Personas and Behavioral Theories: a Case Study Using Self

Methods and Theories CHI 2017, May 6–11, 2017, Denver, CO, USA

Personas and Behavioral Theories: A Case Study Using Self-Determination Theory to Construct Overweight Personas Arne Jansen1, Maarten Van Mechelen1, Karin Slegers Meaningful Interactions Lab (mintlab, KU Leuven – imec) Parkstraat 45 box 3605, 3000 Leuven, Belgium [email protected]

ABSTRACT communicate a broad range of qualitative and quantitative Personas are a widely used tool to keep real users in mind, information about the users, such as insights into their while avoiding stereotypical thinking in the design process. behaviors, goals and the context of use, and bring focus in Yet, creating personas can be challenging. Starting from this data collection [5,19,21]. Moreover, personas can align Cooper’s approach for constructing personas, this paper a project team and help to make better-informed decisions details how behavioral theory can contribute substantially on design requirements that match users’ needs and goals. to the development of personas. We describe a case study in Because personas are realistic and human-like, they help which Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is used to develop the team empathize with the users [19,20,21]. Another five distinctive personas for the design of a digital coach for important benefit of personas1 is that they filter out sustainable weight loss. We show how behavioral theories designers’ and stakeholders’ incorrect assumptions about such as SDT can help to understand what genuinely drives the users, whose motivations and behaviors might differ and motivates users to sustainably change their behavior. In from their own [19,20]. our study, we used SDT to prepare and analyze interviews with envisioned users of the coach and to create complex, Empathizing with the users and filtering out incorrect yet engaging and highly realistic personas that make users’ assumptions is also important during the persona basic psychological needs explicit. The paper ends with a construction phase. Yet, for user groups or activities that critical reflection on the use of behavioral theories to create are far removed from the designers’ or stakeholders’ own personas, discussing both challenges and strengths. world of experience, this can be challenging. To better understand users’ motivation to change their behavior and Author Keywords lead a healthy lifestyle, and avoid incorrect assumptions Personas; Design Methods; Behavioral Theories; Self- about users, we turned to Self-Determination Theory Determination Theory; Obesity (SDT). This theory helped us to create engaging personas ACM Classification Keywords for the design of a sustainable weight loss coaching app. H.5.m. Information interfaces and presentation (e.g., HCI): Traditionally, the construction of personas does not rely on User-centered design; Evaluation/Methodology. existing behavior theories. In this paper we discuss existing approaches on constructing personas, our specific use case and why SDT is relevant here. Next we describe the INTRODUCTION persona construction process we followed, before Personas are specific, concrete and engaging descriptions of presenting the resulting personas and discussing the added hypothetical users that represent broad cross-sections of value of using SDT and behavioral theories in general. real users [2,5,18]. They can be deployed throughout a design project to ensure designers and other stakeholders keep focusing on the users. Personas are mainly used in the APPROACHES ON CONSTRUCTING PERSONAS first phases of the design process, e.g., during ideation Personas are typically generated from data gathered on sessions. In these early phases, personas are used to (potential) users. In practice, however, there is not one universal method for constructing personas. Some basic Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for principles do recur in different methods. A first step usually personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are is to gather data about users’ needs regarding the product or not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for service that is being designed. Next, these data are analyzed components of this work owned by others than ACM must be honored. to find patterns of similar needs across individual users, Abstracting with credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, or republish, to which are then turned into a set of distinct personas, each post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission with their own narrative [11,16]. Cooper, Reimann, & and/or a fee. Request permissions from [email protected]. CHI 2017, May 06-11, 2017, Denver, CO, USA Cronin [5], who first introduced a method for constructing © 2017 ACM. ISBN 978-1-4503-4655-9/17/05…$15.00 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3025453.3026003 1 Both authors contributed equally to this paper.

