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The Educational Resettlement of Children Examining Several Theoretical Approaches

Amy B. Lerner

Introduction Second Language (ESL) assistance, which and challenges that Brofenbrenner’s eco- many schools lack the resources to provide logical model of development helps to clari- Each year, approximately 100,000 (Roxas, 2008). fy” (p. 242). Lustig explains that “aspects of arrive in the United States (Refu- Research has shown that educational the refugee experience may vary widely…. gee Council USA). Nearly half of these ar- resettlement in the U.S. is, for the most but are characterized in all cases by certain rivals are children. The number of refugees part, far from successful. Why, then, have chaos-generating physical and emotional worldwide has more than sextupled since we yet to institute policies and practices universals: deprivation, upheaval, fear, the 1950s, and according to the United that address issues pertaining to the edu- uncertainty, and loss” (p. 242). States Committee for Refugees & Immi- cational integration of refugee children? Research has helped demonstrate grants (USCRI) this number is expected to What new knowledge and perspectives these “chaos-generating” effects on the continue to grow in coming years (Szente, would help researchers and educators ap- psychological development of refugees, Hoot, & Taylor, 2006; United States Com- proach this problem? particularly with regard to academic mittee for Refugees & Immigrants, 2009). achievement and psychopathology. For Despite this recent history and future Developmental Niche Theory example, Leavey, Hollins, King, Barnes, expectations and predictions, no formal Papadopoulos, and Grayson (2004) found framework currently exists for integrating Super and Harkness’s (1986) develop- mental niche theory suggests that that refugee children are likely to have refugee children into American schools. many risk factors for academic failure and Commonly, refugee children entering intersects with development in three systems: the child’s physical and social psychological distress, while researchers the school system in this new country are Beiser, Dion, Gotowiec, Hyman, and Vu placed either in first grade (regardless of settings, the customs and patterns of child- care, and the psychology of the caretakers. (1995) and Kinzie, Sack, Angell, Manson, their age) or in a class that corresponds to abd Rath (1986) discovered that behavioral their chronological age (Szilassy & Arendas, With the refugee child in mind, all three of these systems merit consideration. problems, , and post-traumatic 2007). Both options present problems. stress disorder (PTSD) are all common When refugee children are placed with As issues of are central to challenges of resettlement, we ought then among refugee students. younger classes they may experience social Similarly, Roxas (2008) found that and emotional difficulties because of the to look at the educational resettlement of refugee children from the perspective of the refugee students often experience rejec- differences that exist in the development of tion, isolation, lower achievement scores children of unlike age groups (e.g., physical developmental niche as well as related theo- ries. The purpose of the following discussion on standardized tests, and higher dropout and cognitive development). When refugee rates. While the existing research is rife children are placed with children of a dif- is to examine several culturally informed frameworks that may be applied to issues with Western psychological perspectives, ferent peer group these dissimilarities can there has been very little investigation of exacerbate resettlement stress (Szilassy & surrounding the education resettlement of refugee children in America. cultural issues surrounding the resettle- Arendas, 2007). ment of refugee children. On the other hand, those refugee chil- In this article I seek to shed light on the implications of these perspectives for dren placed in classes with students their Ecological Systems Theory own age are unlikely to be able to keep policy and practice, and to bring forth new up with schoolwork without intervention, questions that challenge the ways in which Again referencing Brofenbrenner’s as refugee students typically do not have researchers currently view the develop- (1979) ecological systems theory, Lustig the “prerequisite academic experience in ment of refugee children. concludes that “the upheaval and uncer- the course subject matter” (Roxas, 2008, tainty of the refugee experience fundamen- p. 6). Further, the vast majority of refugee The Nature tally threaten the microsystem” (p. 240). children do not speak the language of their of the Refugee Experience The microsystem, involving those closest new country and thus require English as a to the child, encompasses structures and The first step in examining education people with whom the child has direct con- resettlement issues is to ask what, pre- tact. Lustig further explains that refugee Amy B. Lerner is a Ph.D. student cisely, we mean by “the refugee experience.” children’s parents “may be compromised in the School of Education Lustig (2010) answers this from an ecologi- in their caretaking abilities, proximal at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, cal perspective: “the refugee experiences a processes may be diminished in numbers Chapel Hill, North Carolina. series of interrelated events, interactions, and effectiveness” (p. 240).

