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Environmental Archaeology A Guide to the Theory and Practice of Methods, from Sampling and Recovery to Post-excavation (second edition)

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 1 30/6/11 10:26:06 Contents

Preface ...... 3 Case Study 1 ...... 29 Consequences of not assessing all the samples taken for the What these guidelines cover ...... 3 recovery of charred plant remains by Jacqui Huntley

1 Introduction ...... 3 Case Study 2 ...... 30 Fit for purpose aims and objectives: a fishy tale from Chester 2 Practice ...... 3 that matches aims, methods and site by Sue Stallibrass Desk-based assessment ...... 5 Watching briefs ...... 5 Case Study 3 ...... 31 Field evaluation ...... 5 Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction: building better Excavation ...... 7 age-depth models by John Meadows Assessment ...... 7 Analysis and reporting ...... 8 Case Study 4 ...... 33 Publication and archiving ...... 8 Sampling for charred plant remains: the importance of Publication ...... 8 considering context type and the archaeological period Archiving ...... 8 being investigated by Gill Campbell

3 Sampling ...... 8 Case Study 5 ...... 34 Sampling strategies ...... 8 Romano-British cremation burials and related deposits at Sample types ...... 11 Ryknield Street, Wall, Staffordshire by Jacqueline I McKinley Recovering human remains ...... 14 Taking samples ...... 14 Case Study 6 ...... 36 Sampling in difficult conditions ...... 14 Multidisciplinary sampling in the intertidal zone at Goldcliff Storing samples ...... 14 East, Gwent Levels, Severn Estuary by Vanessa Straker

4 Common types of environmental evidence ...... 15 Vertebrate remains, excluding humans ...... 15 Glossary ...... 38 Human remains ...... 16 Macroscopic plant remains ...... 17 Where to get advice ...... 39 Wood and charcoal ...... 19 Pollen and spores ...... 20 References ...... 40 Insects ...... 22 Molluscs (snails and shellfish) ...... 22 Regional research frameworks ...... 47 Parasite eggs and cysts ...... 23 Phytoliths ...... 23 Period research frameworks ...... 47 Starch granules ...... 23 Diatoms ...... 23 Regional reviews of environmental archaeology ...... 47 Foraminifera ...... 24 Ostracods and cladocerans ...... 24 Acknowledgements ...... 48 Testate amoebae ...... 25 Isotopes ...... 25 Biomolecules ...... 26 Geoarchaeology ...... 27 Stratigraphic and landscape studies ...... 27 Chemical and physical analyses ...... 28 Soil micromorphology ...... 28 Mineralogy ...... 28 Particle size analysis ...... 28

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 2 30/6/11 10:26:06 Preface Consideration of the impact of 1 Introduction development on the historic environment This document provides guidance for good will include assessing the significance Environmental archaeology is the study practice in environmental archaeology . It of, and impacts of development on, of past human economy and environment gives practical advice on the applications the biological remains preserved using earth and life sciences . It tells us and methods of environmental archaeology on archaeological sites and the about ecological, cultural, economic, and within archaeological projects . It should palaeoenvironmental resource . climate change . not replace advice given by specialists These guidelines are intended to Archaeological sites are created by on specific projects, nor is it intended provide guidance to: human activity involving material culture that these guidelines should inhibit (acquisition, manufacture, use, deposition) . future development of methodologies or l curators who advise local planning Archaeological sites and landscapes are recommended procedures . authorities and issue briefs; altered by a combination of natural and Many archaeological projects will l field project managers writing cultural processes . Natural processes be undertaken as a requirement of the specifications or written schemes of include geological and biological activity, planning process . For these projects, investigation; such as erosion, sedimentation, frost heave, Planning Policy Statement (PPS) 5: l those working on development-led or reworking by plants and animals, plant Planning for the Historic Environment, and research projects; growth, deposition of dead plants and its accompanying Historic Environment l other practitioners . animals, and degradation by living ones . Planning Practice Guide (Department for Cultural processes include subsistence Culture Media and Sport / Department The guidelines should be used with and ritual activities, building, discarding for Communities and Local Government reference to areas with a north-west or loss of material, manufacturing and the 2010), set out planning policies on the European or temperate climate . Other creation of manufacturing waste, recycling, conservation of the historic environment climates will give rise to different deliberate destruction and resource in England . These documents give preservation conditions, which lie utilisation . clarification for all those involved with outside the scope of this document . Examples of the types of questions the planning process on how to assess These guidelines have been produced by that environmental archaeology seeks to the significance of heritage assets and English Heritage in consultation with field answer are: mitigate impacts of development on archaeologists, curators and environmental the historic environment . They are a specialists . l What was the environment of the area material consideration for local authorities like at the time of occupation and how when preparing development plans and did it change over time? determining planning applications . They What the guidelines cover l How did people procure food? are also material to the preparation and l How did people prepare food? consideration of Strategic Environmental l an introduction to environmental l What did they throw away and where? Assessments (European Directive 2001/42/ archaeology; l What did people exchange, buy or sell? EC, The Environmental Assessment of l good practice for environmental l Is it possible to identify social status? Plans and Programmes Regulations 2004 archaeology from project planning to l How were plants and animals used in (Statutory Instrument 2004 No 1633)) publication; rituals? and Environmental Impact Assessments l an introduction to sampling strategies; l How did people use or interact with their (Town and Country Planning Regulations, l the circumstances under which environment? Department of the Environment, Transport environmental evidence survives; l Was this site occupied seasonally or all and Regions 1999) . PPS5 is consistent l a guide to types of environmental year round? with obligations undertaken when the samples; l Were these fields/houses flooded by fresh UK became a signatory to Council l taking and storing samples; or saltwater? of Europe conventions, including The l a summary of the most common types of European Convention on the Protection of environmental evidence; the Archaeological Heritage (the ‘Valetta l a glossary of terms; 2 Practice Convention’ 1992) and The European l where to get advice; Landscape Convention (the ‘Florence This section provides a guide to good Convention’ 2000) . practice for the environmental archaeology component of projects . It is not intended to be a ‘methods manual’ for all the various types of environmental material, but rather a set of practical guidelines to help with project planning and implementation . Specific guidelines are available for waterlogged wood (Brunning and Watson 2010), waterlogged leather, (English Heritage 1995), human bone (Mays et al 2004; Mays 2005; McKinley and Roberts 1993), geoarchaeology (English Heritage 2007) and dendrochronology (Hillam 1998) . An up-to-date list of

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 3 30/6/11 10:26:06 English Heritage guidance is available on HELM (www .helm .org .uk/) . The Institute for Archaeologists’ (IfA) Standards and Guidance for collection, documentation, conservation and research of archaeological materials (2008e) provides general guidance for all finds work . These guidelines are applicable to all archaeological projects, but are aimed primarily at projects following the management principles set out in MoRPHE and MoRPHE PPN3 (Lee 2006; Kerr and Stabler 2008) . These principles are designed to ensure the efficient execution of archaeological projects within set time and cost constraints, from fieldwork to publication, including the creation of a project archive . Government guidance set out in Fig 1 Sampling prehistoric deposits for lithics (green lids) and biological remains (blue lids) at Stainton West, near Carlisle. Planning Policy Statement 1 (PPS 1) (photo by J P Huntley). (Office of the Deputy Prime Minister 2005) urges applicants and planning heritage assets and their settings affected therefore make provision for necessary authorities to engage in early pre- either directly or indirectly by the analysis, recording, storage and publication . application discussions in order to development proposals . Project designs Definitions of briefs, specifications ensure that wherever possible planning and briefs should clearly set out the and project designs can be found in the applications are determined swiftly . This timetable for the project, ensuring that Association of County Archaeological is particularly relevant to investigations information required for the assessment Officers’ (1993)Model Briefs and of heritage assets, which can take of significance is available in good time to Specifications for Archaeological Assessments several months to complete . Where inform the planning process . and Field Evaluations and the IfA’s projects are commissioned to inform Where initial assessment of collected Standard and guidance series (2008a, the planning process, PPS 5 (Policy HE material shows that it warrants analysis, 2008b, 2008c, 2008d, 2008e, 2009, 2010) . 6) and the accompanying EH guidance it is not acceptable to discard samples The document Archaeological Science document (paragraph 68) make it clear or material even where analysis is not at PPG16 Interventions: Best Practice that the information sought should be required to establish the significance of a Guidance for Curators and Commissioning proportionate to the significance of heritage asset . Such samples and materials Archaeologists (English Heritage 2003) the heritage asset and to the potential should be fully analysed, recorded, and, gives clauses that can be appropriately impacts of the proposed development . where appropriate, the results published . modified and incorporated into documents . Assessments of heritage assets in advance This ensures that potentially important These clauses can also be used as guidance of determination of planning applications archaeological information is not lost or for how environmental archaeology should therefore be sufficient to provide destroyed as a consequence of the planning should be considered in the formal an understanding of the significance of process . Project designs and briefs should planning process . Curators will need to seek advice on the appropriateness of Table 1 Stages of project planning for environmental archaeology under MoRPHE (Lee 2006) certain methods or types of investigation; with examples of activities at each stage however, independent non-commercial advice for curators can be sought from start-up Consider the main purpose and drivers for the project. English Heritage through the Regional How will environmental archaeology contribute to project aims and objectives? Science Advisors (see the end of this What types of material need to be recovered? What types of material are likely to survive? document) . Where advice is obtained Consult specialists for advice. from a commercial contractor, it is the responsibility of the commissioning body initiation Design specifics of sampling strategy, including sample type, sample size, sample to ensure that vested interests are openly density, general types of context to be sampled. declared and that subsequent competition Clearly define how sampling meets aims and objectives of the project. Clearly state what products will result (eg reports, databases, tables, illustrations). is fair (IfA 2010) . Full use should be made of all available execution Collect samples, review sampling strategy, adapt sampling strategy in consultation sources of information on environmental with specialist(s). potential when planning archaeological Process samples for assessment. projects . Environmental evidence is present Assess samples and report results. Update project design. Undertake analysis. in some form on all archaeological sites Produce report(s) and any other dissemination products. and therefore the sampling and study of Deposit material and archive reports, databases etc with site archive. such material should form an integrated NB There may several iterations of this stage in more complex projects. part of the initial project specification . It should not be tacked on as a contingency closure Review achievements and lessons learned. (Table 1, Fig 1) .