2127 Methods and Theories CHI 2017, May 6–11, 2017, Denver, CO, USA personas as a design tool, say that persona narratives should This paper shows how an existing theory on human include personas’ skills, motivations and the goals they behavior, namely SDT, can be used as a framework during want to accomplish in relation to the product or service that the creation of personas, making this process more a design team wants to create. Cooper et al. rely on systematic. Incorporating domain-specific knowledge on qualitative data, mainly coming from interviews and sustainable behavior change in the design process may observations [5,11,18]. Others, like McGinn & Kotamraju increase the success for persuasive technologies, such as a [15], advocate a purely quantitative approach to persona coaching application for sustainable weight loss. development making use of statistically significant user- To our knowledge, theoretical frameworks have only been data (e.g., from surveys). Quantitative personas are seen as used for the creation of child personas, but we believe that a way to overcome subjectivity both in interpretation and this is a valuable approach when designing for adults as segmentation of available data [16,17,25]. A third approach well. Our approach is unique in that we relied on behavioral combines qualitative and quantitative data to avoid theory throughout the entire persona construction process: subjectivity but at the same time create rich persona to develop the interview protocol, during the coding process descriptions [17]. For Adlin & Pruitt, for example, these and in the visual representation of the personas. descriptions should combine qualitative data with information on market share and influence [2,18]. Antle’s child-based personas too, could be placed in this CASE STUDY WITH SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY last category, but she proposes to also make use of a We present a project that served as a case study for using theoretical framework to reduce designers’ assumptions SDT when constructing personas. The overall aim of the about children [3]. Designers can have (incorrect) project was to develop a digital coach to combat obesity. In assumptions about user groups, especially if those groups what follows, we describe in-depth how we constructed the are further removed from their own world of experience personas within this project [31]. The project was such as children. Antle states that, starting from designers’ multidisciplinary in nature, involving researchers from the assumptions, interviews or participatory design techniques fields of human-computer interaction, medical imaging, do not sufficiently capture children’s needs, attitudes and (clinical) nutrition and physical activity, sports and health, behaviors. Moreover, those needs, attitudes and behaviors as well as companies providing e-health services and a are hard to interpret for designers who are often not trained supermarket company. This consortium developed a in child development. If designers are not aware, for smartphone application supporting people in achieving example, that children under the age of 10 are not capable sustainable weight loss through physical activity and a of abstract thinking, bias may occur. Therefore, she created healthy diet. The societal relevance of such applications is a theoretical framework to support data collection, pattern high, because excess body weight and obesity form a health identification and information synthesis to support the threat that is increasing worldwide. According to the World construction of engaging, complex and realistic personas Health Organization obesity has more than doubled in the for children. For this framework, she relied on established last 25 years, with 39% of adults worldwide experiencing child development theories, such as Attachment Theory, overweight in 2014 - of which 13% were obese [30]. Cognitive Social Learning Theory, and Piaget’s Stages of Losing excess body weight in a sustainable manner is Cognitive Development. difficult for many people. It involves acquiring a combination of a healthy eating pattern, a sufficient level of Not only when creating child personas, designers’ physical activity and the motivation to change habits assumptions may interfere with capturing and interpreting accordingly and sustain them [23,28,29]. needs, attitudes and behaviors. Antle hints at the fact that using a theoretical framework may also be useful “when The way motivation works to change and maintain such designing experiences for adults” [3]. In human-computer habits is complex. To better understand overweight and interaction, researchers and designers tend to operate in obese people’s motivation, we turned to Self-Determination multiple domains, and often have limited domain-specific Theory (SDT). SDT states that, for behavioral changes to knowledge. As such, interpreting data concerning users’ last, motivation needs to be self-determined rather than attitudes and behaviors in a specific domain may be externally controlled. An example of externally controlled difficult for any target group. In this paper we follow a motivation to eat healthy is to avoid judgmental comments theory-driven approach for creating personas for adults in a from friends. Here, motivation comes forth from an external case study on the design of a digital coaching application factor instead of arising from the behavior itself. If, on the for sustainable weight loss. In this case, understanding how other hand, a person goes for walks because he or she motivation works, and how and when overweight or obese enjoys walking, this is an example of motivation that is people are motivated (or not) to adopt a healthy lifestyle intrinsic to the behavior itself, making the behavior self- was key to a successful design, but challenging for determined [7,22,26]. designers. Therefore, we turned to Self-Determination SDT proposes that to obtain self-determined or intrinsic Theory (SDT) and used it as a framework for constructing motivation, three basic psychological needs have to be personas of overweight people.