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This is just one example of the many unique defining characteristics of refugee take place. “Such role reversals between ways in which “refugee-ness” means inter- children—their backgrounds and the cul- children and parents create identity confu- ferences in the bi-directional influences tural identities they bring with them—are sion and conflict between the generations” of the microsystem and, consequently, in not typically appreciated in American (McBrien, 2005, p. 330; Zhou, 2001). healthy development overall for children. schools (Malkki, 1996; Moselsson, 2011). According to Quinn (2005), one of the In many ways we can see how “key aspects Refugee children are expected to leave be- universals of child rearing is for caretakers of development, such as education, work, hind their past lives, to shed memories of to establish experiential consistencies. In or interactions with family, are sacrificed their previous experiences, and to quickly the case of refugee parents, this universal to stay alive” (p. 243). assimilate into American culture (Suárez- may not always be possible. Acculturation, This claim by Lustig is further sup- Orozco & Suárez-Orozco, 2001; McBrien, for refugee families, may mean the disrup- ported by LeVine’s (1974) model, which 2005). Yet, as experience demonstrates, tion of child-rearing practices. Quinn dis- suggests a hierarchy of goals in which assimilation is not the most appropriate cusses the notion of a child-rearing model survival and physical well-being are first acculturation process for refugee children. that, like cultural knowledge, is “deeply in- and foremost. LeVine argues that only grained, indeed embodied, in us” (p. 488). after these basic life needs are met can Integration as Optimal Acculturation Quinn describes, as well, a communal further personality development, such as In order to examine approaches to phenomenon in many , a “pattern self-fulfillment, occur. This process may the educational resettlement of refugee of child rearing to which a child is exposed significantly impact the development of children and suggest changes to practice [that] is even more regular because it ex- refugees who have endured—and may still and policy it is useful to first understand tends beyond the primary caretakers and be undergoing—experiences of struggling processes of acculturation. Resettlement beyond the household to a larger commu- for survival. takes many forms. nity of child rearers, all of whom share, to Others have argued that culture and Cross-cultural psychologist John Ber- a great extent, a common cultural model child development are intertwined. In a ry (1974) has developed a widely accepted for child rearing and common strategies recent interview, psychologist Barbara strategies model that examines such for its implementation” (p. 488). Again this Rogoff said, “The study of culture and processes (McBrien, 2005). In his model, communal pattern may be problematic in development go together: Culture is best Berry labeled four types of acculturation: the case of refugee children in the U.S., understood historically… Development assimilation, separation, marginalization, as the culture of the refugee child’s home is best understood culturally; all people and integration. Assimilation occurs when environment is likely incompatible with develop in the context of particular times immigrants openly embrace their new the American culture of the child’s school and places” (Glaveanu, 2011, p.410). If culture and reject their previous culture; community. we accept Rogoff’s argument, what does separation is evident when the opposite Quinn also presents vignettes from this mean for refugee children and their takes place, i.e., when immigrants entirely several cross-cultural studies of child de- development post-resettlement? reject their new culture and embrace their velopment that “illustrate how child-rear- previous culture. Marginalization occurs ing practices are engineered to make the Upended Cultural Environment when the refugee rejects both their new child’s experience constant” (p. 484). This Refugee children who are resettled in and previous cultures. Integration—the is a very interesting point when it comes the U.S. have often come from a refugee ideal or optimal form of acculturation—en- to refugee families. Constancy in child camp, prior to which they have likely been tails embracing components of both new rearing in the case of refugee families is “on the run” in various countries, or in and previous cultures. not often an option. Refugee parents are their country of origin (Henry, 2009; Mol- forced into less than ideal child-rearing lica, Donelan, Tor, Lavelle, Elias, Frankel, Cultural Upheaval: situations and continue to struggle with maintaining their cultural child-rearing & Blendon, 1993; Steucker, 2006). The very Insights from the Literature nature of what it means to be a refugee practices once in the U.S. implies having one’s life—including one’s Implications for Child Rearing Relevant here is an example of what cultural environment—upended. It implies and the Parent-Child Dynamic I learned at a recent meeting led by a lo- cal agency. Residing in my a transitory lifestyle in which there exists All types of acculturation may present area is a large population of refugees from a great deal of uncertainty. problems and disrupt the healthy develop- Southeast Asia. In these families’ culture, The customs of refugee families will ment of refugee children. Lustig points out physical punishment is the norm. Further, likely change from one generation to the that “relocation could be associated with the father is considered the household next after resettlement—and exposure to difficulties in either grieving the loss of leader, and it is unacceptable for children new mores—in the U.S. How do refugee the native culture (i.e., cultural bereave- to speak back to their parents. This, as you children form a cultural identity? Are as- ment) or adjusting to the new culture” (p. can imagine, is not the cultural norm in pects of their home cultures maintained? 