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 4 30/6/11 10:26:09 Desk-based assessment local archaeological reports, the National any materials and equipment needed . For The purpose, definition and standards for Monuments Record (NMR), the Historic larger projects, arrangements should be desk-based assessment are given in IfA Environment Records (HERs) and the made for specialists to pay site visits once (2008a) . Environmental Archaeology Bibliography the fieldwork begins, and for them to stay The following information in a desk- (EAB) found through the Archaeology in touch during fieldwork so that any issues based assessment can be relevant to Data Service (ADS) website (http://ads . can be dealt with promptly . environmental archaeology: ahds .ac .uk/) . Once information from the desk- Watching briefs l topography; based study is available, the potential for The purpose, definition and standard for l solid geology; the survival of environmental materials watching briefs is given in IfA (2008d) . l drift geology; should be discussed with suitable Whether sampling can be done during l soil type; experts . Specialists appropriate to the watching briefs depends on many factors . l aerial photographs; type of materials considered likely to be Good practice would allow for the l lidar survey; encountered should join the project team sampling of interpretable and datable l geophysical survey; to advise on the formulation of the project archaeological deposits and provision l borehole survey and geotechnical test design . Experienced expert advice is should be made for this . pits; essential at this stage to avoid wasteful or l local water table; misdirected outlay of resources, or missed Field evaluation l current land use and surface conditions; opportunities . Predicting the survival of The purpose, definition and standard l the nature of any previous ground environmental remains in archaeological for evaluations are given in IfA (2009) . disturbances; deposits is not an exact science (Table 2, Fig Evaluation seeks to understand the nature l other local archaeology, including 2) . Any written scheme of investigation or of the archaeological resource in order environmental archaeology; project design drawn up after an evaluation to inform decisions on planning and l the nature and extent of any proposed should allow sufficient flexibility to review mitigation . In some cases an evaluation ground disturbance if known . arrangements once full fieldwork begins . might be the only excavation undertaken . Recording methods for environmental Evaluation trenching will provide Useful sources of information are geology materials should be agreed before fieldwork a much more reliable indication of the and soil maps, previous surveys, other begins and an understanding reached on potential of the environmental archaeology

Table 2 Preservation conditions (adapted from Evans and O’Connor 1999)

burial environment main soil and sediment types some typical situations environmental remains

acid, pH usually podzols and other leached soils heathlands charcoal and other charred plant macrofossils <5.5, oxic upland moors pollen and spores some river gravels phytoliths diatoms

basic, pH usually rendzinas (but can be acid chalk and limestone areas charcoal and other charred plant macrofossils >7.0, oxic in the topsoil) valley bottoms mineral-replaced plant and insect remains1 lake marls karst molluscs tufa machair bones alluvium ostracods shell-sand foraminifera parasite eggs1 pollen and spores (rarely)

neutral to acid, brown earths and gleys clay vales and other lowland plains charcoal and other charred plant macrofossils pH 5.5–7, oxic river gravels mineral-replaced plant and insect remains1 alluvium bones molluscs parasite eggs1 pollen and spores

acid to basic, anoxic peats and organic deposits, some well sealed stratigraphy, including charcoal and other charred plant macrofossils (anoxic conditions eg lake sediments and alluvium organic urban deposits waterlogged plan remains can be patchy and gleys wetlands insects unpredictable) river floodplains mineral-replaced plant and insect remains1 wells molluscs wet ditches bones upland moors ostracods foraminifera pollen and spores diatoms wood parasite eggs1

1 Parasite eggs and mineral-replaced plant and animal remains survive in a range of very local conditions that are difficult to predict.

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 5 30/6/11 10:26:09 Fig 2 Schematic representation of environmental conditions and types of material typically preserved.

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 6 30/6/11 10:26:10 resource than can be predicted from changes for future reference . Site visits occurrence of biological remains cannot a desk-based assessment . Sampling in by specialists should form part of the be determined without examining what is evaluation should be fit for purpose – that communications plan . Some specialists present in the samples . As these samples will is, to contribute to an understanding will need to take their own samples (see have been collected according to a strategy of the potential and significance of the section 3) . It is helpful to have a trained designed to meet project aims, this will archaeological resource . The sampling environmental officer on site as part of the normally mean that every flot from flotation strategy should be included in the project project team to co-ordinate and monitor samples and the material recovered from all design and the objectives encompass: sampling, to identify when there is a need coarse-sieved samples should be assessed to call in other specialists and to integrate unless determined to be unstratified or l types of biological remains present; different methodologies . This person needs unacceptably contaminated (see also Case l preservation; to be skilled in excavation and recording Study 1 and section 3 Sampling strategies) . l concentration; methods and to understand the potential of Assessments of animal bone assemblages l distribution; a wide range of environmental remains . require counts of identifiable, ageable l significance in a local, regional and All flotation and coarse-sieved samples and measurable fragments of each of the national context . (see section 3) should be processed as more common taxa (eg cattle) or broad part of the data collection and recovery taxonomic group (eg wild birds) taking into Where appropriate, specialists stage of a project, so that the specialist can account chronology, area and feature type should be asked to make site visits clearly see the full range of material and (Payne 1991) . as for full excavation (see below) . For judge its potential to meet project aims Specialist samples require different geoarchaeological input into evaluations and objectives . approaches, which should be discussed see geoarchaeology guidelines (English For sites on heavy clay soils, sample with the appropriate specialists as part of Heritage 2007, 25) processing is resource intensive . Therefore, project planning and during fieldwork . Assessment of environmental remains difficult decisions may have to be taken from evaluations should be done to the about how and what to sample to best Information the specialist requires to carry same standards as for excavation . The meet the project aims and objectives . The out an assessment: results of these assessments should, with reasons for adopting a particular approach the rest of the archaeological record, inform need to be stated in the project design . Any l brief account of the nature and history of any further planning decisions . Assessments changes that occur during the course of the the site; resulting from field evaluations are often project should be recorded, communicated l aims and objectives of the project; carried out within tight time constraints . to and agreed by the project team . l summary of archaeological results; They should clearly set out the limitations For complex or long-term projects it l context types and stratigraphic of the information presented and the can be useful to write an archive report relationships; potential of this information to alter that documents discoveries and issues l phase and dating information; assessments of significance as a result of resulting in a change to the way the project l sample locations; further investigation . was implemented in the field . It can also l preservation conditions; In some cases an evaluation might be the include information on the location of l residuality / contamination; only type of excavation undertaken . Where the samples, ie whether they are with l other relevant contextual information; assessment has demonstrated that material the specialists or at the unit, and a brief l list of samples; has considerable potential to add to the summary of what was found (Kerr and l some indication of quantity (number of body of archaeological knowledge, it should Stabler 2008, Appendix 1) . boxes, flots, etc); be analysed and published as part of the l contact details of other project team evaluation project (English Heritage 2003) . Assessment members . The purpose of an assessment is to establish Excavation the significance of the material, its potential The assessment report should include: The purpose, definition and standard for to address project aims and its potential excavations are given in IfA (2008b) . to enhance understanding of the past . An l specialist aims and objectives relevant to The sampling strategy should be fit for assessment should include or take account the project design; purpose; and designed to meet aims and of the results of previous interventions and l summary description of soil, sediments objectives as stated in the project design . should make recommendations for the and stratigraphy, where relevant; It should be agreed by the project team, type and scope of further analysis, which l sampling and processing methods, which includes the specialists (project should feed into the updated project design . including mesh sizes; experts), and will take into account the To be cost-effective these decisions should l assessment methodology; results of any evaluation . be made in the light of best academic l any known biases in recovery; It is the project manager’s responsibility knowledge, and therefore need to be l any known problems of contamination or to ensure that the specialists are kept carried out by specialist staff who are highly residuality; informed about developments during experienced in studying the type of material l quantity of material (how many samples? excavation, including important finds being assessed . For example, they need what was the sample size?); and factors affecting the environmental to be able to recognise the significance of l statement on abundance, diversity and sampling . Significant changes or alterations interesting or unusual taxa, which may not state of preservation of the material; in strategy should be recorded and should always occur in the richest samples . l statement of potential to contribute to be agreed by the project team, including Assessment methodology should be the project aims; the relevant specialists . An issues log fit for purpose and will vary according to l statement of potential to contribute to can be a useful way of recording these the type of remains . The distribution and research issues of wider significance;

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 7 30/6/11 10:26:10 l recommendations for material suitable Publication decide whether or not the data are relevant for scientific dating, when this has been The publication of the full data in to their concerns . The existence of data in requested; association with their interpretation an archive and its location should also be l recommendations for future work should be encouraged in the main body lodged in the HER . (analysis and publication); of reports . At the minimum, publication Individual museums usually have their l resources required for further work . needs to include the aims and objectives own standards for archive deposition, of the study, a basic description of the but overall guidance can be found in Analysis and reporting material, methods of analysis, interpretation Brown (2007), in Longworth and Wood The type and level of analysis required will of results and sufficient data to support (2000) and in Museum and Galleries be clear from the assessment report and the conclusions drawn . The location of Commission (1992) . updated project design, as agreed by the the environmental archive should also Standards for digital archiving are project team . The report should state aims be included, as should the scope and available from the Archaeology Data in relation to the project design, methods, limitations of the study, as well as relevance Service . The publicationDigital Archives results and conclusions . Reports need to to other work and any recommendations for from Excavation and Fieldwork: Guide include clear statements of methodology, future work . Non-standard methodologies to Good Practice (1 and 2 edns) can be with the results of scientific analysis clearly should be described and justified . obtained from their website: http://ads . distinguished from their interpretation . There is often a conflict in communi- ahds .ac .uk . Non-technical summaries of results should cating the results of any analyses to special- be included, and the full data from the ist and general readerships . The publication analysis presented . Access to data from needs to address both . The interpretation 3 Sampling other aspects of the project will allow the and conclusions of the study should be production of an integrated report . aimed at a general archaeological reader- This section covers: ship . Information of interest to specialists l what a good sampling strategy should Reports should include the following sections: within the particular field of study, includ- include; ing illustrations of unusual or important l asking the right questions; l Introduction material should also be published . l examples of possible methodologies; l Aims and objectives l which types of samples to take; l Methods Archiving l what to consider when taking samples; l Results – including the full data set Environmental material, associated data l how to store samples . l Discussion and related documentation are all likely l Conclusion to be incorporated into the overall project Sampling strategies archive, which will be deposited with The most important element in developing Overviews and syntheses of the the appropriate repository . All archive a sampling strategy is to understand how environmental results will generally be material should be stable and accessible, the information gained from the site or written by one of the environmental in line with published guidelines (Brown area of interest will enhance knowledge specialists involved in the project . In order 2007; Walker 1990) . The digital archive of the period and issues in question (the to avoid misinterpretation or technical component should contain all born digital aims) . Asking key questions, or targeting inaccuracy, any integrated discussion (material that was created by digital means types of information (objectives) that will incorporating specialists’ results should as opposed to on paper) material and some contribute to the greater understanding of be seen by the specialists who undertook secondary digitised material, including the past, clarifies what needs to be done to the work . This should be considered when codes, electronic files of data and metadata, achieve these aims . It is impossible to make estimating project costs . and text files, diagrams, photos, etc, and decisions about the most effective way to be fully documented and indexed (Brown sample, how best to deploy resources or Publication and archiving Historic 2007, 18; Archaeology Data Service 1997) . how to modify the approach in response Environment Record (HER) Human remains form a special case and to issues arising if the aims and objectives It is essential that a report on any reference should be made to existing of the project are not clear . Flexibility in archaeological intervention, even if it standards (DCMS 2005; McKinley and response to new information or changing goes no further than an evaluation, Roberts 1993) http://www .justice .gov .uk/ circumstances is an important part of should be lodged with the local HER as about/burials .htm) . Decisions on what to project planning and management . This promptly as possible . This is necessary include for archiving should be made in makes it possible to modify the aims and to inform future interventions and guide consultation with the specialist, the project objectives as a project progresses (Fig 3) . the local planning authority on future manager and the archive repository . The need for sampling and a decisions . Environmental information It is sometimes desirable for material consideration of what types of samples should form part of this report, including to be retained by specialists for future will best address project aims should be any information on deposits and the study . This should only take place with the considered at the start of a project (see preservation of biological remains . permission of the project manager and the Table 1) . Advice should be sought from Environmental archaeology data owner of the material . Such material is also appropriate specialists to ensure that the can now be recorded on Historic part of the project archive . A description sampling will meet the project’s needs and Environment Records . Guidance is of the material and its location should be be cost-effective . The project design must available on the HELM website (www . entered in the project archive . demonstrate that the sampling strategy helm .org .uk/; Guidelines for the Addition of A summary of the archived data should is fit for purpose (Case Study 2) . A well- Archaeological Science Data to the Historic include a sufficient description of what is in constructed sampling strategy addresses Environment Records) . the archive, to enable future researchers to the aims and objectives of the project and

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 8 30/6/11 10:26:10 Fig 3 Flotation tank in use on the site of a Roman town along the A46. Practical constraints meant that a recycling system was developed for the on-site processing of whole earth samples. This made it possible to give rapid feedback to the excavation team (photo by J P Huntley).