2128 Methods and Theories CHI 2017, May 6–11, 2017, Denver, CO, USA satisfied: autonomy, competence, and relatedness Step 1: Gathering and Analyzing Data [14,26,27]. Autonomy deals with peoples’ perception of the For personas to serve as a design tool, a first important step extent to which they can decide for themselves whether or in their creation is to gather “detailed knowledge of the not to behave in a certain way [6,7]. If autonomy is low, users we are designing for” [5]. We followed Cooper’s people might be convinced, for example, that their weight is approach and used qualitative research for understanding genetically determined and that they cannot change this, no users, their behaviors and goals, and the broader context of matter how hard they try. Competence refers to the use, including how and in what social settings existing confidence people have in their knowledge and skills, products are used [5]. Understanding how motivation works necessary to show the right behaviors [6,7]. Competence for and how and when people with obesity are motivated to nutrition is high if a person, for example, knows how to adopt a healthy lifestyle was key to the design of our digital prepare a healthy meal using unsaturated fat. Relatedness weight loss coach. In this first step, we used SDT to inform pertains the feeling of connectedness with others, of the interview topics and to interpret participants’ answers. belonging [6,7]. The need for relatedness is satisfied if, for Interview topics included: weight perception, experience example, a person prefers and actually finds a companion to with losing weight, healthy diet, motivation and self- do sports with. If all three of these basic psychological efficacy for healthy eating, active lifestyle, motivation and needs are sufficiently met, intrinsic motivation to lead a self-efficacy for leading an active lifestyle as well as media healthy lifestyle is probably high and the chance that weight use. To learn more about the interviewees’ need for loss becomes sustainable increases. If not, motivation is relatedness, we asked questions about the role people in likely less intrinsic and we can expect that sustainably their environment play or should play. To learn about the losing weight will be much more difficult [6,7]. interviewees’ competences and their perceived autonomy, we asked questions about their notion of a healthy diet and Relying on SDT, people’s motivation regarding a certain active lifestyle. In addition, we asked questions about what behavior can be positioned on a continuum reaching from motivates them to pursue a healthy lifestyle and which not motivated at all, to fully intrinsically motivated [7,22]. barriers they encounter along the way. To sustainably lose weight, people need to evolve on this continuum towards intrinsic motivation for leading a We recruited interview subjects via dieticians, local healthy lifestyle. SDT suggests that this can be achieved by companies/factories, personal networks, and the university. increasing people’s sense of autonomy and relatedness, and We got a positive response from 35 persons who were increasing their competences [7,22]. In behavioral sciences, willing to collaborate. 