246). McBrien (2005) discusses “cultural most American households, where physical Are their home cultures rejected because dissonance” wherein “children acquire the punishment is frowned upon, if not illegal, of painful memories? Do they cling to language and skills of their new culture and where children may wield power in the aspects of their home culture and refuse more quickly than their parents do, result- household, or, at the very least, speak back to adapt to their new culture in protest of ing in family conflicts” (p. 332). to their parents on occasion. forced resettlement (or for other reasons)? Similarly, Zhou (2001) points out For these refugee families there may Studying the refugee experience entails that because children acquire language exist a power shift as children adopt the deconstructing issues of identity and ad- faster, they often become translators for customs of their new culture more quickly aptation from a cultural perspective. their parents, and thus a role reversal can Current literature informs us that the than do their parents. Not only do these

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 10 Feature children become interpreters for their par- develop a sense of themselves as competent bruch argued that what refugee children ents of the new American ways, but they and of the world as safe and nurturing” experience should be understood as cul- also become aware of their rights as a child (Lustig, 2010, p. 243). tural bereavement, which he defined as in America. In the meeting I attended, for Lustig further references attachment mourning the loss of home, family, friends, example, a common situation discussed theory with regard to refugee children. routines, and other cultural familiarities was that of children threatening to call If subjected to “disordered attachment (Eisenbruch, 1991). child services on their parents. styles early in life,” Lustig would “expect Further implications for child develop- Quinn (2005) provides examples from to find neurobiological correlates to the ment center not only around the disrup- cross-cultural studies of the reactions of challenges of the refugee experience” (p. tion of critical stages in developmental child-rearers when they are confronted 245). We should not take this to mean that theory, but also around how we conduct with violations of their traditional cultural refugee children are permanently damaged research in the field of developmental model. They “insist on, or persist in, enact- by their experiences. What it does mean science. Such research discusses identity ing [their] own cultural model” (p. 487). is that these children are an at-risk popu- in terms of variables such as gender, age, LeVine (1974) also presents an additional lation that deserve careful educational socio-economic status, and race. Whiting cultural model in his theory of parental consideration. (1976) states: “Little attempt is made to behavior. He describes “cultural software” Some may consider the term “at-risk” understand the individual experiences the which is comprised of goals, scripts, mean- an unconstructive “label,” but in this packaged variables imply—to understand ings, and rationales that direct behavior. case it may be purposeful. Both DiNocola the processes by which individuals grow- So what happens when refugee child- (1998) and Kinzie (2001), among others, ing up in one or the other group develop rearers try to maintain their cultural mod- have pointed out that assumptions about different profiles of behavior” (p. 306). els upon resettlement in the United States? development, normality, and psychopathol- Further, Whiting points out that The example provided above illustrates how ogy are culturally embedded. If we wish to because these variables are not broken the cultural model of child rearing in these suggest changes to American practices and down into components, “the identification families may be incompatible with the ac- policies, we must use language understood of groups labeled by dimensions such as ceptable model in their new culture. So why by our culture. social class, urbanity, modernity, etc., is does it matter if the new and old cultural Questions pertaining to attachment problematic” (p. 306). Therefore, Whiting models for child rearing are incompatible? are not the only considerations at hand. calls for researchers “to put an effort into Because resettlement can threaten previous The process of acculturation can disrupt unwrapping these packaged variables” (p. cultural models, it can lead to problems in many other aspects of child development. 303). He asks us to think about the compo- the home environment that can signifi- For example, researchers Garbarino and nents of these variables. What about them cantly impact the child’s development and Kostelny (1996) have used Erikson’s theory accounts for differences? It may be espe- success in school. of personality development as a means of cially important to try and unpack answers The constancy of the family cultural understanding the identity development in the case of refugee students, who have model is vitally important for child de- of child refugees. Erikson (1950) outlined extraordinarily complex backgrounds and velopment. A central component of this eight stages of human development over identities. “Packaged variables” may fail to model includes “continuity over time,” the lifespan. Each of these stages contains capture important nuances, including, in which refugee caregivers are often unable a key developmental challenge. Each of the case of refugees, the interplay among to provide because of the conflicts between these challenges is tied to cognitive, emo- multiple cultures and identities. their