Fig 4 Plank-lined springhead and launder excavated at Town Farm Quarry, Burlescombe, Devon. The launder did not survive to the left of the springhead, where conditions were not permanently wet. Dating evidence suggests that construction took place shortly after AD 629, the felling date obtained on one of the timbers (Best and Gent 2007; photo by V Straker).

research questions identified in regional where various types of remains are most A single sample of equivalent size from and national research agendas . These aims likely to occur, but local conditions can a single area in a context will be less and objectives will determine the types of vary (Fig 4) . representative of the context as a whole sample taken (Table 3), types of context Excavators often tend to sample from (Orton 2000, 153–4; Lennstrom and sampled, density of sampling and sample layers expected to be productive . It is Hastorf 1992) . size, all of which should be described at essential, however, to collect samples from If the objective is to explore variation least in outline in a sampling strategy . all types of deposit that are relevant to within a context, multiple samples from Archaeological sites can be simple or the aims of the sampling strategy . Many different locations within the context will complex in terms of features, chronology, classes of environmental material are be required . For example: using a grid to the chemical and physical properties not visible to the naked eye, for example sample an occupation layer . of the deposits, and the site formation chaff fragments and small weed seeds . Co-ordinated sampling for different processes . These factors will influence the Appearances can also be deceptive . Black environmental materials from the same survival of different types of biological deposits, for example, might not contain deposits is often desirable and will remains . Therefore, preservation will partly any charred material, or might be rich in provide a more enhanced interpretation determine the objectives that can be set . wood charcoal, but poor in seeds . than relying on a single line of evidence . The environmental material recovered Environmental remains are not Environmental sampling can also be from a site will depend on the geology and necessarily homogenously distributed integrated with sampling for various types depositional environment of that site, as through a given deposit, and this needs to of artefactual and technological evidence, well as on the nature of the archaeology be considered when taking samples (Fig 5) . eg the recovery of technological waste such itself . While the survival of different types The best way of obtaining a representative as hammerscale (see Case Studies 2 and 6) . of environmental evidence can be predicted sample of the material within a context is Sampling should not concentrate only to a certain extent, this is not an exact to take the sample from several different on features that can be dated or phased in science . Table 2 provides a summary of areas within the context (scatter sampling) . the field, but should also consider features

Table 3 Examples of sample types appropriate to particular materials

coarse-sieved flotation specialist

vertebrate (bone also recovered ✓ ✓ (small bones in residue ✓ by hand on site) from flotation) molluscs ✓ (large, mainly marine) – ✓ insects, arachnids, etc – – ✓ parasite ova – – ✓ plant macrofossils ✓ (large fruit stones etc) ✓ (charred and mineral-replaced) ✓ (waterlogged and mineral-replaced) wood – – ✓ charcoal – ✓ ✓ (radiocarbon dating) pollen and spores – – ✓ phytoliths – – ✓ foraminifera – – ✓ ostracods – – ✓ diatoms – – ✓ soils and sediments – – ✓

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 9 30/6/11 10:26:13 Fig 5 Sampling the fill of a pit to recover biological remains.

Fig 5 The figure shows a hypothetical pit fill, which appears to the naked eye to be a homogenous fill showing no differentiation. However, within the fill are biological remains, not visible to the naked eye, which are unevenly distributed. This is a common occurrence. The small circles represent a 40 litre sample (scatter sample, section 3) taken from different areas within the pit and with a bit from each circle put into each sample tub. The large circle represents a 40 litre sample taken out of a single area of the pit, each quarter of the circle representing one sample tub. The light-coloured quarter represents a 10 litre sub-sample of this sample.

There are 10 yellow items. The 40 litre single sample recovers 2 of these, whereas the 10 litre sub-sample of this sample recovers none. The 40 litre scatter sample recovers 4 yellow items.

There are 20 green items. The 40 litre single sample recovers 9 of these, whereas the 10 litre sub-sample of this sample recovers none. The 40 litre scatter sample recovers 7 green items.

There are 20 red items. The 40 litre single sample recovers 6 of these, whereas the 10 litre sub-sample of this sample recovers only 1. The 40 litre scatter sample recovers 7 red items.

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 10 30/6/11 10:26:21 Table 4 Sampling methodologies

sampling method description advantages disadvantages

random contexts to be sampled are selected mathematically rigorous could miss all important deposits in a statistically random manner if used on its own

judgement samples are taken from obviously cost-effective since the ‘good’ highly subjective; ‘good’ contexts are not ‘rich’ deposits contexts only are targeted always apparent to the excavator

systematic samples are taken to an ensures that the whole site is considered; can miss the unusual contexts, or sample agreed strategy can be easily re-evaluated during excavation inappropriate contexts if poorly planned

that are undated during excavation . The ELC defines landscape as an area, as deposits . Exposures of peats and clays in Recovered environmental evidence can perceived by people, whose character is river valley or coastal sequences would provide the material needed to date these the result of the action and interaction of require a range of samples for the recovery features and, by ignoring them, some types natural and/or human factors . of different types of evidence . of activity, or periods of activity, might be To examine environmental change over The terminology applied to different entirely overlooked . time, long sequences of deposits are usually sample types is varied and confusing . Sampling can be achieved using several needed . These are recovered from locations In part this reflects the wide range of different methodologies . The choice is with substantial accumulations of sediments, materials for which samples are taken and primarily between random, judgement and for example river channels, lakes, bogs, the different processing methods used for systematic sampling . Common practice is a mires and glacial depressions, or ditch them . These guidelines classify sample combination of judgement and systematic sections and ponds . Sampling a long types primarily by how they are dealt with sampling (Table 4) . See Veen (1985) for sedimentary sequence will provide on site . The use of the term ‘bulk sample’ a discussion on random and judgement information both on the site and on the has deliberately been avoided, as this term sampling specifically in relation to charred wider ecological history of the area (Dark is used differently by different people and plant remains . 1996) . Analyses need to date a sufficient fosters a lack of clarity about the purpose Heritage assets can also include number of subsamples to link processes and for which the samples were taken . deposits or features that preserve evidence events to human history (Gearey et al 2009; Samples can be classified into three of human environment, land use, landscape Case Study 3) . If a continuous sequence is basic types: coarse-sieved samples, flotation and climate change . Examples of such not available, it is possible to sample from samples and specialist samples . assets include buried peats, bogs, lakes, succeeding phases or contexts . Sequences palaeochannels, alluvium and colluvium . from one or more locations may be sampled . Coarse-sieved samples There is widespread recognition that such Multiple samples of the same sequence from Coarse-sieved samples can be wet or dry deposits preserve important information slightly different locations will give a more sieved depending on the soil conditions, and about our past . This is recognised in the accurate picture than a single sequence, are usually processed on site . Collected for revised European Convention on the which may be biased by local factors (for an the retrieval of small bones, bone fragments, Protection of the Archaeological Heritage example see Whittle et al 1993) . larger (mainly marine) molluscs (such as (1992) (the Valetta Convention) and the Samples are often taken using coring oysters, mussels, limpets, etc) and smaller European Landscape Convention – ELC equipment – ranging from hand augers finds, they are best taken with the advice of (2000) (the Florence Convention) . The UK to commercial drilling rigs – in order to the appropriate specialist . Other materials is a signatory to both these conventions . recover sedimentary sequences that can be that could be collected include wood used for a variety of different analyses (Fig charcoal, large plant remains (charred, 6) . Machine or hand-dug trenches can also waterlogged and mineral-replaced) and be cut, where the sampling site is suitable . waterlogged wood, but coarse-sieved Some sampling locations might be covered samples are not suitable as the sole means by legislation . For example, permission from of retrieving these materials . Samples Natural England is needed to sample within should be ‘whole earth’ with nothing a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) . removed unless the way in which the sample is processed would have a detrimental effect Sample types on fragile material (eg metal objects) . Where The archaeological context is important material is removed, this should be noted on when deciding what types of samples the record and the information passed on to should be collected . The likely presence of the relevant specialists . particular environmental remains will be Coarse-sieved samples are usually related to preservation conditions (see Table sieved on a minimum mesh size of 2mm . 2), to human activities and to depositional Research has shown that sieving down processes . For example, samples for to 2mm will provide a good indication charred plant remains are collected of the fish and small mammal species routinely from dry feature fills such as present in a context . However, full pits and postholes, while samples for the recovery of fish and small mammal bones Fig 6 Using a modified Livingstone piston corer in kettle hole deposits on the A66 at Stainmore, County Durham recovery of both plant and invertebrate requires a 0 .5mm or 1mm mesh size . (photo by J P Huntley). remains can be taken from waterlogged The residues from flotation samples are

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 11 30/6/11 10:26:21 often used for this purpose (Barrett et al Sample size will normally be of the specialists . Large volumes of residue can 2004) . See Case Study 2 for an example of order of 40–60 litres or 100% of smaller be subsampled under specialist guidance . sampling designed to recover fish remains features (see Case Studies 1 and 4) . The It should be noted that flotation machines as part of an integrated sampling strategy flot is usually collected on a sieve with are not always highly effective at recovering combining flotation and coarse-sieving . a mesh size of 250–300mm (microns) . charred plant remains (Moulins 1996), Hand recovery of animal bones is Residues are usually collected on a sieve and that it is necessary to check residues to always biased in favour of larger elements size of 0 .5mm (500mm)–1mm and are note the quality of recovery . and will tend to over-represent the sorted for the recovery of the small items importance of, for example cattle over mentioned above . Mesh size for flotation Specialist samples sheep, or long bones over foot bones . samples might need to vary from site These samples are usually collected by Sieving onto a 4mm mesh ensures good to site according to the practicalities of specialists and processed in the laboratory . recovery of small artefacts and the processing different soil types . The advice In some cases, they can be subsampled to bones of the principal domesticated of a specialist should be sought for the provide material for a number of different animals (sheep, goat, pig, and cattle) . most appropriate sample size and mesh specialists . Specialist samples include: Samples of around 100 litres or more are sizes for a given site . Specialist advice on usually necessary to recover representative mesh sizes will be needed particularly 1 Large samples assemblages (Payne 1975), but specialist for sites on iron-rich clay soils, where These are often collected from advice should be sought on sample size, charred plant remains are often partly waterlogged/anoxic deposits for plant and mesh size and suitability of the context . coated or impregnated with iron salts, and invertebrate remains . The sample size is where conditions are suitable for mineral- normally of the order of 20 litres . They can Flotation samples replacement by calcium phosphate or be taken from individual contexts or from These are taken from well-drained deposits calcium carbonate (see below Macroscopic vertical sections . In some circumstances for the recovery of charred plant remains plant remains) . This material often fails to larger samples will be needed, for example from the floating fraction (the flot), and float, remaining in the residue . In order to for the recovery of small vertebrates (small for charcoal fragments, small mammal ensure full recovery of mineral replaced rodents, reptiles, etc) and for smaller and fish bones, mineral-replaced plant remains the residue mesh should 0 .5mm . marine molluscs . Generally, samples for remains, industrial residues such as For the recovery of finds (eg beads, land and freshwater molluscs, of the order hammerscale and smaller finds from the flint, glass, pot), residue fractions larger of 2 litres, are collected from dry or wet residues . They are usually collected by the than c 2mm can be sorted by non- deposits . Mesh sizes used in processing excavation team and should preferably be specialists with the naked eye, although large specialist samples will vary according processed on site where facilities (water, this should be done under appropriate to the material to be recovered . adequate drainage, silt disposal and drying supervision (Fig 7) . Small residue fractions space) are available . Molluscs can also (approximately 2mm or less) need to be be retrieved from flotation samples, but scanned or sorted under a microscope by specialists should advise on whether these the appropriate specialist(s) . Biological samples are suitable or whether other types remains within the smaller fractions are of sample would be more appropriate or too small (and sometimes too unfamiliar) needed in addition . to be recovered adequately by non-

Fig 8 Glastonbury Relief Road: monolith tins in peat deposits overlying estuarine silty clays. Note the overlapping tins, which enable researchers to take samples from undisturbed positions throughout the length of the sequence. The monoliths were sampled for pollen and diatoms. Additional specialist samples from the same deposits were analysed for insects, macroscopic plant Fig 7 Material sorted from residues: small to medium fraction (photo by J P Huntley). remains and foraminifera (photo by V Straker).