19 respondents were selected based people’s initial position on this continuum is often on criteria as age, gender, education, profession, and measured with standardized scales (e.g. Behavioral previous experiences with losing weight. We aimed for a Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire [13], Goal Content diverse pool of respondents and ended up with 9 women for Exercise Questionnaire [24], Treatment Self-Regulation and 10 men, ranging in age from 27 to 62 years. 13 Questionnaire [12]). After an intervention (i.e. coaching respondents went to college or university whereas the other aimed at fulfilling the three needs), their position on the 6 only had a high school diploma. 8 respondents had continuum is measured again to assess the impact [23]. previously consulted a specialist (e.g. a dietician, physical coach) to lose weight. In the early design phases, we conducted interviews to gain a thorough understanding of the experiences of overweight Step 2: Identifying Behavioral Variables people. We focused in-depth on people’s (lack of) For the next step, Cooper and colleagues suggest to identify motivation to change their behavior, the obstacles they behavioral variables from the data. The goal is to extract a encounter and the perception of their behavior and weight. set of variables that can be used to group users based on Gathering these insights and understanding the complex distinctive behaviors [5]. These groups of users will form interplay between autonomy, competence and relatedness is the basis for the personas. Following Cooper and challenging. Yet, because the combination of these three colleagues, we identified behavioral variables by focusing psychological needs determines whether behavior change is on the interviewees’ activities, attitudes, skills and likely to be sustainable, understanding this interplay is motivations. Relying on SDT, we furthermore focused on crucial to inform the design of a coaching app for interviewees’ need for relatedness, their perceived sustainable weight loss. SDT was used to guide the data knowledge and skills, and the degree to which they gathering with envisioned users, to analyze the data, and to experience autonomy in pursuing a healthier lifestyle and develop visual representations of the personas. lose weight. These extra focus points were used to more accurately distinguish groups of users with similar behavior. Each of these user groups might need a different PERSONA CREATION PROCESS coaching strategy to lose weight. To identify these In our persona creation process, we started from Cooper’s behavioral variables, we first coded transcripts of 19 approach [5] to develop personas and complemented it with interviews using a priori codes derived from SDT including behavioral theory. Below, we detail this approach and autonomy, knowledge, skills, relatedness, motivation to eat explain how we incorporated SDT in each of the six steps. healthy, motivation to be physically active, motivation to

