase in fact made it possible for the British legislators to pass laws in each slave colony. These laws were usually known as “” or “Black Codes” made in order to protect the whites and to keep the enslaved people under control, in fact:

Slave codes placed slaves in a precarious place: the slave was both a

person and a nonperson before the law. As a person, lawmakers defined

the slave’s position in society and controlled his or her behavior just as

they defined and controlled other groups of people. Law specified

which unlawful acts applied to slaves and prescribed appropriate

punishments for violators. Lawmakers also described the few rights

slaves had before the law, which included being tithable individuals in 23

colonial revenue arrangement. The lawmakers defined slaves as

nonpersons, as property before the law. Slaves could be bought and

sold, inherited as real or personal property, accounted as part of an

owner’s estate, taken for payment of debt, and disputed in court cases

on ownership. The theft of a slave, because slaves were property of

great value, was a felony. (qtd.in Zackova 18)

This quotation demonstrated clearly the absolute power of the masters over their slaves. According to these codes, the practice of servitude was legal since slaves were considered as a chattel or property of their owners not human beings or citizens.

Slaves were deprived from tiny things such as marriage, carrying weapons, and ownership so that racism was created between blacks and whites. In this context, black slaves were also exposed to different kinds of cruelty and humiliations as

Morgan, in his book, Slavery and the British Empire noted that: “Recalcitrant slaves were subject to a series of physical punishments: branding on the cheek or the shoulder, lashing on the back, placement in stocks, subjection to physical abuse. Slave women and men were both subject to flogging on the bare parts of their body” (111).

During the first half of the eighteenth century, the enslavement of black

Africans had a strong impact on both North and because of their contributions in different industrial and agricultural tasks. However, the slaves’work in Northern colonies was extremely different from that in the South. Also, the number of slaves in the North was smaller than that in the South. This difference was mainly due to the following factors. First, the climate in the North was not suitable for the plantation of cash crops so that there was not much demand for slaves. Second, the 24 ownership of imported slaves by only Northern wealthy investors and merchants

(Deford 46).

In fact, most African-Americans in the North, males and females, were alternatives of the indentured servants and they worked as domestic servants in their master’s households. They were also considered as “a useful source of labor” since they were involved in various skilled trade as Morgan stated: “. . . slaves worked in the maritime trades as sail makers, coopers and dock workers; they often assisted artisans and tradesmen in shops and workshops; and female slaves found a niche as domestic servants” (101). Moreover, slaves of the Northern colonies were extensively employed in the rural agriculture and in ironworks either individually or in groups especially in New Jersey and Pennsylvania (Morgan102).

Unlike the North, few slaves in the South were owned and employed as domestic servants. In fact, the majority of them were purchased particularly for the plantation of the land and the production of various commodities for exportation. In most southern colonies, tobacco, rice, and sugar can be considered as the most important slave-produced products. This importance tests on their popularity in the

English trade markets and the great profit they brought. However, the cultivation of these goods required many laborers who were obliged to work under very hard and dangerous conditions. The production of tobacco, for example, took much time from the preparation of the soil till the harvest as it is noticed: “the work of the plantation left little time or privacy for the slaves who did the crop work” (Deford 49). Slaves spent on tobacco plantations long hours of work “. . . work filled up six days of the week. Holidays were usually restricted to just three days a year” (102). 25

This success in the growth of cash crops especially sugar was determined and achieved by the invention of the gang system. This system in fact controlled and restricted the rights of the enslaved black workers. Hence, during the late 18th century, many African slaves including men, women, and children were organized into gangs or groups of nine to twelve members. These gangs were supervised by a skilled black driver who was also supervised by a white overseer. “The slaves’ driver was usually responsible for ensuring the pace, quantity, and satisfactory performance of the work”

(Deford 69-71; Morgan 109; Fogel 27). Under this system, if these enslaved laborers slowed or delayed the work, they would be punished harshly by the driver.

As a result, the position of African slaves in Northern and Southern colonies was fundamentally different. In the North, especially New England slaves were considered as commodities and things to be bought and sold for the profit of their masters. Whereas, in the South, slaves outnumbered the white population in which they were engaged in the plantation and they were treated harshly.

