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Hydrochemistry of Ice-Covered Lakes and Ponds in the Untersee Oasis (Queen Maud Land, Antarctica)

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Hydrochemistry of Ice-Covered Lakes and Ponds in the Untersee Oasis (Queen Maud Land, Antarctica) Hydrochemistry of ice-covered lakes and ponds in the Untersee Oasis (Queen Maud Land, Antarctica) Benoit Faucher Thesis submitted to the University of Ottawa in partial Fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctorate of Philosophy in Geography Department of Geography, Environment, and Geomatics Faculty of Arts University of Ottawa © Benoit Faucher, Ottawa, Canada, 2021 ABSTRACT Several thousand coastal perennially ice-covered oligotrophic lakes and ponds have been identified on the Antarctic continent. To date, most hydrochemical studies on Antarctica’s ice- covered lakes have been undertaken in the McMurdo Dry Valleys (more than 20 lakes/ponds studied since 1957) because of their proximity to the McMurdo research station and the New Zealand station Scott Base. Yet, little attention has been given to coastal ice-covered lakes situated in Antarctica’s central Queen Maud Land region, and more specifically in the Untersee Oasis: a polar Oasis that encompasses two large perennially ice-covered lakes (Lake Untersee & Lake Obersee), and numerous small ice-covered morainic ponds. Consequently, this PhD research project aims to describe and understand the distribution, ice cover phenology, and contemporary hydrochemistry of perennially ice-covered lakes and ponds located in the Untersee Oasis and their effect on the activity of the benthic microbial ecosystem. Lake Untersee, the largest freshwater coastal lake in central Queen Maud Land, was the main focus of this study. Its energy and water mass balance was initially investigated to understand its current equilibrium and how this perennially well-sealed ice-covered lake may evolve under changing climate conditions. Results suggest that Lake Untersee’s mass balance was in equilibrium between the late 1990s and 2018, and the lake is mainly fed by subglacial meltwater (55-60%) and by subaqueous melting of glacier ice (40-45%). A recursive stable water isotope (δD-δ18O) evolution model for well-sealed perennial ice-covered lakes that takes into account the effect of changing chemistry in residual waters on δD-δ18O values was then developed and determined that Lake Untersee is in isotopic steady-state. Modeling results also showed that Untersee most likely did not receive additional inputs from surface streams during the last 300– 500 years at the time of sampling, in November-December 2017. However, in mid-January 2019, Untersee experienced a glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) that increased the water level by 2 m (contributing 1.75×107 m3 of water), modifying its water chemistry and inorganic carbon load. High-resolution grain size and carbon isotope analyses of the benthic microbial mats suggest that GLOFs occurred periodically over the Holocene and that those events sporadically increased the primary productivity of its benthic microbial ecosystem. Finally, ice-covered ponds in the Oasis were identified and sampled to compare their morphometric properties, hydrochemical properties, and microbial mat activity with Lake Untersee. It was discovered that the Untersee Oasis ponds offer the full spectrum of ice cover types (i.e., perennial well-sealed, perennial and moat forming, ii and seasonally ice-covered) and that their hydrochemical properties depend on ice cover type. Empirical pond data was used to determine how Lake Untersee and the ponds themselves will evolve as they transition under a warming climate from well-sealed to moat forming and from moat forming to seasonally ice-covered. iii RÉSUMÉ Plusieurs milliers de lacs et étangs côtiers recouverts de glace ont été identifiés en Antarctique. Jusqu'à présent, la plupart des études hydrochimiques sur les lacs couverts de glace de l'Antarctique ont été entreprises dans les vallées sèches de McMurdo (plus de 20 lacs/étangs étudiés depuis 1957) en raison de leur proximité avec la station de recherche de McMurdo (américaine) et la base Scott (néo-zélandaise). Cependant, peu d'attention a été accordée aux lacs côtiers couverts de glace situés dans la région centrale de la Terre de la Reine Maud, en Antarctique, et plus particulièrement dans l'Oasis Untersee : une oasis polaire qui comprend deux grands lacs couverts de glace pérenne (le lac Untersee et le lac Obersee), et de nombreux petits étangs morainiques couverts de glace. Par conséquent, l'objectif de ce projet de recherche doctorale est de décrire et comprendre la distribution, la phénologie de la couverture de glace et l'hydrochimie contemporaine des lacs et des étangs couverts de glace pérenne situés dans l'oasis d'Untersee, ainsi que leur effet sur l'activité primaire de leur écosystème microbien benthique. Le lac Untersee, le plus grand lac côtier d'eau douce de la partie centrale de la Terre de la Reine Maud, a été le sujet principal de cette étude. Le bilan de masse énergétique et hydrologique