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 12 30/6/11 10:26:24 Fig 9 Schematic diagram for sampling.

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 13 30/6/11 10:26:31 2 Monolith samples and lifting whole skeletons and groups of outside . Samples in polythene bags should These are collected from vertical sections articulated bones (whether human or non- be double-bagged, and labels placed inside in monolith tins, square plastic guttering human) . Bones in articulation should be both bags and on the outside of the outer or Kubiena boxes . Samples taken in treated as a separate context, bagged and bags . Bags should be tied securely with monolith tins and guttering can be dealt with separately . Jaws with teeth should synthetic string . Specialist samples with subsampled in the laboratory for a range also be bagged as a unit, although preferably an orientation, such as cores, monoliths of analyses such as pollen, spores, kept together with the other bones from the and Kubiena boxes need to have the top diatoms and foraminifera (see section same context . Bagging as a unit will ensure and bottom marked, the depth within 4 Common types of environmental that teeth, which might fall out during post the sequence of the deposit, and the evidence) . Kubiena boxes are usually made excavation, in transport, etc, can be re- height above and below Ordnance Datum of aluminium or stainless steel, with lids associated with their specific jaw . recorded . Overlapping samples must have on the front and back, and are specifically All cremation deposits should be 100% their relationship noted . The position of designed for collecting samples for the sampled . Generally cremations should be samples should be marked on all relevant preparation of thin sections . Monoliths half sectioned or dug in quadrants and site plans and section drawings . Specialists should be taken at a size suitable for the excavated in spits, with each spit retained might also wish to make sketches and take types of material being recovered . The as a separate sample . Vessels from any urn separate notes . Photographic records of sections from which they are taken can burials should be block-lifted and x-rayed sampling taking place can be extremely be drawn, photographed and described before being excavated and sampled . useful in providing a complete record of (Figs 8 and 9) . For these reasons it is Larger crematory deposits, such as busta sample position and orientation (Fig 9) . preferable to sample from sections . or pyre sites, should be excavated as All sample processing should be multiple discrete samples . Any fragments recorded on sample records whose format 3 Cores of charcoal greater than 100mm should is agreed by the project manager, the Cores can be taken where it is not be recovered as individual samples and specialists and the on-site environmental possible or desirable to collect monolith 3D recorded . Flotation samples can be supervisor . Processing records should and specialist samples from sections . used to recover plant remains and charcoal include sample volume (for coarse-sieved For further details on coring refer to used in the cremation rite and associated samples and flotation samples), context the English Heritage Geoarchaeology rituals . Careful processing is required to and sample number, mesh sizes used, the Guidelines (2007) . The size, type of minimise fragmentation of any cremated date processed and any other comments or core and coring method used should be bone . Samples can be gently dry sieved observations that might be needed when the carefully considered at the project design over an 8mm or 4mm mesh to recover flots and residues are assessed or analysed . stage . Cores are most useful for the the large bone fragments and finds prior recovery of microfossils such as pollen, to flotation . For further guidance on the Sampling in difficult conditions diatoms and testate amoebae (see section 4 sampling of cremation burials and related Sampling in the intertidal zone presents Common types of environmental evidence) . deposits see McKinley and Roberts (1993) particular challenges, for example The and Case Study 5 . Stumble, Blackwater Estuary (Murphy 4 Small samples 1989) . An example is also given in Case These can be collected separately from Taking samples Study 6 . Sampling is possible on underwater discrete contexts for certain items, such as Samples should be taken from individual sites, for example by using very large ostracods (10–50g), and for geoarchaeo- contexts, unless they are monolith samples monolith tins, which are raised to the surface logical analyses, such as particle size that intentionally cross stratigraphic and subsequently excavated, for example as determination . Small samples, usually boundaries . Sometimes it is appropriate at Bouldner Cliff (Momber 2004) . Cores 10–20 mm3, can also be taken for pollen to sample thick contexts in spits of, for can also be taken as in the Arun palaeovalley and spores . example, 50–100mm . Each sample must project (Gupta et al 2007) . Certain types of material, such as larger come from a cleaned surface, be collected At some terrestrial sites where physical bones and shells, will be mainly collected with clean tools and be placed in clean access is difficult (eg some cave and coastal by hand during excavation and recorded containers . sites) the volume of whole earth samples through the finds system . The hand- It is essential that all samples are can be reduced by very coarse dry sieving recovered material needs to be assessed, adequately recorded and labelled . A or by hand-removal of larger stones, as at analysed and considered along with that register of all samples should be kept . Tintagel (Straker 2007) . Sample size is retrieved from samples . Sample records should provide information recorded on collection and again when the on sample type, reason for sampling, stones have been removed . Recovering human remains size, context and sample numbers, spatial If human remains exposed on site are to location, date of sampling, as well as a Storing samples be recovered, rather than left in situ, then context description and interpretation Key points for storage are: the entire skeleton, or at least all of it that (eg grey-brown silt, primary pit fill, ?late 1 Keep samples cool; exclude light and air . lies within the excavated area, should be Roman) . The approximate percentage of 2 All relevant records need to be safe and recovered . After lifting the bones, the fill the context sampled should be recorded accessible . remaining on the floor of the grave should where known . 3 Avoid long-term storage . be recovered as three subsamples from Labelling must be legible, consistent the head, torso and leg/foot areas, and and permanent . It is best to use plastic or Samples for laboratory processing should processed for the recovery of small bones plasticised labels and permanent markers . be collected by, or sent to, specialists as and grave goods . Advice should be sought Samples in plastic tubs should be labelled soon as possible . Once excavated, organic from a bone specialist before cleaning twice on the inside and once on the material becomes more vulnerable to decay

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 14 30/6/11 10:26:31 by micro-organisms such as bacteria, algae 4 Common types of environmental and fungi; it is not possible to prevent this evidence completely, but the rate of deterioration can be minimised . The general rule is to The sections below describe the classes maintain samples in conditions as close as of material most often considered within possible to those in the ground (in which environmental archaeology and when and they were found): they should be kept where such material will be encountered . chilled and dark, and, as far as possible, in It summarises the potential information airtight containers . This will slow bacterial that analysis of these materials can provide . and algal growth, although dark conditions Identification of biological material should might encourage the growth of fungi . always be by comparison with modern The growth of fungal hyphae reference specimens, although books and Fig 10 Articulated fish skeletons, including herring (Clupea (threads) through the sample can lead to illustrations can sometimes be a useful aid . harengus) from early medieval waterfront deposits at St Martin Palace Plain, Norwich. Bones of herring, cod, eel redistribution of carbon . Light, however, and other fish are extremely abundant in refuse and latrine will encourage the growth of algae and Vertebrate remains, excluding humans deposits at city sites, attesting to the importance of fish in perhaps other green plants, which will The bodies of vertebrates are composed the urban medieval diet. They are rarely found articulated, as here; usually disarticulated bones occur dispersed (through photosynthesis) incorporate of various hard and soft tissues . Remains through the matrix of the deposit. Wet-sieving is necessary modern carbon into the samples . Both usually include bones, teeth, hair, eggshell for effective retrieval (photo by M Sharp; © Norfolk of these can affect the accuracy of and other such materials . Usually, it is only Museums Service). radiocarbon dating (Wohlfarth et al 1998) . the hard tissues (bones, teeth, horncores These biological processes can also cause and antlers) that survive (Figs 10, 11 substantial damage to charred plant remains and 12) . The hard tissues are mixtures and even to bone . Therefore, samples of organic and inorganic compounds . should be processed as soon as possible . Inorganic mineral crystals of calcium It is not usually cost-effective to store phosphate are laid down in a lattice of unprocessed flotation or large specialist organic protein (collagen) . Although samples from dry deposits, as they take the collagen (which contains DNA; see up a large amount of space . These should below Biomolecules) is biodegradable, it Fig 11 Lower jaw of a watervole from a Bronze Age cairn be processed as part of the data collection is given some protection by the mineral at Hardendale, Shap, Cumbria. This was one of c 40,000 stage, but if there is no alternative, then component . Generally, skeletal elements bones recovered from wet-sieved, large specialist samples. they should be kept as described above . with a high ratio of mineral-to-organic Species included mice, voles, frogs and toads, birds and fish, and were probably deposited in owl pellets. The material Ideally samples should be kept in a content, eg tooth enamel, survive better was used to interpret the landscape around the cairn; scale cold store . A refrigerator is fine for small than those with a lower ratio, such as = 10 x 1mm (photo by T Woods). samples . For large samples an adequate the bones of newborn animals . Calcium substitute is a cellar or similar storage space . phosphate is more soluble under acidic It should be as cool and dark as possible conditions, so bones tend to survive and not subject to fluctuating temperatures . best in alkaline to neutral deposits . Waterlogged samples should be well sealed Local microenvironments, such as shell to prevent drying out . If a waterlogged middens, that raise the pH can enhance sample does accidentally dry out it should preservation at sites where most of the not be re-wetted, but left dry and a note put sediments are acidic . If bone is heated toc in the sample record stating that the sample 600°C or more (when it becomes white or had accidentally dried in storage . ‘calcined’) the minerals recrystallise into Freezing samples can destroy or obscure a very stable structure . Calcined bone can sediment structure and should not be used be found at many sites where even tooth Fig 12 Late Neolithic antler pick from Marden Henge, where soil or sedimentological analyses are enamel has decomposed, although severe Wiltshire. Scorch marks are visible (top right) where the antler has been heated to effect breakage at this point envisaged . However, freezing is preferable fragmentation often impedes identification . (photo by F Worley). to storage in warm conditions, except for Soft tissues usually only survive in short periods, for highly organic deposits . extreme conditions, where bacterial activity Pre-treating highly compacted organic is restricted, for example by freezing or has been deliberately treated to enhance its sediments by freezing prior to sieving has by desiccation . In north-west Europe, preservation) often survives in waterlogged been shown to improve recovery and causes the most common place for soft tissue deposits . Its recovery, treatment and least damage to the delicate remains when preservation to occur is in acidic peat handling are covered by Guidelines for the compared with other techniques (Vandorpe bogs, where waterlogging is accompanied Care of Waterlogged Archaeological Leather and Jacomet 2007) . by the effects of tannic acids . Keratinous (English Heritage 1995) . Guidance on the curation of tissues such as hair, hoof and horn can Larger vertebrate remains, such as waterlogged plant macrofossils and survive, as well as skin and, occasionally, the larger bones of domesticated animals, invertebrate remains is given in D internal organs and other soft tissues . All are usually visible, along with artefacts, Robinson (2008) . Waterlogged wood of these may become unstable when their during excavation . To avoid collecting should only be stored for short periods of burial environment is disturbed, and it is biased assemblages (Payne 1975), small time before it is recorded, as the longer it is important that a conservator is consulted bones (fish, small mammals, small birds, kept in storage the worse its condition will when soft tissue preservation is predicted immature and small elements of larger become (Brunning and Watson 2010) . or discovered . Leather (which is skin that animals), loose teeth and fragments of all