After analyzing the practice of servitude in both societies, it seems that the positions and conditions of the owned slaves were different. This difference was in fact determined by the different reasons behind their enslavement. Indeed, slaves in the Islamic society, especially after the advent of Islam in the 7th century were usually non-Muslims and unbelievers to the will and guidance of God. They were usually captured during the raids of the Islamic conquests. So, the reason behind capturing them was to expand the religion of Islam hoping that these captured slaves would convert to Islam. In fact, the captured slaves were treated with respect and they were not obliged to convert to Islam. This means that those captives in order to be freed, they had either to convert to Islam or to retain their faith and buy a tribute to their owners who kept holding them as it is highlighted: 26

The main essentials of this relationship were that political and military

powers were to be firmly in the hands of the Arab rulers, but the non-

Muslim population, provided it had submitted peacefully to Muslim

rule, was to be given freedom of religion, in the sense of being able to

worship freely in its own places of worship, in return for the payment

of a special tax called the jizya. This was the term used in the Quran,

where the Muslims were instructed to fight against those among the

People of the Book who did not believe in God and the Last Day, did

not forbid what God had forbidden through Muhammad, and did not

follow the religion of truth, until they paid the tribute (jizya), being

brought low. (Goddard 44)

However, in the American society, especially in the early 18th century, the production of cash crops was very important and popular particularly in the South, but their plantation required many laborers to be brought mostly from Africa. So, the main reason of capturing African slaves and trading them in the USA was to fit the increasing needs and demands for workers who were needed in the cultivation of various products for exportation. Africans were kidnapped and taken to work as if they were animals. They were captured just for profit.

Under the Islamic Law, the social status of slaves was raised. This means that

Islam as a religion of monotheism had greatly appreciated the human being and insisted on his respect and rights. In this sense, Islam rejected hierarchy that was common in most societies and proved that all people are created equal and there is no difference between them since they came from one origin. This appreciation is evident through many Islamic teachings and recommendations which stressed on the kind treatment of slaves. Hence, many Quranic verses and Prophet’s teachings urged the 27 slave owners to treat their slaves well, kindly, and as their brothers. Also, the Prophet

(PBUH) prevented Muslims from humiliating them through the label “slave”. Under the Islamic law, the slave owners had to take care about their slaves and it was their duty to make sure that their slaves are well fed, clothed, and enjoyed their legal rights.

However, the slaves’ position in the American society was controlled by their masters since they were considered as their own personal property. Slaves were discriminated and exposed to different kinds of cruelty and humiliations. This means that they were seen as an inferior and subordinate race since they were treated harshly and they were deprived from tiny things like marriage, carrying weapons, and ownership.

Further, male slaves in the Islamic lands were owned and employed as domestic servants in their masters’ households. They were also involved in different kinds of skilled trades. Female slaves were usually employed as household servants and concubines. Whereas, in American society, slaves including males, females, and children can be regarded as an engine of the growth of American economy. This means that the majority of slaves were brought as cheap laborers and worked under very hard and dangerous conditions which resulted sometimes in their death. They spent long and hard hours in the plantation of the land and the production of cash crops for exportation, for instance, slaves spent long and restricted hours on the plantation of tobacco which was considered as one of the major popular and profitable slave-produced products in the English trade markets.

More, Islam appreciated the captured slaves and granted equal rights to them.

This estimation can be proved through the Islamic teachings which recommended and urged Muslims to be kind with their slaves and to give them their legal rights. On this 28 basis, it is recorded that these Islamic teachings and recommendations had a great influence in the (I.W) particularly on slave owners concerning their attitudes towards their own slaves. This can be illustrated through the stories of the Prophet’s companions and their behaviors with their slaves such as the second Caliph “Omar”,

“Abu Dhar”, and “Abu Masood”. Another example is the improvement of women’s status under the Islamic Law in which Islam removed female slaves from oppression and humiliation, and granted them their full rights at last to live in better conditions.

Women’s dignity and honor are well protected and respected because they are wives, mothers, daughters or sisters.

The conditions of slaves in the (I.W) were unlike those in America. African-

Americans in the New World, however, were oppressed by the British colonists for a long time. They were discriminated and deprived from their legal rights such as self- determination and representation in the British government since they were considered as a mere property not human beings. These humiliating conditions and racism towards slaves encouraged the legislation of several laws such as the “Slave Codes” and “Jim Crow Laws” which aimed at the supremacy and the protection of the whites, and segregation against blacks.

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Conclusion:

Slavery is a socio-economic issue that existed in both Islamic and American societies since ancient times. In the Islamic World, the coming of Islam is recognized as the most important event that removed human beings from the darkness of the past to enlightenment. It opened the doors to people to get rid from their previous problems and misunderstandings. This is evident through analyzing the issue of slavery as an old phenomenon in the (I.W). The Islamic Law, in fact, limited the practice of slavery and reduced its sources by taking only the captives of war as slaves who were unbelievers and the main reason behind capturing them was to expand Islam. It showed, also, how the owned slaves should be treated in which many Islamic recommendations sought to raise the status of slaves since they urged and obliged slave owners to treat them kindly. In addition to these restrictions, “Sharia” introduced many laws and procedures of manumission for the ultimate emancipation of slavery in the (I.W).