de ce dernier a été étudié dans un premier temps afin de comprendre son équilibre actuel et la manière dont ce lac recouvert de glace bien scellée pourrait évoluer dans le contexte de changements climatiques globaux. Les résultats suggèrent que le bilan de masse hydrologique du lac Untersee était en équilibre entre la fin des années 1990 et 2018, et que le lac est principalement alimenté par les eaux de fonte sous-glaciaires (55-60%), et par la fonte subaquatique de glaciers (40-45%). Un modèle récursif d'évolution des isotopes stables de l'eau (δD-δ18O) pour les lacs couverts de glace pérenne qui sont bien scellés et qui tient compte de l'effet de l'évolution de la chimie des eaux résiduelles sur les valeurs δD-δ18O a ensuite été développé et a permis de déterminer que le lac Untersee est en équilibre isotopique. Les résultats de la modélisation ont également montré que le lac Untersee n'a fort probablement pas reçu d'apport supplémentaire d’eaux de surface au cours des 300 à 500 dernières années, au moment de l'échantillonnage (en novembre-décembre 2017). Cependant, à la mi-janvier 2019, le lac Untersee a été affecté par une inondation glaciaire qui a augmenté le niveau d'eau de 2 m (apportant 1,75×107 m3 d'eau) modifiant son hydrochimie ainsi que sa charge en carbone inorganique dissous. Des analyses à haute résolution de la taille des grains et des isotopes du carbone de carottes prélevées sur des stromatolites benthiques suggèrent que de telles inondations se sont produites périodiquement au iv cours de l'Holocène, et que ces événements ont sporadiquement augmenté la productivité primaire de son écosystème microbien benthique. Enfin, des étangs couverts de glace dans l'Oasis ont été identifiés et échantillonnés afin de comparer leurs propriétés morphométriques et hydrochimiques, ainsi que leur activité microbienne, avec le lac Untersee. Il fut découvert que les étangs de l'Oasis Untersee offrent tous les types de couvertures de glace (c.-à-d., couvertures de glace pérennes bien scellées, pérennes et formant des douves, et couvertures saisonnières) et qu'ils présentent des propriétés hydrochimiques variées qui dépendent du type de couverture de glace. Ainsi, les données sur les étangs ont été utilisées pour déterminer comment le lac Untersee et les étangs eux- mêmes évolueront, alors qu'ils entameront une transition, sous l'effet d'un réchauffement climatique, de type de couverture de glace. v REMERCIEMENTS J’aimerais débuter par remercier le professeur Denis Lacelle d’avoir agi en tant que superviseur de thèse et mentor pour ce projet de recherche doctorale. Merci Denis de m’avoir inclus dans le projet de recherche du Lac Untersee et de m’avoir guidé à travers mes études supérieures durant les six dernières années. Merci aussi de m’avoir avoir encouragé à élargir mes horizons de carrière, que ce soit par l’entremise de conférences à travers le monde, de campagnes de travail de terrain dans l’Arctique avec d’autres étudiant(e)s, d’expériences d’enseignement à l’Université d’Ottawa et en Chine, ou d’expériences de travail au sein de la fonction publique. Ta passion pour la recherche est contagieuse. Je crois aussi que chacun(e) de tes étudiant(e)s diplômés peux s’accorder pour dire que tu tiens réellement à notre succès, donc merci énormément aussi pour ceci. Bref, merci pour tout ! J’espère pouvoir continuer de collaborer avec toi dans le futur, dans le cadre d’autres projets. J’aimerais aussi remercier Dale T. Andersen, l’investigateur principal du projet de recherche du lac Untersee, qui m’a permis d’aller faire du travail de terrain en Antarctique à trois reprises avec celui-ci. Dale, merci d’avoir transmis toutes ces connaissances en lien avec la limnologie polaire. Merci aussi pour ta confiance envers moi lorsque nous étions sur le terrain et désolé encore pour les pièces de motoneige cassées. Ce fut toujours divertissant de t’entendre parler, lors de nos soupers sur le terrain, de tes expéditions antérieures effectuées dans l’Arctique et en Antarctique. J’espère aussi pouvoir continuer à collaborer avec toi dans d’autres projets futurs. Merci aussi au professeur émérite Bernard Lauriol d’avoir agi en tant que mentor durant les huit dernières années. C’est réellement en ayant fait un mémoire de baccalauréat sous votre supervision en 2014 que j’ai développé cette passion pour la recherche. Je n’aurais jamais complété des études supérieures n’eut été de cette merveilleuse expérience. Au plaisir de continuer à travailler avec vous dans les années à suivre ! Je tiens aussi à offrir des remerciements aux membres du comité d’évaluation pour cette thèse, les professeurs Ian D. Clark, Antoni Lewkowicz, Luke Copland et Warwick F. Vincent. Merci pour votre support tout au long de mon doctorat et pour vos commentaires/suggestions en lien avec les manuscrits présentés dans cette thèse. Merci aussi à Jean Bjornson pour son support à travers mes études supérieures. Ce fut un plaisir d’échanger avec toi sur mes projets de recherche et d’obtenir d’excellents conseils de ta part vi sur de potentielles approches méthodologiques.
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