2129 Methods and Theories CHI 2017, May 6–11, 2017, Denver, CO, USA set goals and perceived barriers. Simultaneously, we coaching, and self-monitoring, as opposed to supervision followed an open coding process, adding new codes along from someone else. For this step Cooper’s approach was the way [1]. Coding was done by two researchers who each followed as is. We identified five patterns or clusters of coded half of the transcripts using qualitative research interviewees that were mapped physically close to each analysis software, Dedoose. This software tool allowed us other on most of the axes (see Figure 1). These patterns to collaborate and regularly review each other’s codes, add were checked for coherence by comparing the interviewees’ missing ones or merge double entries. This resulted in more personal stories, including context information of individual than 30 codes that could be synthesized into 10 behavioral subjects in one cluster. Subjects that, given the broader variables (see Figure 1). context, did not fit the cluster were either moved to another cluster or left out. Step 3: Mapping Interviewees to Variables To discover groups of interview subjects with similar Step 5: Synthesizing Characteristics and Goals in behavior, in the next step, we first mapped each subject to Persona Skeletons the behavioral variables identified in the previous step (see For the fifth step, we also followed Cooper’s approach Figure 1). The goal was to accurately represent how each without altering it. Cooper and colleagues prescribe to interview subject scores on each variable in relationship to synthesize gathered data into the clusters in the form of the other subjects [5]. Like Cooper and colleagues, we bullet points [5]. This creates ‘persona skeletons’, as Adlin turned the previously discovered variables into behavioral & Pruitt [2] call them, that help to move from abstract axes on which the mapping can be done visually. These behavior patterns to more specific persona details [5]. We axes either represent a continuum or “continuous range of focused on domain-specific goals (relevant for losing behavior”, or correspond with a multiple discrete choice. weight), and used the previously identified behavioral SDT proclaims that people’s motivation to behave in a variables and syntheses of the interview transcripts as a certain way can be placed on a continuum ranging from starting point. Relevant behavioral and attitudinal details unmotivated, via externally controlled, introjected and from each interview subject belonging to a particular cluster identified, to intrinsically motivated. We adopted this range were summarized in brief bullet points. Depending on the of behavior for three motivational axes: ‘exercise relative fit within a behavioral cluster, data from some regulation’, to map what regulates participants’ motivation interview subjects were used more extensively than those of to be physically active; ‘nutrition regulation’, to map what others. This process continued until all relevant research regulates their motivation to eat healthy; and findings were contained in at least one of the persona ‘exercise/nutrition goal’, to map the goals participants have skeletons. An important criterion was that each persona with being physically active and/or eating healthy. We should differ substantially in at least one main behavior. To mapped interview subjects on these axes by comparing their finalize the persona skeletons, additional details were answers with statements present in the standardized 7-point added, including demographic details (e.g. age, family scales, mentioned earlier (Behavioral Regulation in situation, type of job) and information about previous Exercise Questionnaire [13], Goal Content for Exercise attempts to lose weight. Finally, each persona skeleton was Questionnaire [24] and Treatment Self-Regulation given a fictional name. Questionnaire [12]). To assess people’s motivation using Step 6: Expanding Persona Descriptions these scales, it is predefined which statements adhere to In this sixth step, the bullet points from the previous step what type of motivation. For instance, if a respondent were turned into third-person narrative [5]. These narratives filling out a scale with questions about his/her motivation to leave less room for interpretation than a set of bullet points eat healthy indicates that the statement ‘Because I want and make the personas more engaging. By keeping SDT in others to approve of me’ is ‘very true’ (corresponding with mind, details were included about each persona’s current a 7 on a 7-point scale), his/her behavior will be externally motivation, as well as his/her future-oriented needs for controlled. Other axes were based on the remaining autonomy, competence and relatedness. As such, the behavioral variables. Interview subjects were placed on narratives provide insight into what it would take to move these axes according to their relative position in comparison a persona towards intrinsically regulated behavior. with the other subjects [5]. Addressing these basic psychological needs explicitly in the Step 4: Identifying Behavior Patterns persona descriptions is important given their role in According to Cooper and colleagues, the fourth step should behavior change. In addition to these narratives, we also result in a set of clustered interview subjects with added visualizations of each persona’s current motivation to comparable behavior. Where visual clusters emerge of two eat healthy and to be physically active, and his/her or more participants that are similarly positioned on at least perceived levels of competence and autonomy. Each six axes, behavior patterns can be discovered. Patterns that finalized persona was presented on one page, including a are coherent, meaning that the connection between name, a picture, some quotes, and a description in the form clustered behaviors makes sense, form the basis for distinct of a narrative. personas [5]. For instance, a logical relation exists between someone who prefers self-training, as opposed to individual