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 15 30/6/11 10:26:33 species need to be recovered from coarse- Age and sex profiles are used in Albarella and Thomas 2002; Sykes 2006) . sieved or flotation samples see( above interpretations of how people looked Bird eggshell is preserved best where Sample types) . after and utilised their domestic animals conditions are alkaline . It is surprisingly Animal bones are used in a very wide (Halstead 1998; McCormick 1998) . robust, although normally recovered in a variety of studies (O’Connor 2000), most When material from several related sites fragmented state . Species identification of which investigate how the presence of is available, complex investigations can is made through measurement and by animal bones at an archaeological site be undertaken into people’s access to, description of internal structures and relates to past human activities, beliefs and treatment of, animal resources . Bond sculpturing in comparison with modern and environment . Small vertebrate and O’Connor (1999) studied variations reference material (Sidell 1993) . Large faunas have been used to characterise in economic and social status within a fragments of eggshell are not necessary, as local habitats . At the Pleistocene site of single town, while Maltby (1994) made all identification requires Scanning Electron Boxgrove the evolutionary stage of the comparisons between rural and urban Microscopy . Recently, research has shown remains of water voles was used as a proxy settlements . that fossil eggshell is a particularly rich dating tool (M Roberts and Parfitt 1999) . Hard skeletal tissues (bone, antler source of ancient DNA, which could be Other wild species, such as birds and fish, and ivory) have often been used as raw used to identify species and thus shed light can demonstrate the range of habitats materials for craft working (MacGregor on environmental changes, ancient diets exploited, the season of exploitation, et al 1999) . Other industries using animal and biodiversity (Oskam et al 2010) . and the tools, equipment and techniques products include horn working, tanning Determining whether eggs were needed for their capture . This can be as and parchment making (Serjeantson and hatched can indicate the presence of a important for urban developments (Coy Waldron 1989) . breeding population . As many species 1989) as it is for hunter-gatherer sites Although animals and their remains can are selective about breeding grounds, (Mellars and Wilkinson 1980) or rural be used in very utilitarian ways, they can eggshell analysis can assist in ecological settlements (Nicholson 1998) . also be a focus for ritual and religious beliefs reconstruction . It is also possible to The development of domestic forms of and practices . Their remains have been examine the history of breeding patterns livestock, and their relationships with their found in special deposits at sites of various over time, by tracking the breeding wild progenitors are still uncertain . Current dates, including Romano-British temples grounds of individual species . The results research is developing the use of DNA (Legge et al 2000) and Iron Age settlement from the Late Norse middens at Freswick techniques to address these questions, sites (Hill 1995) . Also, they are often Links, Caithness, Scotland, demonstrate but DNA does not always survive well in included in cremation rites and in burials the potential of eggshell analysis to answer archaeological material, and very specific (McKinley and Bond 2001; Worley 2009) . these questions (Sidell 1995) . questions are needed to justify the expense . Animals were also used for social More traditional studies, using analyses of display . At Launceston Castle the social Human remains skeletal size and shape, are beginning to and economic fortunes of the castle and Excavated human remains should always show that regional and modern forms of its inhabitants were reflected in their food be treated with respect and decency . If an domestic cattle and sheep developed much waste . Other studies have shown how social excavation is expected to disturb human earlier than has been suggested by most of status was communicated through food and remains, legal permission should be the documentary evidence (S Davis and through differential access to animals and sought in advance from the Ministry of Beckett 1999) (Fig 13) . animal parts (Albarella and Davis 1996; Justice . If human remains are encountered unexpectedly, prompt application should be made to the Ministry of Justice for permission to remove them . The coroner need not be informed of the discovery of human remains if they are properly interred in a recognised burial ground or if there is reason to suppose they are more than 100 years old . On land currently under Church of England jurisdiction, ecclesiastical law applies in addition to the relevant secular statutes . This means that in most such cases permission to remove human remains needs to be sought both from the Ministry of Justice and from the relevant church authorities . Ecclesiastical permission is normally administered via the Faculty system (this applies to churches that have not been declared redundant, churchyards in current use and parts of municipal cemeteries) . Some Church of England places of worship, such as cathedrals, and chapels at royal residences, lie outside the Fig13 Measurement of animal bones can demonstrate changes in livestock through time, as here at Vindolanda on Hadrian’s Wall, where larger animals are more common during the 4th century; while this might reflect local breeding Faculty system and permission needs to be programmes or the import of larger stock, changes in proportions of the sexes cannot be ruled out. sought directly from the relevant authorities

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 16 30/6/11 10:26:33 (the Dean and Chapter in the case of The study of mortuary cathedrals) . Ecclesiastical Law does not practices and ritual has been apply to monastic burial grounds, nor to particularly important for most disused churchyards . The secular and our understanding of the ecclesiastical law surrounding the removal prehistoric and early historic of burials is summarised in Mays (2005, periods (Fig 14) . Issues of 17–22), although note that since 2007 there ethnicity and migrations of has been a reinterpretation of secular law peoples are also enjoying regarding burials by the Ministry of Justice, renewed interest . The larger and the burial laws and their application assemblages available from to archaeology are currently under review the historic periods lend (Tucker 2009; also http://www .justice .gov . themselves to ‘population’- uk/guidance/burials .htm) . based studies . Important Human skeletal remains normally pose areas of enquiry include no special health and safety risks . Where the rise of urbanism, the soft tissue is preserved, gloves should be nature of monastic life, worn . In dusty situations, it is sensible to and the ways in which wear a suitable filter mask covering nose demography, health and and mouth; this applies particularly in disease changed over time as crypts (Mays 2005, 45) . lifestyles altered in response As with animal bones, soil acidity is to social, environmental and an important determinant of human bone technological change . The survival, with greater preservation being study of human remains can found in neutral or alkaline conditions . also help us to understand the It is worth noting, however, that even in antiquity of some diseases . regions where natural soils are hostile to Work on human remains bone preservation, skeletal material often increasingly involves stable survives well in urban contexts, presumably isotope and DNA analyses (see Fig 15 Cereal remains from the Danebury Environs Roman programme; scale bar =1mm. (a) charred spelt wheat spikelet from the floor of a 4th century because human activity has altered the below Biomolecules) . Analyses corn drying oven; (b) spelt wheat grain showing evidence of insect attack by the character of the soils and sediments . of stable isotopes of carbon grain weevil (Sitophilus granarius) (photos by G V Campbell). As noted in Vertebrate remains (above), and nitrogen are shedding cremated bone tends to be more resistant new light on early diets . Study of stable Macroscopic plant remains to destruction than does unburned bone, isotopes of strontium, oxygen or lead may The remains of fruits, seeds, flowers, so that it may survive well even in highly help us investigate population movements in leaves, stems, wood and roots have all been acidic soils where all traces of inhumed the past . found in archaeological deposits . Wood bone have vanished (see Case Study 5) . For reasons that are poorly understood, and charcoal are discussed separately, Scientific examination of human survival of DNA in buried bone is variable . below . In Britain and the rest of north-west skeletons can provide information on the Nevertheless analysis of DNA extracted Europe macroscopic plant remains are demography, diet, health and disease, growth, from ancient human skeletal remains is most commonly preserved by charring, physical appearance, genetic relationships, beginning to improve our diagnosis of anoxic conditions (such as waterlogging), activity patterns and funerary practices of certain infectious diseases . It can also or by mineralisation (mineral preservation our forebears (Cox and Mays 2000; Mays sometimes be of value in kinship studies, or mineral replacement) . In buildings, 2010; C Roberts 2009) . To a lesser extent for studying relationships between preservation can also occur through cremated bone can also tell us about some populations and for sex determination desiccation, and by smoke blackening (eg of these aspects, particularly funerary where osteological indicators are missing in smoke blackened thatch; Letts 1999) . practices in relation to pyre technology . or ambiguous . Charred plant remains are found on most archaeological sites . Preservation occurs when plant material is burned under reducing conditions . This leaves a skeleton, primarily of carbon, but sometimes also including residual starches, lipids and DNA . The carbon skeleton is resistant to chemical and biological attack, although vulnerable to mechanical damage . High temperature fires with a good air supply can result in loss of carbon, leaving only silica . Macroscopic silica remains of plants have been retrieved from ashy deposits at some sites (M A Robinson and Straker 1991) . The majority of charred macroscopic plant remains are present as a result of human action . Fig 14 Three burials found in a 3rd century AD pit at Stanwick, Northamptonshire (photo by S Andrews). In most cases they provide information

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 17 30/6/11 10:26:35 Fig 16 Charred plant assemblages can demonstrate both temporal and spatial patterns. In the north of England, during the Roman period spelt wheat is more common in the southern part of the region and barley in the north. There is also a suggestion that oats are more important at later sites.

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 18 30/6/11 10:26:36 Fig 17 Charred tubers/roots from Iron Age deposits at Stanwick, North Yorkshire: left low-power, showing general shape: internal structure lost during charring process; right segment of swollen stem of a dicotyledon. This transverse section shows a concentration of xylem vessels, external to which are fibres, and, internally, a glassy area, which would have been the phloem. The collapsed central area would have been the pith (photos by D de Moulins).

reflecting the intensity of human activity post-medieval buildings sometimes include in textile working, and in the fabric involving fire . Therefore, scarcity of the original thatch preserved by smoke and furnishing of dwellings can also be charred plant remains can, in itself, be blackening (Letts 1999) . detected . Sometimes specific activities can useful information (Figs 15, 16 and 17) . Plant remains provide information on be identified, such as dyeing (Tomlinson Waterlogged plant remains are found in diet (Dickson and Dickson 1988; Greig 1985) or malting (Hillman 1982) . Where places where the water-table has remained 1983), social aspects of food (Veen 2003; documentary evidence exists, comparison high enough to inhibit destruction by Veen et al 2008), arable husbandry practices with the archaeobotanical evidence can decay-causing organisms . They can also (Hillman 1981; Veen 1992), foddering of enhance interpretation (Foxhall 1998; occur in certain deposits above the water livestock (Karg 1998), the introduction Greig 1996) . Distribution patterns of plant table if conditions are anoxic and highly of various non-indigenous plants (Greig remains on sites are important to determine organic, such as in the fills of pits lined 1996) and the reconstruction of local where different activities, especially refuse with stone, dug into heavy clay, or sealed environments (Hall and Kenward 1990) . disposal, took place (see Case Study 1) . by overlying stratigraphy (Figs 18 and 19) . They can also reveal details of landscape Replacement of plant tissues with soluble use, such as hedgerows (Greig 1994), and Wood and charcoal phosphates and carbonates commonly provide evidence for gardens and garden Wood is preserved by the same processes occurs in cesspits (Green 1979; McCobb plants (Dickson 1995; Murphy and Scaife that preserve macroscopic plant remains et al 2001), but can occur wherever these 1991) . The use of plants in medicine, (see above) . Waterlogged wood can be little minerals are present and there is sufficient moisture to transport them into plant tissues . Close proximity to metal corrosion products can also preserve plant remains . Additionally, the roofs of late medieval and

Fig 19 Moss fragments from Fig 18 Cereal grains are most often preserved through being the upper organic charred, but, under exceptional conditions, their waterlogged mound, Silbury Hill, remains can survive. This is typical of deposits at Vindolanda on Wiltshire dating to the late Hadrian’s Wall (photo by J P Huntley). Neolithic (© English Heritage).