In the American society, however, slavery lasted for a long time from the colonial period till the recent years, in which millions of African slaves were shipped to America. Their enslavement in the New World was the main reason behind the making and the growth of the American nation. This is due to their contributions in the plantation of cash crops which improved the American economy. However, they were working under very hard conditions since they were considered as chattels who were lawfully subject to discrimination and segregation. Although, the USA is a nation built on the slaves’ shoulders, they were prevented from all rights and they were not even considered as human beings.

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Chapter Two

Slavery in the Islamic and American Societies

During and After Abolitionism

Introduction:

In fact, the system of slavery has covered most of the world history and it has spread across many countries and regions around the globe. Both America and the

Islamic world witnessed and recognized the practice of slavery for a variety of purposes. Hence, after a long time of control, oppression, and exploitation, many antislavery principles and movements emerged in both societies in order to end servitude. However, these calls against slavery were applied in different ways and degrees. Abolitionism as a reform movement in both Islamic and American societies seems to have many similarities as well as several differences.

I. Manumission in Islamic Communities VS Abolitionism in

America:

1. The Emancipation of Slavery in Islam:

The emancipation of slaves can be considered as one of the major objectives of

Islam. In fact, manumission or “Itq” in Arabic was legitimized in “Sharia” in order to show that a slave is a human being who does have his legal rights. On this basis, many

Islamic teachings including Quranic verses and the Prophet’s recommendations motivated and encouraged Muslims particularly slave owners to emancipate their slaves. As a result, a number of Muslim slave owners have been influenced by those teachings which resulted in their obedience to the (I.L) and the emancipation of their slaves (Ahmad 4). Despite the fact that these Islamic teachings opened the door for 31 many slaves to get freed, they were insufficient and they could not cover all cases since the proportion of slaves was still very high.

► Steps of Emancipation:

Due to this uncertainty, Islam introduced several rules and procedures in order to facilitate the slaves’ emancipation and put it into practice. The first method is “Al-

Targhib” which refers to the slave owners’ free will to free their slaves (Alwan 23).

This could be done through a verbal proclamation by the owner that his slave is free in order to be expiated from his sins and to be protected from hell as God said: “But he has not attempted to pass on the path that is steep. And what will make you know the path that is steep, freeing a neck or giving food in a day of hunger” (Quran 90:11-3).

Also, many of the Prophet’s reports encouraged the owners to emancipate their slaves in this way in which he used to say: “Whoever frees a Muslim slave, Allah will save all the parts of his body from the fire as he had freed the body-parts of the slave”

(Sahih Al-Bukhari). According to the recorded history, it is noticed that Muhammad

(PBUH) and his followers like “Abu Bakr Al-Sidik” used to purchase the owned slaves from their masters in order to set them free. This can be illustrated through the following tradition: “Amr bin Harith, brother of Juwairia, wife of the Holy Prophet, reports that the prophet did not, at the time of his death, leave behind him any silver or gold coin or any slave, male or female” (qtd. in Ahmad 26). So, this kind of emancipation resulted in the manumission of the majority of the existing slaves in

Islamic societies.

The second method is that the owner could emancipate his slaves as “Kafara” or penalty for his offenses and sins such as accidental killing and breaking an oath

(Alwan25). On this basis, God said: “It is not for a believer to kill a believer except by 32 mistake; and whoever kills a believer by mistake, he must set free a believing slave and a compensation be given to the deceased’s family unless they remit it” (Quran

4:92). And for breaking an oath, God said: “Allah will not punish you for what is unintentional in your oaths, but he will punish you for your deliberate oaths; for its expiation feed ten Masakin, on a scale o the average of that with which you feed your own families, or clothe them or manumit a slave” (Quran 5:89). Also, in the case of deliberate eating in Ramadan, the prophet (PBUH) urged Muslims who ate deliberately in the month of fasting to free a slave. All these traditions proved that these Islamic legislations helped both the owners to gain the forgiveness of God and the slaves to get freed.

The third one is “Mukataba” or a civil contract of manumission between the owner and the slave. In fact, slaves who were qualified and capable to engage in work and live independently had the right to acquire their free citizenship. This could be achieved by making a treaty through which the slave was required to pay a fixed amount of money to his master for his freedom. In this case, the master was obliged to accept this treaty and help his slave if he could not collect the required sum of money, whereby God said: “And such of your slaves as seek writing, give them such writing, if you find that there is good and honesty in them. And give them something out of the wealth of Allah which he has bestowed upon you” (Quran 24:33).

The fourth method is related to the state which had to devote a sum of money known as “” from the public funds for the liberation of the state’s slaves as God said: “As-Sadakat are only for Fuqara (poor), and Al-Masakin (the needy), and those employed to collect; and to attract the hearts of those who have been inclined; and to free the captives…” (Quran 9:60). Accordingly, many Caliphs at that time used to buy slaves from the markets by this money and set them free. Also, this money could be 33 used as a help to the slaves who made a contract with their owners and could not collect the required amount of money.