traditional culture and the new cul- tional, and social development processes. Considering the variable of age, which ture they find in the U.S. (Quinn, p. 487). Gabarino and Kostelny note that chil- “implies changes in the size of the body, This is part of the reason it is critical for dren in refugee circumstances “face special neurological changes, modifications in life us to try to understand refugee children’s challenges in meeting Erikson’s stages” style, changes in activities and spheres of cultural backgrounds. (p. 36). They conclude that the trauma social interaction,” Whiting (1976) asks, refugee children experience might impede “If one could vary these experiences would Implications for Child Development, their progress through key developmental age in years and months still be the best Including Identity Issues phases. Lustig, Kia-Keating, Knight, Gelt- predictor?” (p. 308). The staggering number of young people man, Ellis, Kinzie, Kean, and Saxe (2004) Let us take an example provided whose lives have been irrevocably altered elaborate: “Wartime experiences of mis- earlier. We recall that research has shown by war and its aftermath raises impor- trust, self-doubt, and inferiority exacerbate that practices for resettling refugee chil- tant questions about the developmental the psychosocial crises that occur during dren result in their often being placed trajectories of these children and the normal development” (p. 2). in the first grade, regardless of their age environment in which they attempt to Lustig (2010) cites yet other conse- and without regard for their social and live, function, and grow up. The impact quences of the refugee experience, arguing emotional needs. Apart from skill level, on normal developmental process is sig- that it “may also affect moral develop- this practice blatantly ignores life experi- nificant.(Lustig, 2010, p. 239) ment….refugee children may lose trust in ences. When we take into consideration It would be useful to dig deeper into authority figures who are unable to provide the educational background of a refugee this impact on development. In develop- for their basic needs or who themselves are child being placed in an American school, mental science, no one theory accurately engaged in perpetrating atrocities” (pp. we must also consider education in terms captures all aspects of child development. 245-246). of all that a child can bring to the class- However, we do know, largely thanks to Eisenbruch (1991) has also applied room. In this sense, these children might Bowlby’s (1988) work on attachment, that Erikson’s theory to understanding the be much more advanced than their Ameri- children benefit from stability as “they experiences of refugee children. Eisen- can-born peers. What unique contributions

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(e.g., demonstrating a constructive and be resettled near one another? Would this ensconced in a new imagined community resourceful use of materials) might they enable refugees to have a “cultural place” (resettlement phase), passing through bring to the classroom? for themselves amongst a larger American other communities along the way (conflict community? Would this facilitate integra- phase and temporary settlement phase)” Further Implications of Identity Development tion—the ideal acculturation process—as (Moselsson, 2011, p. 2). The disjuncture Further implications can be seen in opposed to separation, marginalization, or that occurs as a result of these changes terms of identity development. Weisner assimilation? needs to be addressed by the new school (1996) argues, “culturally-provided set- In line with these thoughts, it would community, yet this seldom happens. tings” make “self-understanding and be beneficial to examine cultural schemas As we know, dramatic discontinuities esteem…possible” (p. 307). For Weisner, within refugee groups. Quinn explains, are not conducive to healthy child develop- the most important factor in child develop- “one common kind of cultural schema is a ment. This is why, some might argue, we ment is “to give the child a specific culture cultural solution to a task that members need to incorporate elements of a refugee in which to mature and develop” (p. 305). of a group routinely perform, and that, child’s culture into the school and class- He goes on to describe what he means by once invented, is transmitted from person room community. For example, teachers a “cultural place”—“the cultural beliefs, to person and from generation to genera- could introduce a unit on the child’s home practices, meanings, and ecological setting tion” (p. 479). In the case of refugees, the country, where ethnic foods, clothing, lan- characteristic of members of that com- literature tells us common tasks involve guage, art, traditions are presented. The munity” (p. 305). What does this mean for moving and dealing with hardship, such child could then have the opportunity to refugee children whose experience of “cul- as hunger, , and physical and emo- share aspects of his or her cultural back- tural place” has been shattered? How can tional trauma (Henry, 2009; Mollica, et al., ground with classmates. we provide for their development, given 1993; Steucker, 2006). There are many other issues to be ad- the many shifts in their cultural environ- How members of a particular refugee dressed with regard to refugee children’s ments? Should there be a specially created group chose to cope with such events may transition into American schools. Because culture for refugee children with similar become a solution that is culturally influ- this process of acclimation is “mediated by discontinuities in their backgrounds, who enced and widespread among that refugee a variety of intracultural and intercultural are being resettled together? group. For example, many from Southeast factors, a major problem is that these fac- Weisner (1996) also