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 19 30/6/11 10:26:37 1979), and information on trade and status (1991) . The examination of charcoal (Cutler 1983) . Worked wood can help us from cremation-related deposits shows understand selection processes, preferences that a restricted range of wood was used . and woodworking techniques (Brunning This might have been based on practical and O’Sullivan 1997) (Figs 20 and 21) . considerations, but also might well have Dated tree-ring chronologies for the involved a ritual element (Gale 1997; UK extending back to the Neolithic have Thompson 1999) . been produced from living trees, standing Microscopic charcoal should be buildings, archaeological structures, bog routinely quantified from pollen slides . Very oaks and ‘submerged forests’ (Hillam fine charcoal particles can be transported 1998), while wood from ‘submerged some distance from the scene of the fire . forests’ and river sediments provides These can become incorporated into independent data on the composition and deposits in a similar way to pollen, and will structure of former woodlands (Lageard et survive the chemical processes of typical Fig 20 Taxus (yew): tangential longitudinal section showing al 1995; T J Wilkinson and Murphy 1995) . pollen sample preparation techniques . spiral thickening. This sample is from Roman deposits at The Lanes, Carlisle, where good evidence for craft Charcoal is formed from the Concentrations of charcoal particles in woodworking was revealed (photo by J Jones). incomplete burning of wood . Depending pollen samples can therefore provide useful on the temperature of burning and the information on local burning of woodland more than a lignin skeleton supported by supply of air, the charcoal can retain and vegetation, and hence, possibly, human water, and de-watering in such cases results enough of its original physical structure clearance (Simmons 1996) . in rapid deterioration . and shape to be identified . If not subjected Recording wood, especially structures to physical stresses, charcoal (and other Pollen and spores and objects, calls for close collaboration charred plant material) is durable and Higher plants produce pollen, while fungi between a wide range of researchers: survives well in the archaeological record . and lower plants (eg ferns and mosses) field archaeologists, environmental However, this durability means that produce spores . The ecological information archaeologists, conservators, wood it can be re-worked and re-deposited gained from an assemblage depends on technologists, dendrochronologists, within contexts . An understanding of two things . One is the level to which pollen scientists concerned with radiocarbon the taphonomy of the charcoal in an can be identified, and the other is how dating, and museum curators . assemblage is therefore essential . specific the taxa are in their environmental Archaeologists involved with projects Charcoal assemblages from hearth requirements . having the potential for waterlogged wood deposits or on industrial sites can provide Examination of a number of features remains are advised to consult Waterlogged information regarding use of particular such as the size, shape, surface texture Wood: Guidelines on the Recording, Sampling, species for fuel . This can, but does not and number and type of apertures, Conservation and Curation of Waterlogged necessarily, reflect the composition of facilitates identification of pollen grains Wood (Brunning and Watson 2010) . local woodlands . The study of mean (Fig 22) . A number of keys exist for the Studies of wood, both converted timber random reflectance of charcoal can be identification of pollen and spores (eg and roundwood, provide information used to distinguish between low- and Moore et al 1991) and further techniques on the management of woodlands and high-temperature processes (McParland have been developed for the separation hedgerows . Such studies also give details et al 2009) . of archaeologically and ecologically of fuel sources, supplies of raw material The widespread use of ash and oak important taxa such as cereals and dwarf/ for basketry and hurdles (Murphy 1995), for industrial processes, such as iron silver birch (eg Andersen 1979; Clegg et wood use in buildings and boats (McGrail smelting, has been demonstrated by Gale al 2005) . A reference collection is vital for checking difficult identifications and it is sometimes necessary to use higher magnification (x1000) to see fine details . Identification of moss or fungal spores is rarely attempted, mainly because of a lack of systematic study and the unavailability of reference material . However, Dr Bas van Geel and colleagues at the University of Utrecht have catalogued a wide range of non-pollen objects found in pollen preparations (Hoeve and Hendrikse 1998) so identification of these may become more commonplace in future . Pollen grains are typically 25–120mm in diameter, although the smallest (Myosotis species – forget-me-nots) are only 6mm across . Pollen and spores survive best in acidic and anoxic conditions, such as peat bogs, some lake sediments, and Fig 21 Proportions of tree species in 1st and 2nd century Carlisle and 2nd century Ribchester (Lune Valley) derived from studies of waterlogged wood. Simple plots such as these can demonstrate differences that may be related to the natures of waterlogged ditch and pit fills . Grains local woodland and/or woodland management practices. are not necessarily destroyed under

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 20 30/6/11 10:26:37 a c

b d

Fig 22 Pollen grains showing a variety of apertures and textures: (a) Pinus sylvestris (pine), (b) Tilia platyphyllos (lime), (c) Aster tripolium (sea aster), (d) Triticum spelta (spelt wheat). Pine pollen is dispersed over long distances due to the air sacs forming part of the structure. Large, heavy grains such as those of cereals are only dispersed over short distances (photos by Z Hazell).

other preservation conditions, but when and type of sampling site, the presence or There have been various attempts to analysing samples from less favourable absence of inflowing water, the nature of the transform pollen data mathematically environments it is important to consider surrounding terrain and the vegetation itself to make them more representative of the impact of differential preservation on (Bunting et al 2008; Jacobson and Bradshaw the ‘real’ vegetation (M B Davis 1963; the assemblage (see Havinga 1984) . Robust 1981; Prentice 1988; Sugita 1994; Tauber Prentice 1988; Sugita 2007a and pollen grains tend to be overrepresented, 1967) . In general, large sites within an open 2007b) . A slightly different approach while fragile types can be lost completely; landscape are more likely to accumulate uses simulated landscapes to produce it is useful to tally the levels and types of pollen representative of the regional hypothetical pollen data for comparison degradation to aid interpretation . vegetation, while smaller, enclosed sites with actual palynological assemblages Owing to their small size, pollen will accumulate a local pollen record with (Bunting et al 2008) . Both approaches use and spores are widely disseminated by a small regional component . Pollen from modern analogues to estimate the pollen wind, rain and water, and they can be small archaeological features is also most productivity and ‘fall speed’ of grains from found at considerable distances from the likely to reflect local vegetation . It is therefore various species . Modelling and simulation parent plant . This causes challenges for essential to choose sampling locations methods are a useful tool for interpretation, interpretation, especially when considering appropriate to the questions being asked . but are not a replacement for critical the influence of vegetation from the wider In addition to considering pollen examination of the data; and there is almost landscape, as opposed to that of the accumulation, interpretation also takes always more than one viable interpretation immediate archaeological site or context . account of differential pollen production based on the assemblage . The analysis Comparison with the evidence from and dispersal mechanisms (Fig 22) . of multiple profiles to better understand macroscopic plant remains can help to Other factors include the non-linear differences in pollen assemblages over clarify matters . relationship between the amount of pollen short distances can overcome some of the Pollen from naturally accumulating reaching the sampling point and how problems inherent in interpreting pollen sites such as bogs and lakes can be used far the plant is from it . The patchiness diagrams (Mighall and Chambers 1997) . to establish the nature of the landscape of the vegetation within the landscape is Others aspects of pollen taphonomy within which people lived and to identify also important . The combination of these should be also considered when human impact upon vegetation . The pollen factors makes interpretation of pollen interpreting pollen assemblages from assemblage accrued is affected by the size diagrams challenging . archaeological deposits such as waterlogged

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 21 30/6/11 10:26:39 ditches, buried soils and pits . Ditches often provide evidence complementary to the kingdom, and some have very narrow silt up after the associated site has been interpretation derived from the pollen environmental requirements – for example abandoned, so pollen might not provide spectra . If possible, pollen data should feeding on a single plant species . Insects information about the life of the site . Soil be compared with other environmental are particularly good indicators of climate processes (Tipping et al 1999) will affect proxy evidence in order to gain a change, as they respond rapidly to sudden pollen within buried soil profiles preserved comprehensive understanding of deposits changes in temperature . On Post Glacial under, for example, earthworks, or under (Wiltshire and Murphy 1998) . Changes in (Holocene) sites they are useful for general naturally deposited alluvium or colluvium . environment and stratigraphy are not always palaeoenvironmental reconstruction, for Pits are quite likely to contain material synchronous, underlining the importance of providing details of past hygiene (eg lice from a variety of sources (Greig 1982), sampling below, at and above stratigraphic and fleas) and living conditions, and for including rubbish and other material boundaries (Hosfieldet al 2008, 44) . providing evidence of crop infestation . In deposited by people . Copper salts from rural situations, they are particularly useful artefact corrosion can also preserve pollen Insects for showing the character of woodland, by inhibiting decay (Greig 1989) . Insects belong to the phylum Arthropoda, the quality of water and the occurrence of Some of the more unusual which are invertebrates with an exoskeleton domestic animals (M A Robinson 1991) . archaeological contexts from which pollen and jointed limbs . Insects and certain In urban situations with deep organic has been recovered include a Neanderthal other arthropods, such as arachnids, stratigraphy very detailed reconstructions ‘burial’ in Shanidar Cave, Iraq, where have exoskeletons of chitin, which are can be made of human environment and palynological evidence was used to infer the readily preserved under anoxic conditions . living conditions, as at Coppergate, York laying of brightly coloured flowers on the Examples of insects and arachnids found (Kenward and Hall 1995) . Chironomids body (Solecki 1971), and the intestines of archaeologically include beetles, true bugs, (non-biting midges) are particularly the Iceman, from which pollen was used to mites, flies, fleas (Fig 23), caddis flies sensitive to changes in water temperature . identify the environments in which his last and chironomids . Beetles are the most Analysis of their larvae in waterlogged few meals were eaten (Oeggl et al 2007) . commonly found and studied . sediments provides a proxy-record of In the past, pollen diagrams were Disarticulated remains (eg heads, wing- climate change (Sadler and Jones 1997) . frequently assigned dates on the basis of cases, thorax coverings, mouthparts and Reviews of all types of study are given correlation with nearby dated sequences, genitalia) can survive in most waterlogged by Buckland and Coope (1991), Kenward but the variability of assemblages between sediments . These include fen and bog (2009) and by M A Robinson (2001) . and even within sites means that a peat, lake sediments, palaeochannel programme of sampling for radiocarbon alluvium, flood deposits, and the fills of Molluscs (snails and shellfish) or other scientific dating will be necessary pits, ditches and wells . Fly puparia, along Most molluscs build straight or coiled in order to interpret pollen data fully . with body segments of two other groups shells (gastropods) or paired shells The number of dates required depends of arthropods, woodlice and millipedes, (bivalves), and live in a wide range of on many factors, including peat/sediment are sometimes preserved by calcium conditions in water (fresh, brackish and accumulation rates, depth of sediment and phosphate mineral replacement in latrines, salt) and on land . Each part of the land the project objectives (see Case Study 3) . for example at the Roman shrine at Uley, and coast usually has a characteristic range Depending on preparation techniques, Gloucestershire (Girling and Straker 1993) . of snail species, and some species live other materials (eg charcoal particles, Insects live in most terrestrial, only in specific conditions (such as damp diatoms, parasite ova and tephra shards) freshwater aquatic and maritime intertidal woodland, short-turfed grassland, and might also be seen on the microscope habitats . There are more species in the class brackish channels) . slides used for pollen counts . These could Insecta than in all the rest of the animal Mollusc shells provide an excellent means to reconstruct past environments and use of the land and coast, and to trace changes in these over time . Shells normally survive well enough for analysis in regions where the underlying rock produces neutral or alkaline soils (regions where pollen remains are usually less well preserved), but also in more acidic soil regions if the deposits were rendered neutral or alkaline by calcareous additions (sometimes by the shells themselves) . Understanding the various mollusc species’ ecological requirements and factors determining their distribution is fundamental (Davies 2008), while processes affecting re-distribution following death and preservation after burial should always be carefully considered (Claassen 1998) . Mollusc studies for reconstructing land use and environmental change usually

Fig 23 Head of the human flea (Pulex irritans), a species characteristically recorded from floor deposits in Anglo- require specialist samples taken in vertical Scandinavian York (photo by H Kenward). columns (see section 3 Samples, subsection

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 22 30/6/11 10:26:39 Fig 24 (left) Dog-whelks from Le Yaudet, Brittany, showing the characteristic breakage pattern for extracting the gland for producing the dye, Tyrian purple. Whole, unbroken shells are pictured on the left (photo by G E Campbell).

Fig 25 Egg of the parasitic nematode Trichuris recovered from an 11th- century deposit at Viborg, Denmark (photo by A Roepstorff, originally published in Roepstorff and Pearman 2006).