The fifth is “Tadbir” which refers to the owner’s declaration that his slave would be freed after his death. This kind of manumission is related particularly to the female slaves who were recognized as concubines. According to the “Sharia” rules, if a slave concubine bore children to her master, she would be considered as “Um al- walad” or a mother of his child and her children were as equal as the master’s freeborn children. Hence, such a woman could not be sold and as soon as her master died she would get freed. Thus, many slave women at that time were manumitted in this way and their situation was actually raised (Alwan 30).

Finally, since Islam urged Muslims to treat slaves well, the slave could be emancipated if his owner beats him violently. This kind of emancipation can be considered as a punishment to the owners who disobeyed the Islamic rules. For instance; Muhammad (PBUH) once saw one of his companions “Abu Masood” beating his slave, he said angrily: “…Bear in mind, Abu Maood; verily Allah has more dominance upon you than you have upon your slave. He then said, I would never beat my servant in future’ (Sahih Muslim 1012).

2. The Abolition of Slavery in the U.S:

By the late 18th century and the advent of the 19th century, abolitionism can be considered as a major reform movement in the United States. It was also known as the

Antislavery movement since it sought to end slavery and emancipate millions of black people held as slaves. In the USA, this abolitionist movement traced its to the

17th century and continued to develop till the 19th century.

34

►Stages of the American Abolitionist Movement:

First, many historians argued that in the late 17th century and during the enlightenment, the early voices against slavery in America were members of the

Religious Society of Friends. They were the first critics and abolitionists of the system of slavery in America and they were called Quakers or Friends. They fled to the

American colonies looking for religious freedom since they suffered from religious persecution in England. In fact, the Quakers criticized the practice of slavery because they wanted to improve the slaves’ lives. “They viewed slavery as a kind of war, which went against their beliefs” (Eisenstark 63)

In the late 1700s, “John Woodman” and “Anthony Benezet” from

Pennsylvania were two famous Quaker abolitionists. They were interested in the gradual emancipation of slavery in which they urged and succeeded to influence other

American communities to stop their involvement in slave trade. Accordingly, the

Pennsylvania Abolition Society was the first abolitionist society established in the

USA by the Quakers. The (P.A.S) worked mainly to end slavery and to involve the freed slaves in education and employment (Eisenstark 63). Further, the Quakers’ voices and calls against slavery were expanded through their published antislavery pamphlets such as “All Slave-keepers that Keep the Innocent in Bondage, Apostates” published by “Benjamin Lay” in 1737 (McNeese 30).

Second, the difference between Northern and Southern economies was the main reason behind the different attitudes towards slaves and the practice of slavery in both sides. This diversity led to the split of the Union in which Southerners viewed the practice of slavery as an economic necessity and the source of their growth; Whereas,

Northerners viewed that slaves were not much needed due to their industrial economy. 35

The American Revolution (1775-1783) can be considered as an important event that boosted the abolitionist movement. Despite the fact that the president “Thomas

Jefferson” was a slaveholder, he was strongly interested in the emancipation of slavery. This can be illustrated through the involvement of the abolition of slavery as a main principle in the Declaration of Independence as it is stated “all men are created equal”. After the war of independence, the abolitionist movement found some support in the North in which many slaveholders set their slaves free and every Northern state had passed laws for a gradual emancipation in order not to disrupt the Southern economy. For example; Massachusetts included abolition in its state constitution in

1780 and New Hampshire declared itself a non-slaveholding state in 1783 (McNeese

36). However, slavery in the South continued to grow and slaves were still bought increasingly.

In the beginning of the 19th century, the abolitionist movement witnessed a great development. This improvement was mostly because of the foundation of the

American Anti-Slavery Society in Philadelphia in 1833. This abolitionist group was headed by “William Garrison” in addition to other abolitionists like “Frederik

Douglass”, “Theodore Weld”, and “Lewis Tappen” who were very famous figures in the American Abolitionist movement. According to “Garrison”, the main objective of the (A.A.S.S) was “the immediate freeing of all slaves and the immediate establishment of equal rights for African-Americans (Eisenstak 42-3). Also,

“Garrison” believed that slavery is immoral and illegal and he was known as a fervent abolitionist through the publication of his famous newspaper “The Liberator”. He criticized and attacked slaveholders in which he said that he wanted “nothing more than the peaceful abolition of slavery…” (qtd.in Eisenstark 43). 36

In fact, the (A.A.S.S) had a tremendous impact in the North particularly through the creation of antislavery societies. These societies spread extensively calling for the end of slavery. In doing so, they sent many demands and petitions to Congress in addition to the publication of pamphlets, newspapers, and slave narratives which described slaves’ lives from their enslavement to freedom (Eisenstark 71).