acknowledges Asian cultures are loathe to talk openly tors generally remain confounded or inter- that “the cultural place… is not routinely about feelings and do not accept mental act with each other” (Portes, 1999, p. 491). thought-about… in most of the develop- health practices (Uba, 1992). Therefore, The phenomenon is so complex and imbued mental sciences” (p. 306). Quinn (2005), they may cope with stressful events by with unknown variables that most of the however, explains that “cultural models dealing quietly with (or denying or ignor- research conducted with refugee children are cognitive schemas that members of ing) issues and/or refusing in schools examines but a limited number some group or class of people share. They services in resettlement. Such strategies, of factors. are learned though experience, just as are based on cultural attitudes, are often passed Research conducted with refugee other cognitive schemas” (p. 478). on from refugee parents to children. children tends to focus on psychological Refugees from various places have In American resettlement practices, factors, indicating an all too prevalent unique sets of experiences, yet there are we must make attempts to understand Western perspective. This is because, commonalities—“cultural schemas”—that and respect the refugee’s cultural beliefs Moselsson (2011) argues, in Westernized all groups of refugees share. One of these and customs. What policies can be put into cultures “schooling and psychology act as is likely the experience of displacement, of place that allow for the maintenance of technologies of power that mold socially forced relocation. Likewise, Steuker (2006) such cultural practices while attempting to acceptable behaviors” (p. 4). She goes on found that despite the varying experiences help these families successfully integrate to point out that “schools are an important of refugee children, there are some “similar into American culture? site for cultural hybridity and identity challenges that characterize the lives of struggles…[and] schools, in concert with those who have come to the United States Implications for Placement traditional psychology, act as technologies seeking peace and safety” (p. 1). Henry of Refugee Children of power that seek to create ‘docile bod- (2009) also named oppression, loss, and in a New Normative System: School ies’ and hence miss many opportunities persecution among the similar experiences One of the greatest challenges for those for cultural hybridity and assistance to refugees face. concerned with the successful integration the refugees” (p. 4). In explaining how I would hypothesize that refugees who of refugee children in the U.S. pertains to students fit into groups on account of flee particular circumstances may have induction into the American school system. their identified set of characteristics, she much in common. For example, those who Schools play a critical role in culture and highlights a process that is nothing more endured ethnic cleansing in Burma may child development and are, across cultures, than simple labeling—with the goal of have had similar experiences in their coun- heavily relied upon to socialize children standardizing, separating, and individual- try of origin, and may have been placed in (Moselsson, 2001). Schools assist children izing. the same , where again, they in creating a national identity and provide In this sense, refugee children are navigated like circumstances. Taking into for them values and beliefs that accord treated exceptionally poorly by the Ameri- consideration Weisner’s and Quinn’s argu- with their cultural environments (Malkki, can educational system; they are expected ments, should we consider establishing a 1995; Sinclair, 2002). to function like most other students, yet policy in the U.S. that would enable groups Refugee children often have experi- are often categorized as lesser—as vic- of refugees from similar backgrounds to enced a collapse of the school community in tims, foreign, different. McBrien (2005) their country of origin and “find themselves also notes that “discriminatory practices

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 12 Feature on the part of teachers and peers in- their schools do not take sufficient actions and responsive to refugee children, refugee crease the refugee students’ isolation… against bullies (Candappa, 2001). parents, and the total school community. often stem[s] from a lack Overall, far greater attention needs of accurate information and from cultural to be paid by American teachers to the Ameliorating the Effects misunderstandings” (p. 352). needs of refugee children who are placed in of Cultural Upheaval and Dissonance Perhaps this is why the literature has their classrooms. Table 1 offers, as a place pointed to the fact that refugee children to start, a series of recommendations for Considerations for Changes are not only frequent victims of bullying, teachers with a particular focus on atti- in Policy and Practice but also that these children believe that tudes and practices that will be inclusive of Many considerations have been raised Table 1 throughout this article. Because research Recommendations for Teachers Who Have on the educational resettlement of refugee Refugee Students in the Classroom children is scarce, we are left with many unanswered questions. But we do see an im- These recommendations are offered as a starting point for teachers with a particular focus on attitudes portant recurrent theme—the critical need and practices that will be inclusive of and responsive to refugee children, refugee parents, and the total to understand the cultural backgrounds school community. from which refugee children come. Recognizing this need may be the first Don’t panic! step toward changing practice and policy. Contact the school’s ESL teacher and seek out other potential resources in the school and district We must