Specialist samples) . Molluscs from alluvial pearl) . Clipped dog-whelks (like those from are released when the plant tissues break sequences give important information on Morwenstow, Cornwall) show they were down . The silica matrix confers resistance floodplain development and regional land used to make purple dye (Light 1995) (Fig to decay and mechanical breakage, so use change (Davies 2008) . Periglacial and 24) . Shells are also roasted to make lime for phytoliths may survive where other plant tufa deposits are particularly useful in mortar, or incidentally imported (in seaweed remains do not . Only a high pH (>9) is understanding environmental change during and hay for fodder, in clay for daub and detrimental to survival and can lead to the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods . bricks, in marine gravel for construction), differential preservation . A very good Mollusc studies can also trace the change and their identification can source these understanding of context formation is also in balance between woodland, ploughland materials (Murphy 2001) . required, as phytoliths occur naturally in and pasture in the Neolithic period, and the the environment, although human activities nature of the landscape in which Neolithic Parasite eggs and cysts can generate concentrations . and later sites and monuments were set . The parasite eggs most commonly studied Phytoliths can be used to differentiate For example, molluscan analysis (with other are those from intestinal nematode worms . between broad groups (Tribes) of grasses environmental evidence) showed that the As their reproductive cycle requires (including cereals), and some wood taxa Neolithic Easton Down long barrow in transport from the faeces of one host to (Hodson 2002), but it is the identification Wiltshire was sited at the transition between the intestines of another, the eggs of some of phytolith suites that has proved most woodland and grassland . As molluscs reflect species are robust and resistant to decay . useful . Examples using modern analogues local vegetation, samples taken were from Some tapeworms produce resistant cysts include the identification of cattle and sheep several locations (spatial sampling) . The as part of the resting stage in their life dung and peat in the Outer Hebridean monument’s setting would not have been cycle . These survive well in archaeological middens at Baleshare and Hornish Point; detected from a single column of samples deposits (A K G Jones 1982) (Fig 25) . and differentiation between roof and floor (Whittle et al 1993; Davies 2008) . Parasite eggs are small, up to c 60mm deposits in Hebridean blackhouses (Powers The larger marine molluscs have been in length . They are often recovered from 1994) . Phytoliths have also been used to part of the human diet for millennia . pit and ditch fills, but are also present in identify ancient agricultural fields in the Their study shows not only the sources occupation spreads and general dumps . Outer Hebrides (Smith 1996) . Current of shellfish used for food in the past, but Most often they survive in wet deposits, research is investigating the potential of also the methods used to manage those but can sometimes survive in dry ones . phytoliths for stable isotope reconstruction resources and the impact of consumption Although parasites are often host-specific, of past climates and arable practices (eg upon wild populations (Winder 1992) . in many cases the eggs themselves are not Hodson et al 2008) . Several English coasts have mounds of necessarily identifiable to species, limiting harvested shells (middens) from many their interpretation . Starch granules periods, but few have been investigated in Parasite eggs and cysts are used Plants store energy within their cells detail . Changes over time within a midden to provide indications of the health of as semicrystalline starch granules or site in the proportions and age structures individuals, if discrete coprolites are present (polysaccharides) . Edible storage tissues of the harvested shellfish can reflect human (A K G Jones 1983), or of populations, if such as seeds, roots and tubers are exploitation (Mannino and Thomas 2001) . only amorphous faecal deposits survive especially rich in these microscopic Isotope studies on harvested shells have been (Huntley 2000) . Their presence is also granules, which have genus-specific used to reconstruct sea conditions (such as useful in identifying contamination by morphology . Research has tended to temperature and local salinity), showing the human and animal faecal waste . focus on situations where little or no season of harvest and past climate (Mannino other evidence survives . Multidisciplinary et al 2003) . Harvested shells should be Phytoliths studies of stone tool surfaces (eg Aranguren recovered at least in part by sieving sizable Phytoliths are microscopic bodies et al 2007) and dental calculus (Hardy whole-earth samples, since hand-recovery is produced by many plants through the et al 2009) can enable identification of greatly biased towards the larger and more deposition of dissolved silica within or processing activities and foods that may lack complete shells . Marine shells have been between plant cells and range in size macrofossil evidence . Further research is used for a range of other purposes, especially from c 5–100mm . They are found mainly required on how different granule types are as personal adornments (beads, mother-of- in the above-ground parts of plants and affected by cooking and burial conditions .

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 23 30/6/11 10:26:41 Table 5 Use of biological remains in reconstructing past wet environments

temperature salinity nutrient water availability oxygen substrate acidification status and/or depth concentration

testate amoebae – ✓ ✓ ✓ – – ✓ diatoms ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ – ✓ ostracods ✓ ✓ – ✓ ✓ ✓ – foraminifera – ✓ – – – ✓ – cladocerans – ✓ – ✓ – – ✓ chironomid larvae ✓ – – ✓ – – –

Fig 27 Test of the foraminiferan Globigeriina bulloides (380mm spiral view). Foraminifera occur in marine and brackish water sediments and can provide information on the relationship of coastal sites to their contemporary shoreline, besides giving data on salinity levels, current velocities and marine flooding events (© Department of Earth Sciences, UCL, http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/ micropal/welcome.html).

Fig 28 Burnham-on-Sea, Severn Estuary showing two peat shelves exposed after a gale. Sampling for both microfossils (such as pollen and foraminifera) and for plant macrofossils Fig 26 The diatom Brachysira serians showing four together in sets of two. This species can below, at and above the stratigraphic boundary showed that changes occurred to the be used to help establish degree of acidification (photo by E Forster). environment before it was evident from the stratigraphy (Druce 1998) (photo by V Straker).

Diatoms mineral levels, acidity and degree of in conjunction with diatoms, but this is Diatoms are freshwater and marine algae oxygenation, and whether the site was not always possible . Foraminifera are that have a resilient, silica frustule or periodically dried out . Archaeologists use particularly useful for the information chamber consisting of two valves . They diatoms to address a range of questions they can provide concerning marine are typically c 5–80mm in size, though they (Juggins and Cameron 1999) (Table 5) . habitats such as levels and type of salt can be larger . The silica frustules survive They are perhaps most valuable in the marsh present . well in most depositional environments investigation of coastal and estuarine sites, Oxygen isotope ratios obtained from and can usually be identified to species providing data on the extent of marine foraminiferal tests in muds from deep level owing to their distinctive shapes influence and phases of sea-level change . ocean cores have provided data on global and surface sculpturing (Fig 26) . Shape This is demonstrated by work on the climate change (Wilson et al 2000) . and size are also distinguishing factors, central London Thames (Cameron in Sidell but size ranges may be large . There are et al 2000) and on the North Somerset thousands of species of diatoms and Levels (Cameron and Dobinson 2000) . reference material is not widely available, so most identifications are carried out with Foraminifera the use of keys featuring line drawings or Foraminifera are marine protists found in photographs (eg Hartley 1996: Krammer habitats ranging from salt marshes to the and Lange-Bertalot 1991) . Diatoms are deep oceans . They secrete a shell called usually counted using phase contrast and a test, which is the part that survives . oil immersion at ×1000 magnification . This is composed of organic matter and Species are habitat-specific and minerals such as calcite or aragonite, or is Fig 29 The ostracod Limnocythernia sanctipatricii (female provide indications of water quality agglutinated from a mixture of materials . left valve, length 850mm). This is a freshwater species associated with oxygen rich, nutrient-poor, cold, deep lakes and depositional environment, such as Foraminifera survive best in non-acidic (© Department of Earth Sciences, UCL, http://www.ucl. temperature and salinity, nutrient and conditions . Ideally they should be analysed ac.uk/GeolSci/micropal/welcome.html).

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 24 30/6/11 10:26:43 More locally, the known habitat reconstruction (eg coastal evolution, tolerances, and are particularly sensitive requirements of foraminifera can be used relative sea-level changes, general water to water availability (often expressed as to reconstruct salinity changes . They resource issues) . ‘percentage moisture content’ or ‘depth are therefore particularly valuable at Ostracods studies from the Roman to water-table’), but also respond to other coastal sites, where changes in freshwater fortress ditch in Exeter, Devon, suggested variables, including pH and nutrient status and marine influence are important . periods of standing water, but with (Tolonen et al 1994) . Some research has also Foraminifera have been used in studies somewhat polluted conditions, resulting focussed on the potential of testate amoebae attempting to identify coastal reclamation, in a restricted fauna (E Robinson 1984) . as sea-level indicators (Blundell and Barber as, for example, at middle Saxon Fenland They were also used for environmental 2005; Mauquoy and Barber 1999) . sites (Murphy 2000), and in the Severn reconstruction in the Fenland Management Interpretive studies involve measuring Estuary Levels (Haslett et al 2000) Project (Godwin in Crowson et al 2000) . the environmental variables of modern (Fig 28) . At a broader scale the study Cladocerans, a group of small testate amoebae habitats, from which a of foraminifera has made an important freshwater crustaceans, are often found mathematical model (‘training set’) is contribution towards the understanding of on archaeological sites and are also created . This data is then used to derive sea-level change (Haslett et al 1997) . occasionally used in reconstruction of a ‘transfer function’ – a model used to freshwater environments . They are useful quantitatively reconstruct a specified Ostracods and cladocerans in determining whether contexts held water palaeo-variable, based on the assemblages Ostracods are small (normally <2mm), (Kenward 2009; Polcyn 1996) . of subfossil testate amoebae preserved bivalve crustaceans with calcareous within the stratigraphy (Charman et al shells that grow by ecdysis – shedding Testate amoebae 2007; Woodland et al 1998;) . For peatlands, their old shell and secreting a new one Testate amoebae are microscopic (15– the most commonly reconstructed variable approximately twice the size . Ostracods 300mm) protists (Protozoa: Rhizopoda) is one of moisture availability and this can inhabit nearly all types of aquatic composed of a single cell protected by an sometimes be used to infer palaeoclimatic environment from freshwater to marine . outer shell or ‘test’ . The tests are either conditions too . The robustness of their shells means that self-made (secreted smooth or plated forms) In an archaeological context, they survive in almost any non-acidic, or formed from particles incorporated from reconstructed moisture values can be water-lain deposit . Like foraminifera and the substrate (eg diatoms, pollen or sand used to investigate the effect of hydrology molluscs, the shells of most species have grains) . The tests are readily preserved in on human activities and vice versa . For unique shapes and sculpturings, making organic sediments and are identifiable to example, palaeomoisture records are them readily identifiable (Fig 29) . It is species or species-group level (Fig 30) . useful for exploring causes of changes also possible to distinguish between male The preparation technique used for in settlement patterns, such as site and female individuals within a species . studying testate amoebae is relatively simple, abandonment owing to waterlogging Griffiths (Griffithset al 1993), provides a particularly when compared with other (Amesbury et al 2008) . useful summary of sampling, preparation microfossil methods (Charman et al 2000) . and identification techniques . Testate amoebae inhabit wet Isotopes Because of their size and the fact that environments and commonly live in the The use of isotope analysis for the samples of only 10–50g are required for water film around soil particles . Many reconstruction of past human diets (Lee- analysis, ostracod analyses reveal subtle species have specific environmental Thorp 2008) and population movement changes in environments, which might otherwise have gone unrecorded . However, the ecology of ostracod species is, in general, less well understood than that of molluscs and therefore, when possible, an integrated approach using these two groups should be employed . Many physical and chemical factors influence the distribution of ostracod species, including salinity, temperature, water depth, pH, oxygen concentration, substrate and food supply (Griffiths and Holmes 2000) . Application of this knowledge to Holocene and Pleistocene fossil faunal records has enabled researchers to reconstruct a broad range of palaeoenvironments (eg E Robinson and Straker 2004) . Ostracod analysis should be considered as a useful technique to complement mollusc, diatom and foraminiferan analyses where water-lain deposits are identified during archaeological investigations

(eg ditches, moats, fishponds), or as Fig 30 The testate amoeba Quadrulella symmetrica. This species is an indicator of wet and nutrient enriched conditions part of general palaeoenvironmental (photo by Z Hazell).