Furthermore, although Congress passed the Fugitive Slave Act in 1850 which stated that it was illegal to help slaves escape, the took an important part in the development of antislavery movement. At that time because of the common cruelty against slaves in the South, many slaves used to escape from their owners to

Northern states looking for safety and freedom. Hence, they escaped through the

Underground Railroad which was a secret network of hidden houses and routes made by abolitionists in the North as well as the South. The main goal of this network is to help the fugitive slaves to escape from their slave states to free states in the North and to Canada by offering to them “shelter, food, and clothing” (Deford 83).

Third, despite the fact that the antislavery movement succeeded to motivate and encourage many African-Americans to defend themselves and to fight against slavery, it was divided into two different ideologies. “Garrison” viewed “abolitionism as a moral issue” and he “believed that the end of slavery should only be achieved peacefully” (Eisenstark 30). Also, he was interested in ensuring equal rights for women, rejecting the USA constitution since he considered it as a document that advocated slavery, and even he called for the split of the Union into slave and free stated. However, “Douglass” in addition to other abolitionists viewed slavery as a political issue and they “believed that politics was a useful tool when it came to attacking the institution of slavery” (30). They rejected the breakup of the Union since 37 they believed that it would harm slaves in the South. In addition, they believed that the constitution could be used as a tool to end slavery.

During the 19th century, slavery was a debatable issue in the USA Congress especially during the acquisition of new Western territories in the mid-1800s. In fact, the antislavery movement reached its climax in the 1850s particularly when the USA was divided into Northern free states and Southern slave states. At that time, most

Congress debates were over the issue of slavery whether it should be applied in the newly required territories or not. For example; the compromise of 1820 known as the

“Missouri compromise” through which Congress made a balance between free and slave states by admitting “Missouri” as a slave state and “Maine” as a free state

(Eisenstark 27). Another example was the compromise of 1850 especially when the

USA acquired a new territory after the Mexican war (1846-1848). Through this compromise, Congress admitted California as a free state by allowing the settlers of the new territory to decide whether or not to apply servitude (27). However, these compromises had never resolved the problem of slavery in the USA.

In the second half of the 19th century, the enslavement of African-Americans had become an important political subject. At that time, because Southerners believed that the practice of slavery was considered as an economic necessity and a local issue that had to expand throughout the entire nation, Northerners opposed slavery and wanted the federal government to control its practice and stop it from continuing.

During the presidential election of 1860, the Republican Party’s candidate “Abraham

Lincoln” became famous by his antislavery views. His main objective was to unify the

Union under one rule and to end slavery in the USA as he said “A house divided 38 against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure, permanently half slave and half free” (Lincoln).

When “Lincoln” won the election of 1860, seven Southern states such as South

Carolina had seceded from the Union and formed the confederate states of America which led to the beginning of the civil war in 1861. It is recorded that this long brutal conflict between the North and the South resulted in the death of a great number of soldiers from both sides during the war (Deford 94). At that time, the abolitionist movement grew stronger since many abolitionists including “Garrison”, “Douglass”, and “Philips” supported the war and believed that it would end slavery. In fact, these abolitionists had influenced “Lincoln” so that he issued the Emancipation

Proclamation in 1863. It is noticed that this announcement can be considered as the first step to end servitude in the USA which emancipated slaves of the seceded or the

Confederate Southern states as “Lincoln” announced: “all persons held as slaves within any state… in rebellion against the United States shall be… thenceforward, and forever free (qtd.in Worth 18). Accordingly, “Lincoln” by making this Emancipation aimed at destroying the Southern economy which was mainly based on labor force

(Worth 18).

However, many debates have been made over the Emancipation Proclamation and its impact on society. Many historians argued that this document did not succeed to free all the slaves existing in the USA. Also, it is explained that: “even in those

Southern states that had seceded, it was not immediately possible to enforce the order because the state government there refused to acknowledge any orders issued from

President Lincoln” (Eisenstark 34). Actually, when the Union won the war and controlled the Southern states in 1865, a great number of slaves were freed in the 39

USA. This emancipation of slaves was accomplished particularly through the ratification of the thirteenth Amendment to the USA constitution in 1865 which abolished slavery officially and made its practice illegal in the whole nation.

After this analysis, it is noticed that slavery in the Islamic as well as the

American societies lasted for a long time, and freedom was desired in both societies.