then ask how their new cultural (for example, the school librarian may be able to help research a child’s native culture). contexts can support these children in Remember, you are not alone—it’s okay to ask for help. their development. Keeping in mind many of the theories and arguments presented Teach emotions. in this article, we must think broadly in Utilize basic sign language. formulating questions and deeply about Display positive body language. the purposes of our research. Engage in social games. When we are forced to think concretely about the future of policies, practices, and Use art and dance activities. programs concerning refugee children, Learn a few basic words in the child’s native language. we would be wise to take Rogoff’s (2011) Use children’s literature to help all students learn about the refugee experience. advice: Use a lot of social skills activities. . . . a key feature of putting ideas into prac- Label classroom objects in both English and children’s native language(s). tice is to adapt them to local circumstanc- es. Programs cannot be ‘one size fits all.’ Assign peer buddies. A relative feature of designing programs Give children supplies and school pictures to take home. is to include the people for whom the See if interpreters or other students speaking the child’s language are available to help out. programs are designed, as contributors in the planning as well as implementation of Don’t assume anything about a child’s past—try to keep an open mind about where a child may be coming the programs. (p. 416) from and remember that even among refugee children and cultural groups there will be differences. Get to know each child individually. We must aim to design more inclusive social and educational policies and practices. Be observant. Characteristics of Rogoff’s (2011) Use a lot of group work activities. theory of intentional community participa- Seek out local tutoring programs tion call for the investment of time, effort, (colleges and universities often have public service programs that may be a great resource). and risk-taking; the need for observation; Work with other teachers and school administrators to establish meaningful policies for grading and testing. and a focus on guided participation. Might we consider these principles when we think Conduct home visits. about changing current practices and Give refugee children special tasks to elevate them among their classroom peers. policies? Can we develop new policies and Use modeling and role-playing techniques. practices that encompass these features? Take some time to get to know each individual child’s background and culture Using this approach, we might call for (this will help you gain insight into the child’s behaviors—for example, you might learn that in the child’s research that observes refugee children’s native culture, children do not look adults in the eye because it is a sign of disrespect). cultural communities, and that attempts Send materials (such as permission slips) home in the family’s native language. a deeper, more comprehensive picture of these children’s lives both pre- and post- Allow children to use their native language in school. resettlement. Don’t worry about getting a new refugee child up to classroom speed immediately—adjustment takes time; Further, we could suggest training for there may be many gaps to fill and you will learn about those needs over time—be patient (with yourself too!) teachers that emphasizes scaffolding tech- See if you can find help (e.g., a teacher’s assistant), especially for the first few days of having a new refugee child niques, and create new outreach programs in your classroom, so that you can spend some time working one-on-one with the students that devote time, energy, and resources to (this might involve showing them how to use the restroom, how to handle a book or pencil, etc.). working with refugee children during their Smile a lot! (Smiling is universal). acculturation process.

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Just as programs cannot be ‘one size Glaveanu, V. (2011). On culture and human J. Crisp, C. Talbot, & D. B. Cipollone (Eds.), fits all,’ research practices should also be development: Interview with Barbara Rog- Learning for a future: Refugee education in tailored. When we examine how refugee off. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 7(3), developing countries. Geneva: Evaluation children are faring in American schools, we 408-418. and Policy Analysis Unit, Health and Com- Henry, J. S. (2009). Refugee transition into munity Development Series, United Nations must avoid “methodocentrism” (Weisner, American public schools: An emergent study High Commissioner for Refugees. 1996). More ethnographic and qualita- of major influences (Doctoral dissertation). Steucker, J. (2006). Education of refugees. tive research is needed to examine these Retrieved from http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/list- Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Edu- children’s environments and understand ing.aspx?id=2492. cation Parent Information Resource Center the cultural context. Kinzie, J. D., Sack, W. H., Angell, R., Manson, Program. Retrieved from http://www.iowa- We can no longer merely report on how S., & Rath, B. (1986). The psychiatric effects parents.org/files/refugee.pdf these children perform on standardized of massive trauma on Cambodian children. Suarez-Orozco, C., & Suarez-Orozco, M. (2001). tests, but must rather turn our attention to Part 1. The children. American Academy of Children of immigration. Cambridge, MA: Child Psychiatry, 25, 370-376. Harvard University Press. the reason for prevalent outcomes (which Leavey, G., Hollins, K., King, M., Barnes, J., Super, C. M., & Harkness, S. (1986). The devel- we already know are unsatisfactory). Why Papadopoulous, C., & Grayson, K. 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