2130 Methods and Theories CHI 2017, May 6–11, 2017, Denver, CO, USA

Figure 1. Visual mapping of interview subjects. Differently colored circles and lines depict the results of the clustering exercise as described in step 4.

2131 Methods and Theories CHI 2017, May 6–11, 2017, Denver, CO, USA

Mark. She needs a lot of encouragement from people in her RESULTING PERSONAS In this section we briefly present and discuss the five environment, especially from her husband. She sometimes personas that resulted from the creation process described blames her husband for a lack of support and for not taking in the previous section. The full versions of all personas can the initiative to go out for walks. be accessed via [https://medium.com/p/b01e3197ed8b/]. Persona 4: Ted Like Jennifer, Ted (40) cares a lot about what others think Persona 1: Mark Mark is a vegetarian because he believes it is healthier to of him and the way he looks. Unlike Jennifer and Mark, avoid eating meat. Moreover, he is intrinsically motivated though, he is not really concerned about his health. He to eat healthy, because he prefers the taste of healthy food would like to live healthier to set a good example for his children. Yet, since he combines two jobs, he is too busy over non-healthy food. Yet, his motivation to limit portion and lacks the energy for anything else. Ted realizes his sizes and to be more physically active is quite low and mainly driven by external factors such as medical advice eating habits need to change, but he finds this too difficult. from his doctor. In terms of relatedness, Mark prefers to He lacks the competence, because his knowledge about deal with things on his own, including self-training in the healthy food is rather minimal. For that reason, Ted turns to swimming pool. However, he usually needs someone to protein shakes to lose weight. In terms of relatedness there encourage him. If his girlfriend would not regularly remind is no problem, because Ted does not need encouragement him about his plans, he would not swim that often. Mark’s from people in his direct environment. Like Mark, Ted competence is high; he has all the skills needed to lose prefers to lose weight on his own. However, unlike Mark weight but his lack of ambition hinders him. Nevertheless, and Jennifer, he is not looking for encouragement because he perceives his autonomy to be high, because he believes it he thinks it is his responsibility to change his lifestyle. Another reason why Ted does not like to involve other lies within his power to change his habits. people in the process of losing weight, is that, much like Persona 2: William William, he believes that he will always have overweight In terms of motivation, 53-year-old single William because it “runs in the family”. In other words, his somewhat resembles Mark. He is intrinsically motivated to perceived autonomy is low. go for a walk on a regular basis because he really enjoys it. Yet, he drinks a lot and does not eat very healthy. Since he Persona 5: Annie is single, there is nobody to stop him or encourage him. Annie (57) is on the edge of the motivation scale. She lacks William experiences a need for relatedness that is not motivation to change her weight, even more so than fulfilled. He really craves endorsement from his friends but Jennifer. However, she feels more and more pressure from they drink even more and do not care about living a healthy people in her environment to change her lifestyle. Annie’s lifestyle. Contrary to Mark, William’s competence is low. level of competence is not the problem, she has knowledge He lacks knowledge about healthy eating behavior and, on about healthy food and has the skills to live a healthier life. top of that, he is not really motivated to change his eating The problem is that she wants to continue the life she is habits. Moreover, he perceives his autonomy to be quite living: feeling relaxed and eating good but unhealthy food. Whereas Mark and others enjoy sports, Annie perceives low. He is convinced that his personality is holding him physical activity as a waste of time. People in her direct back and that it is impossible for him to sustainably change his weight. For this reason, William is very unlikely to seek environment have tried to persuade her to do sports in professional help. different ways. For instance, by making bets with her (e.g. whether or not she is able to run a certain distance), but Persona 3: Jennifer even if she wins those bets, she immediately returns to her Jennifer (35) is somebody who, like Mark, enjoys good old way of living. Due to these experiences, Annie knows food and regularly eats too much. The difference is that, for that she can control her weight and change her habits if she her, food does not have to be healthy. This comes in part really wants to. This means she perceives her autonomy to from a lack of competence, especially knowledge about be rather high. If Annie would do a real attempt to change healthy ingredients. However, even if she would know her lifestyle, she would experience a high need for more about healthy food, chances are rather small she relatedness. Most likely she would not try to lose weight on would change her behavior. Due to her busy household with her own, but look for external and/or professional help. 3 young children, Jennifer cannot find the time for sports. Moreover, she would prefer a highly personalized coaching The problem is not a lack of autonomy, but a lack of trajectory. intrinsic motivation to change her behavior. She is convinced that she could change her lifestyle if she really wanted to, but she prefers relaxing at home and reading REFLECTION ON THE PROCESS books. Like Mark, Jennifer would like to change her weight In this section, we discuss the added value of SDT for for health reasons, but also to look better. Despite these creating personas, as well as the challenges we encountered. good intensions, she usually does not stick to her plans. This critical reflection can be extended to other behavioral Jennifer experiences a higher need for relatedness than