Also, slavery was abolished gradually in both communities, but in different ways:

In the Islamic World, the abolition of slavery was considered as one of the main aims of Islam. In fact, the Islamic teachings about slaves including several

Quranic verses and Prophet’s reports played an important role in the rise of slaves’ position. Those teachings influenced and encouraged Muslim slave owners to emancipate their slaves. Additionally, for the ultimate abolition of slavery in the

Islamic lands, Islam introduced many rules and methods to facilitate the slaves’ emancipation and manumission. First, slaves could be manumitted through their owners’ free will and desire to proclaim their freedom in order to gain the forgiveness of God and to be protected from hell. Second, the slave owners could manumit their slaves as a “Kafara” or penalty for their sins and offenses. Third, slaves could be emancipated and gain free citizenship after making a treaty with their masters and buying a fixed amount of money to them. Fourth, slaves could be purchased and set free by the states’ devoted money for their liberation. Fifth, slaves could get their freedom after the death of their owners. Lastly, according to the Islamic Laws, slaves could be manumitted if their owners treated them harshly and violently.

However, abolition in the USA can be considered as an ambivalent reform movement since it passed through several antislavery legislations. First, the Quakers were considered as the first critics and abolitionists of the system of slavery and its 40 practice in the USA. For this reason, they established the Pennsylvania Abolition

Society as the first abolitionist society in America in order to end slavery. Second, in the early 19th, the American Abolitionist movement improved and the antislavery spirit expanded in the USA. This improvement can be evident through the foundation of several antislavery societies which called for the end of slavery such as the

(A.A.S.S) that was created in Philadelphia in 1833 by a group of abolitionists in order to free all African-Americans. Third, during the second half of the 19th century, and after the split of the Union the Southern slave states and Northern free states,

Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 was considered as the first step of immediate end of slavery. Fourth, after the end of the civil war in 1865 with the victory of the Union, slavery in the USA was abolished officially particularly after the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the American constitution.

Thus, through this comparison, it is obvious that emancipation in the Islamic society was based on the principle of encouragement rather than enforcement. This means that the Quranic verses and stimulated Muslims to free their slaves via different ways.

II. Post-Abolitionism in the Islamic Community VS Post-

Abolitionism in the U.S:

After this movement of emancipation under the Islamic Law, millions of slaves got rid from servitude in Muslim communities. It is recorded that even after manumission, the relationship between the freed slaves and their former masters remained good and kind in which they became brothers and friends (Ahmad 22). Also, under the (I.L), both of them could share inheritance if anyone of them died without an heir and it is recoded that: 41

Aisha relates that the Holy Prophet used to say, that if any emancipated

slave died heirless, his property was to go to his late master. Similarly,

Ibn Abbas relates that a man died in the life time of the Holy Prophet

leaving no heir other than a slave whom he had emancipated. The Holy

Prophet ordered his property to be given over to his freed slave” (qtd.

in Ahmad 22-3).

Many scholars argued that the main objective of this right of inheritance was materialistic, but the real aim according to “Sharia” was to keep and secure the kind relationship between the master and his freed slave.

More importantly, the freed slaves in most Islamic societies were treated kindly and they had the same respect and honor as the other free people. Gradually, they became useful citizens since they were involved in the state’s affairs such as military campaigns. In fact, “Bilal Ibn Rabah” was the best example in the history of

Islam. He was an Ethiopian black slave who came to “Mecca”. He was owned by

“Umayya Ibn Khalaf” and he was tortured and humiliated because of his conversion to Islam. His owner used to beat and force him to deny the Prophet’s message and worship idols, but he refused. He was purchased by “Abu Bakr” and from then he became one of the major companions of Muhammad (PBUH). It is said that he was so close to the Prophet and he accompanied him in almost all his military expeditions for instance; he fought in the battle of “Badr” and killed his former owner. Also, he was brave in battles to the extent that the Caliph “Omar” used to say that “Bilal” was their chief (Ahmad 29).

After all, through analyzing these Islamic rules and injunctions about slavery and slaves, it is obvious that the main aim of Islam is the abolition of slavery in the

(I.W). Hence, it has limited and regulated its practice and opened several doors to the 42 captured slaves to be freed. From the beginning, slaves were considered as full human beings who deserve to be treated on this basis.

However, in the USA particularly after the end of the civil war in 1865, the victory of the North maintained the unity of the United States. This period is known as the since the nation needed to be rebuilt and reconstructed after a long time of war. At that time and according to Lincoln’s plan of Reconstruction,

African-Americans especially in the South celebrated their freedom and gained many significant rights such as; the rights of citizenship, voting, education…etc. In this context, Worth explained that: “After the civil war ended . . . Many schools were established with aid from the Freedmen’s Bureau. Northern teachers, many of them young women, came south to instruct African-American children and adults” (28).

However, these civil rights and freedom of African-Americans were not guaranteed and they did not last long. Hence, after the assassination of “Lincoln” and the inauguration of the newly president “Andrew Johnson”, hatred and racial attitudes towards Southern slaves were common: “He did not believe that African-Americans should be given land taken from white population owners. Nor did he believe that former slaves should have the right to vote” (Worth 34).