2132 Methods and Theories CHI 2017, May 6–11, 2017, Denver, CO, USA theories that, in a similar fashion, can contribute to the the data. As a consequence, other domain-specific aspects development of personas. for the design of a digital coaching application that have no direct fit with the behavioral theory, in this case SDT, may Gathering and Analyzing Data For gathering data on potential users of the digital weight be neglected. We therefore followed a semi-structured loss coach we used SDT to inform both the interview topics approach to analyze the interview data [4]. We strived for a and the codes to analyze the interview data. For this good balance between top-down codes derived from SDT and Cooper’s approach, and a bottom-up or open coding purpose, we had to familiarize ourselves with this theory, process [1] (i.e., identifying variables as they surface from which is not considered common knowledge in the field of the data). This way of working ensured that all relevant human-computer interaction. SDT made us pay attention to three key concepts: autonomy, competence and relatedness. behavioral and attitudinal variables were identified, which, These are considered basic psychological needs that should in turn, resulted in an unbiased analysis of the data. This be satisfied for motivation to be intrinsic and behavior process eventually resulted in the distinction of groups of change to be sustainable. Building on these concepts, we users with similar behavior. questioned participants in-depth about a range of topics we SDT furthermore helped us to understand how competence might not have considered to the same extent without and autonomy can interplay. For instance, some people may relying on SDT. For instance, for all interview topics we be competent because they possess adequate skills to asked questions about the interview subjects’ need for sustainably lose weight (e.g. healthy cooking strategies). relatedness and how this need could be fulfilled. We asked, At the same time, however, these people may perceive for example, how subjects’ family, friends or colleagues limited autonomy, because they are convinced that their deal with their weight, how they respond to their attempt(s) overweight is programmed in their genes. As a to lose weight, and to what extent people in their consequence, they will not fully deploy their skills and environment agree with the interviewees’ vision on a knowledge because they believe that changing their weight healthy lifestyle. Also, we asked what influence people in does not lie within their power. We might have neglected their environment have on them and what interviewees the importance of people’s perceived autonomy without expect from these people when it comes to losing weight consulting SDT. Unraveling these complex interplays and leading a healthy lifestyle. For some participants, issues proved to be essential to understand what holds some concerning relatedness might have come up spontaneously participants back to lose weight. Thus, looking at how during the interviews. However, addressing them explicitly, competence and autonomy are interrelated helped us to allowed for a structured and complete data collection. Even better understand the actual needs of our envisioned users. for participants who did not realize at first that relatedness Mapping Interviewees to Variables is an important aspect when they try to lose weight. This According to Cooper and colleagues [5], mapping way, SDT-inspired questions triggered ad-hoc reflection in interviewees to a set of distinct behavioral variables is an some participants. interpretative process. The reason is that an interview It is possible, however, that by using SDT we missed other subject’s position on a behavioral axis cannot be exactly important questions we could have asked. The choice of measured. Relying on SDT constructs did not completely theory very much defines how the persona creation process change the interpretative nature of this step. However, is guided and what concepts are focused on. The question relying on a behavioral theory to map interviewees on is, then, how to choose a suitable theory (or set of theories). behavioral axes provided a well-founded starting point. Therefore, we recommend to consult with domain experts This was especially the case for the axes that dealt with when selecting theories to use in persona creation. subjects’ motivation to be physically active and eat healthy. Nevertheless, it is advisable to not only rely on the concepts Inspired by standardized scales used in SDT research to suggested by a certain theory. In our process we used SDT measure what regulates people’s motivation (Behavioral as a starting point and regarded the theory’s constructs as Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire [13], Goal Content complementary to Cooper’s [5] approach for developing for Exercise Questionnaire [24] and Treatment Self- personas. Regulation Questionnaire [12]), we divided motivation into more specific axes: exercise regulation, nutrition regulation Identifying Behavioral Variables SDT provided us with a well-founded structure to identify and exercise/nutrition goal. We could directly compare behavior patterns in the interview data. In addition to the interview subjects’ answers to statements used in these focus points that Cooper puts forward, i.e. activities, scales [6,12]. Moreover, following SDT’s classification for attitudes, skills and motivations, we focused on relatedness, different forms of motivation – ranging from no motivation, autonomy and competence. The latter concept was via externally controlled, introjected and identified subdivided in ‘knowledge’, ‘skills’ and ‘self-efficacy’, or motivation to intrinsic motivation – each interview subject the belief in one’s ability to achieve certain goals [6,7]. could be mapped accurately on each of the behavioral axes. Relying solely on behavioral theory holds the risk of focusing too much on the theoretical concepts when coding