In fact, in 1877 and by the end of Reconstruction, slaves were oppressed and the civil rights they gained during Reconstruction were denied particularly through the enactment of certain laws by many Southern states (Worth 34). These discriminated laws against slaves were known as “Jim Crow Laws” which referred to “a white man from the 1830s who covered his face with charcoal and performed in a show depicting a silly and illiterate man” (Markova 12). These laws, in fact, were based on the 43 supremacy of whites and the humiliated and inferior position of blacks as a politician and a general in the Union army said:

Wherever I go- the street, the shop, the house, the hotel, or the

steamboat. I heard the people talk in such a way as to indicate that they

are unable to [conceive] of the Negro as possessing any rights at all.

Men, who are honorable in their dealings with their white neighbors,

will cheat a Negro without feeling a single twinge . . .To kill o Negro,

they do not deem [believe it to be] murder . . . to take the property away

from a Negro, they do not consider robbery (qtd.in Worth 37).

Most importantly, in 1896 the USA Supreme Court decided the case of

Plessey v. Ferguson which worked under the idea of “Separate but equal”. This decision, then, can be considered as a victory of the Southern states since it was legal for African-Americans to enjoy their civil rights and to serve as equal as whites but separately. This kind of segregation spread to most public places including public schools, public transportation, restaurants, theatres … etc. For instance; Congress passed the 15th Amendment in 1869 which gave to all American male citizens the right to vote, but African-Americans still faced the problem of racism. During the time of election, black slaves who supported the Republican Party were threatened by the loss of their lands. In addition to that, “Many whites believed that African-Americans did not have the ability to vote intelligently” (worth 76). Another example that shows black’s inferiority is that in the early 20th century “Florida and North Carolina did not permit white students to use textbooks that had been touched by black students”

(qtd.in Markova 12). 44

Due to this racial segregation and exploitation in society, some African-

Americans were obliged to establish their own communities and social places in order to live in dignity and get rid from racism. This can be illustrated through the establishment of their own schools and churches as it is stated “Reconstruction witnessed the birth of the modern black community “(qtd.in Worth 31). These segregation laws lasted for long time and continued till the 1950s particularly by the beginning of the African-American Civil Rights Movement in 1954. This movement was launched in order to get rid from discrimination and to ensure that all people have the same rights and they are protected by law.

After all, the abolition of slavery in both societies left a profound impact on slaves and on society as a whole. On one hand, the Islamic abolitionist rules and legislations had positive effects in the Islamic World. This means that these Islamic legislations against slavery paved the way for millions of slaves to be free. Also, they created and implanted equality between slaves and free people and crashed the social differences between them. More, after the manumission of slaves, there should be a kind and respectable relationship between slaves and their former owners. Under the

Islamic Law, the freed slaves in many Muslim communities were treated well and kindly, and they gained their legal rights as equal as the other free people such as the right to marry and inherit. Also, they became useful citizens in society since they were involved and contributed in different slates’ affairs such as the famous slave figure in the Islamic history “Bilal Ibn Rabah” who contributed bravely in almost all Islamic military campaigns.

On the other hand, the enslavement of African-Americans and their lawful emancipation left a negative impact in the USA. Initially, the issue of slavery and its development in America resulted in the split of the Union into Southern states that 45 advocated slavery and Northern states which fought against it. This division created a deep racism between black and white people. Despite the fact that African-Americans celebrated their freedom and gained some civil rights during Reconstruction, hatred and racial attitudes towards them were still common. This is evident through the decision of “Separate but equal” in which African-Americans were legally segregated and discriminated in most public places including schools, buses, and restaurants just because of their black skin.

46

Conclusion:

By drawing a comparison between the Islamic and American attitudes towards slavery especially during and after its abolition, it is noticed that abolitionism in both communities introduced different characteristics as well as similar ones. The gradual abolition of slavery can be considered as one of the main aims in both Islamic and

American laws, but in different ways. This can be proved through the Islamic restrictions on enslavement and the legislation of several methods and procedures of manumission such as Mukataba, Al-Targhib, and Zakat which resulted in the ultimate emancipation of slavery in the light of Islam. Whereas, the official abolition of slavery in the USA passed through different stages and antislavery laws like the (A.A.S.S), the Emancipation Proclamation, and the 13th Amendment.

After abolitionism, the position of the freed slaves in the Islamic society was unlike that in the USA. This means that Muslim slaves after achieving freedom, they became an integrated part in society. They found themselves full free Muslims who were able to participate in the making and development of the Islamic nation. They participated willingly in the Islamic raids and played a significant role in the spread of

Islam. However, slaves in the USA found themselves after abolitionism in Hell. They were ignored and new laws were enacted to keep them far away from the “Whites”.

47

Table 1: A Comparative Table of Slavery in the Islamic World and in

the United States

Similarities

Social Structure During the pre-Islamic era as well as the colonial

period, both Islamic and American societies were

characterized by a complex social structure because of

the common separation and division between people

within the same society.

Sources of In both societies, wars and slave trade can be

Enslavement considered as the main sources of capturing slaves and enslaving them such as the wars of the Islamic

conquests and the transatlantic slave trade.

Ownership of Slaves The ownership of slaves was common in both

societies whereby slaves were considered as a chattel

or property of their owners.

Freedom The owned slaves in both countries desired freedom

and liberation from their owners’ control in order to

live independently.

48

Differences

The Islamic Society The United States

Slavery is traced back to the Slavery started during

Historical Pre-Islamic era when people the colonial period were illiterate and uncivilized, particularly after the Context and it continued till the discovery of America as

coming of Islam in the 7th a land of opportunities,

century. and it continued to thrive

till the recent years.

Enslavement was not Africa was the main

Origins of Slaves systematic because slaves source from which slaves came from different parts of originated in which the

the world, and they had majority of slaves in the

different origins including USA were black

whites and blacks. Africans.

Slavery was legitimized The lack of laborers in

Reasons of Capture mainly for the reason of the New World was expanding Islam and considered as the main

achieving a future country reason of servitude in

under Islamic principles. order to fit the increasing

Slaves were usually non- demands for workers

Muslims and unbelievers who who cultivate the land

were captured as captives and produce different

during the Islamic raids. goods for exportation. 49

By the advent of Islam, slaves African-Americans were

Social and were appreciated and their seen as an inferior and social status was raised. They subordinate race. They Economic Status were treated kindly and they were humiliated and

were employed in domestic treated harshly. They

services such as household worked in the plantation

servants. of cash crops under very

hard and dangerous

conditions.

Under the Islamic Law, the Under the British control

Political Status slaves’ conditions improved and the legislation of and they granted their legal many unjust laws, slaves

rights equally like the right of were oppressed and they

inheritance. were deprived from their

civil rights.

According to “Sharia”, the The abolition of slavery

Abolition of Slavery slaves’ manumission was passed through several determined by their owners antislavery movements

who had to obey the Islamic and legislations including

legislations that are concerned the (A.A.S.S), the

with the issue of slavery and Emancipation

its abolition. Proclamation, and the

13th Amendment.

50

Slaves after being freed were Even though African-

After Freedom well integrated in society as Americans gained their equal as the free people. There freedom and possessed

was a kind and mutual some civil rights

relationship between the freed officially, they suffered

slaves and their former from racism and

owners. Also, they became segregation by the whites

useful citizens due to their in most public places.

contributions in different local

affairs.

51

General Conclusion

This study sets out to examine the main differences and similarities between both Muslims’ and American attitudes towards slavery before and after its abolition.

After analysis, this research has come out with many conclusions. First, enslavement in both societies is interrelated in many cases and share many characteristics. In this sense, slavery in both communities can be considered as an old phenomenon that began in ancient times. In both societies. Slavery was created as a social institution due to the complex social structure. Moreover, in the Islamic as well as the American societies, slaves were either captured in wars or purchased through slave trade such as the . In both communities, servitude was legal and the ownership of slaves as a property was legitimized. In addition to that, slaves in both societies desired freedom and wanted to live independently since they spent a long time under control, oppression, and exploitation. However, through time, many Islamic injunctions and American legislations against slavery opened the door for slaves to get freed and they were very effective in achieving their independence.

Second, this research comes to conclude that there are important differences that were revealed through studying slavery and its practice in both Islamic and

American societies particularly in historical contexts, reasons of capture, the status and position of slaves, and the abolition of slavery. This can be illustrated through analyzing the main reasons behind enslavement in both societies. Slavery under the

Islamic Law was restricted in terms of capturing only the unbelievers during the

Islamic invasions. This means that the main reason that led to intensive enslavement was the rise of Islam and its expansion worldwide. However, slavery in the USA was reinforced by the American unjust laws starting from the British control over 52

America. African-Americans at that time were considered as an engine of the

American economy since they were brought in great numbers for the reason of planting the land and producing different kinds of cash crops for the benefit of the mother country.

Another good illustration was a completely different status of the owned slaves in both societies before and after emancipation. Accordingly, the position of slaves was raised under the Islamic Law since many Islamic teachings urged Muslims to treat their own slaves well and kindly. Also, those teachings in fact indicated that

Islam encouraged the liberation of slaves. However, slaves in the USA were lawfully degraded. They were treated harshly and they suffered for a long time from segregation and discrimination. Furthermore, after getting their freedom, slaves in

Muslim lands became an integrated part in society since they enjoyed their natural rights equally as the other citizens. Whereas, abolitionism in the USA was followed by an intensified racism, stereotypes, and hatred sentiments towards African-

Americans.

53

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