2133 Methods and Theories CHI 2017, May 6–11, 2017, Denver, CO, USA

Expanding Persona Descriptions personas resulting from a more traditional approach (such When we expanded the persona skeletons into full as Cooper’s approach [5]) would be welcome. For instance, personas, we used SDT to ensure the descriptions did not to show that personas developed without behavioral theory only include the personas’ current motivations, but also do not offer the same level of insight into the persona’s their future-oriented needs for autonomy, competence and position on the continuum from extrinsically to intrinsically relatedness. All of these needs should be addressed by the regulated behavior. Finally, we want to further investigate coaching app in order to trigger users to lead a healthy the role of ambiguity in persona descriptions and its impact lifestyle. By adding these needs to the personas, the on reflection, debate and empathy among the design team. descriptions implicitly state what it would take to move the personas from their current level of motivation toward more To get a better understanding of how SDT-inspired intrinsically regulated behavior. personas can support design, we furthermore call upon the HCI community to report on the use of the personas in In our experience, using a behavioral theory to construct similar contexts and/or to develop new personas relying on personas added a level of nuance to the persona the procedure presented in this paper. descriptions. SDT allowed us to more accurately describe the personas’ needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness, also referred to as the three basic psychological CONCLUSION needs. This resulted in realistic, and highly nuanced In this paper we investigated the use of established theories personas that show subtle contradictions in people’s on human behavior for the construction of personas. In attitudes and behavior, instead of presenting it simply as particular, we used SDT as a framework for constructing black and white. The descriptions reveal why the personas personas of overweight adults. These personas were used struggle with losing weight. This way, designers and other for the design of a coaching app to support sustainable stakeholders can empathize with the barriers obese people weight loss and promote a healthy lifestyle. The case study face. This will deepen their understanding of why obese revealed that SDT is useful in different stages of the people often do not succeed in sustainably losing weight, persona creation process: to gather and analyze data, to despite their good intentions. Although these behavioral identify behavioral variables, to map interview subjects to nuances make the personas more ambiguous as a design variables, and to write persona descriptions. tool, ambiguity should not be regarded as problematic. In To gather and analyze data, SDT can inform the interview design research, ambiguity is often used as a tool to topics and provide initial codes to make sense of the data. provoke reflection and stimulate debate and creativity The focus on people’s basic psychological needs [8,9,10]. This can help design teams to become more aware (autonomy, relatedness, competence) can furthermore help of what it takes to move obese people towards a healthier lifestyle. Ambiguity, thus, can make personas an even more to set the interview agenda, allowing for a structured and powerful tool for design. more complete data collection. When identifying behavioral patterns in the data, SDT provides additional constructs We used the personas in a series of ideation workshops with that, for instance, cannot be found in Cooper and physiotherapists, dietitians and technical partners, as well as colleagues’ persona construction process [5]. The theory with potential users. During the workshops, participants furthermore provides guidance to map interview subjects to used the personas to think of ways in which the digital different behavioral axes. Based on SDT, different axes coach can motivate users to sustainably lose weight. related to different types of motivation (e.g. regarding Afterwards, these ideas were pooled and prioritized, and the nutrition, activity and setting goals) can be subdivided in most promising ones were developed into paper prototypes. different steps, ranging from unmotivated to intrinsically No problems with understanding and empathizing with the motivated. This helps to more accurately and systematically personas were observed during these workshops. map the interviewees to these axes and, consequently, develop distinct personas. Finally, SDT ensures that

persona descriptions do not only include personas’ current FUTURE WORK motivation but also their future-oriented needs for Using theories on human behavior in the process of creating autonomy, competence and relatedness. Addressing these personas does introduce some challenges that will be psychological needs is crucial to move people towards subject to further research. The choice of theory very much intrinsically regulated behavior. defines how the process is altered and what behavioral constructs are focused on. We therefore aim to replicate our study relying on other behavioral theories. Similarly, more In sum, personas developed with behavioral theories in research is needed to complement different approaches to mind, such as SDT, show complex but realistic behavior. construct personas with behavioral theories, and within They incorporate subtle behavioral nuances, and provide different types of design projects. Related to this, a more insight into a persona’s position on the motivation systematic evaluation of the differences in personas that continuum. Since SDT provides adequate structure to result from a theory enriched process as opposed to collect and analyze behavioral data, it will furthermore help

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