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 25 30/6/11 10:26:43 (Montgomery et al 2007) is becoming Schoeninger 1991) . Values forδ 15N and hence geographical area, while oxygen increasingly prevalent . Chemical elements increase systematically up a food chain typically reflects the isotopic composition often come in different forms, or isotopes . and therefore provide an indicator of of drinking water . By combining oxygen Some of these are stable while others, like plant versus animal protein in the diet, isotope data on climate zones with radiocarbon (14C), are unstable and decay but they cannot distinguish between meat strontium isotope data it is possible to with time . Quantification of isotopes is and dairy products from the same animals place constraints on the geographical usually expressed as a ratio and is often (Ambrose 1993) . Studies investigate the origins of individuals and reconstruct expressed as a delta (δ) value in compari- relative proportions of plant and animal journeys they made during their lifetimes son to an international standard such as proteins, and potential sources of food (Evans et al 2006) . Teeth are particularly atmospheric nitrogen (Sealy 2005) . Ratios such as C3 (most terrestrial species) important, not only because the enamel of some pairs of stable isotopes relate to or C4 plants (some tropical and desert preserves an isotopic ‘signature’ typical of factors such as ambient temperature, local plants, including maize), marine or coastal the place of residence in childhood, but geology, drinking water or food . Fraction- resources . These may vary according also because enamel is for the most part ation of isotopes occurs through processes to sex, age and status (Richards et al resistant to post-depositional decay . Bone such as photosynthesis (carbon), evapora- 1998) . Investigations should include tissues continually remodel throughout tion (oxygen) and ingestion (strontium, control samples in order to provide local life and may reflect an average of isotopes oxygen, carbon and nitrogen) . standards for comparison with the human relating to the last years of life . This enables Living tissues such as bones, seeds and isotope ratios . Controls should include a comparison to be made between where wood contain carbon and thus can provide animals with known diets such as ‘pure’ an individual was born (teeth) and where samples for radiocarbon dating . The basis herbivores and ‘pure’ carnivores . they spent the end of their life (bones) for this is that when an organism is alive Once incorporated into an organism’s (Evans et al 2006; Schroeder et al 2009) . it absorbs carbon from the atmosphere tissues, stable isotope ratios become fixed, It is easier to demonstrate that a person is, and from food and water, but no further indicating conditions that existed when the or is not indigenous, to where their skeletal carbon is absorbed after death . The ratio individual was alive or when those particu- remains are found, than to demonstrate of unstable carbon fourteen (14C) to stable lar tissues formed . The most stable and where they came from (if they are not carbon twelve (12C) in the deceased organ- reliable materials used for analysis are bone local) . This is because geological strata ism changes over time as the 14C decays, collagen, tooth enamel and dentine . Bone can be widespread, and climatic zones can and because the rate at which 14C decays apatite can be used but there is a large risk also be rather large . The other isotopes are is known, the ratio of 14C to 12 C provides of post-depositional changes due to the usually brought into a study at a later stage a measure of the length of time since the fluid nature of the apatite structure, and (if necessary) to try to narrow down the organism died . Burned remains can be consequently a risk of misinterpretation of range of geographical possibilities . used since the carbon isotope ratios are not the signatures . Tooth enamel and dentine Oxygen isotopes can be used on altered by heat, but care must be taken if are far less soluble than bone apatite and their own in palaeoclimatic studies using animals ingested marine resources . the isotopic composition changes little animal remains such as bones, shell and Seas are repositories of ancient through life or during deposition (Mays microfossils . Ratios of oxygen isotopes carbon (often referred to as the ‘marine 2000) . Work with plant tissues is still (16O and 18O) in bone or shell relate to the reservoir’) and marine organisms such under review . Burning does affect the ratio water they ingest and to the mean annual as fish incorporate this into their bodies . between carbon and nitrogen in tissues . temperature . Early oxygen isotope stud- Radiocarbon ratios from individuals Therefore studies can be undertaken on ies investigated long-term climate changes who have eaten a significant proportion inhumations and unburnt animal bones recorded in the shells of minute marine or- of marine-based foods will be biased but not on cremated bone . ganisms found in deep-sea sediments or in by this old carbon and compensatory The use of carbon and nitrogen ice cores, as frozen water contains oxygen . algorithms need to be applied . The routine stable isotope ratios in bone collagen to In the oceans, evaporation of water prefer- measurement of carbon and nitrogen stable reconstruct human diet has been used, entially removes the lighter isotope of oxy- isotope ratios when dating human bone for example, for individuals dating from gen (16O) . The isotopic signature of oxygen should be undertaken to quantify potential the Upper Palaeolithic (Richards et al found in shells of sea creatures therefore offsets due to diet (Bayliss et al 2004) . 2000), Iron Age (Jay and Richards 2006), reflects the temperature conditions at the The advantage of carbon and nitrogen and Anglo-Saxon–post-medieval periods time of tissue formation . Carbonate-rich stable isotope analysis for human dietary (Müldner and Richards 2007) . It has also lake sediments provide similar deposits, but studies is that it reflects the foods actually been applied to investigate the diet of usually cover shorter (mainly Holocene) consumed by individuals over the time animals in the medieval Royal menagerie at time spans . Oxygen studies are now being of tissue formation . Food chains can the Tower of London (O’Regan et al 2005) applied to skeletal tissues of terrestrial include several stages of fractionation and to the role of salt-marsh and coastal animals and are particularly relevant to (eg a plant photosynthesises sugar exploitation by farming communities climatic reconstructions for the Pleistocene using sunlight, a herbivore then eats (Britton et al 2008) . and early Holocene (R T Jones et al 2002; the plant, then a carnivore eats the Oxygen (18O and 16O) and strontium Stephan 2000) . herbivore) . Some organisms (such as (87Sr and 86Sr) isotopes (sometimes fish) can have very long food chains . with lead, sulphur or hydrogen) have Biomolecules Carbon ratios differ between foods from been studied less often than carbon and The development of highly sensitive certain environments such as plants with nitrogen, but their use is increasing . They analytical techniques has enabled small different photosynthetic pathways (C3 are used to investigate geographical origins quantities of biomolecules, preserved in and C4 plants) or between terrestrial and mobility of humans and animals . archaeological remains, to be extracted and and marine ecosystems (Schwarz and Strontium ratios are dependent on geology, characterised . Biomolecules include:

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 26 30/6/11 10:26:44 Geoarchaeology For more details see Geoarchaeology Guidelines (English Heritage 2007).

Geoarchaeological studies can significantly enhance archaeological interpretations by making it possible for archaeologists to determine the effects of earth surface processes on the evidence for human activity at various different scales, and by providing evidence on soil resources for food production . Thus, the aims of most geoarchaeological work are the understanding of both site formation processes and landscape changes . The focus can range from the microscopic examination of a junction between two contexts, to sediment logging or soil survey across a whole landscape (Cloutman 1988; K N Wilkinson et al 2000) . Geoarchaeology typically examines

Fig 31 Deep peat sections at Wells Road, Glastonbury: monolith and specialist samples being taken for biological analyses both soils and sediments, so the distinction (photo by R Brunning). between these two material types needs to be clear from the outset: l lipids (oils, waxes and fats); DNA encodes the genetic information l proteins (eg blood and milk); of an organism, so ancient DNA is 1 Soils are bodies of sediment or the upper l DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) . an important source of palaeogenetic part of solid rocks that have been altered information . It has been used to examine by surface processes such as weathering, Factors influencing the preservation human evolution, migration and the social and by bioturbation, including both root or decay of biomolecules in ancient organisation of past communities (Stone growth of plants and disturbance and materials are complex . The best 2008), to identify disease organisms digestion by animals . Buried soils are preservation conditions are stable, cool, (Donoghue 2008), and to investigate the generally only found beneath earthworks dry environments with a neutral pH . origins and evolution of domesticated or peat, or under rapidly accumulating Lipids tend to survive best, followed animals and plants (Larson et al 2007, sediments such as alluvium, where they by proteins and then DNA . Li et al 2010) . represent former ground surfaces . In Lipids and proteins can be absorbed Before undertaking any work on some circumstances, they can provide into the fabric of an object, and lipid biomolecules it is necessary to take information about past environments residues are thus often used in the specialist advice . While protocols are being and land use, while in others, they help characterisation of organic matter developed (eg for lipid analysis Heron in understanding the overlying remains; associated with artefacts such as pottery et al 2005) researchers need to consider for example, was the area of a barrow de- vessels . Lipids and proteins therefore potential contamination, the likelihood of turfed before construction? provide information about food preservation of suitable compounds and products (such as plant oils and waxes, the potential contribution of the proposed 2 Sediment is a broader term covering and animal fats) and raw commodities study to archaeological knowledge . all material that has been transported used in antiquity . Lipids in anthropogenic It should be emphasised that, for by one or more processes, for example soils, sediments, human, animal and skeletal remains, no bone samples for flooding, colluviation and wind . People plant remains can also be analysed biomolecular work should be taken before are also agents of deposition through (Copley et al 2003; Evershed et al 2001; the remains in question have been recorded such activities as terracing, building Stern et al 2003) . by an osteologist . In particular, and earthworks or levelling uneven surfaces . The identification of blood proteins contrary to popular belief, problems with Studying soils and sediments can on stone artefacts is a controversial contamination do not dictate removal of also inform archaeologists on other issue in archaeology, with different bone for DNA analysis as soon as remains processes that modify stratigraphy, such techniques producing inconsistent are uncovered in the field . Although as erosion, burning and cultivation . Such results, or results that conflict with other handling will contaminate bone surfaces studies are thus integral to both the archaeological evidence (Downs and with modern DNA, most of those who formation and the alteration of the site, Lowenstein 1995; Fiedel 1996) . While work with DNA circumvent this problem underpinning stratigraphic interpretation protein radioimmunoassay techniques are in the laboratory, principally by taking in any archaeological project . improving they have yet to be applied to samples from the internal parts of bones ancient blood residues (Reuter et al 2006) . or, more especially, teeth . This enables Stratigraphic and landscape studies Work on casein, a milk protein, has been successful studies to be made on specimens Examination of stratified deposits on site more successful . It has been possible to that have been handled (see section 4 is the single most important method for detect the presence of milk residues in Common types of environmental evidence, studying site formation processes, with pottery (Craig et al 2000) . subsection Human remains) . laboratory techniques only necessary

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 27 30/6/11 10:26:47 in some cases . A full knowledge of of phosphates in the soil means that that the method is only really effective sedimentation processes, weathering current levels can reflect the sum of past when dealing with clear questions refined effects, soil formation, bioturbation and biological and fertiliser inputs to the from the larger-scale stratigraphic problems taphonomy has to be interwoven with the soil system and lateral redistribution (French and Whitelaw 1999) . available cultural information to provide an caused by deposition of human or animal integrated understanding of how the site wastes . Hotspots can be located by Mineralogy formed . This understanding also forms the grid surveys and inferences can be made The sand and silt fractions of soils and basis for sampling designs involving other by comparing archaeological fills with sediments are made up of a number of geoarchaeological and palaeoenvironmental blank areas . different minerals, dominated, in much techniques . It is essential, therefore, that A number of laboratory analyses can of the British Isles, by quartz and calcium there is close agreement between the be applied to soil and sediment samples carbonate, but also including uncommon geoarchaeologist and the site director on to answer questions relating to stratigraphic minerals such as zircon and tourmaline, the detail of interpretation . or taphonomic processes (Reynolds which are resistant to weathering . Fully understanding site formation and Catt 1987) . The most common These rarer minerals can be identified, processes and soil resources should involve examples are determination of calcium depending on size and concentration, studying the relationship between a site carbonate, pH and percentage organic by heavy mineral analysis or by X-ray and its surrounding landscape . How, for carbon content . Recently, biochemical diffraction . Some might be significant to example, is sediment being delivered to residues of biological materials in the site development insofar as the differences an alluvial site, and what pattern does soil have also received attention (Simpson can reflect different sediment sources (Catt this show over time? Various forms of et al 1999a), but this last approach is still 1999) . Whole rock fragments can also be geomorphological survey, soil survey and at the research stage . identified, which can also assist in sediment sedimentary mapping have been valuable sourcing work . adjuncts to site studies in some cases Soil micromorphology As well as these primary minerals, sec- (Howard et al 2001) . Geoarchaeology This is the term applied to the microscopy ondary minerals (those formed in situ) and might also involve studying the resources of whole blocks of soil or stratified biominerals (those produced by organisms) that would have been available to people deposits . Various methodologies make are starting to play a part in the inter- in the past . For example, where were the possible detailed examination of pretation of stratigraphic and taphonomic best agricultural soils in relation to the site accumulations, rearrangements, contacts issues at some sites (Canti 2000) . (Barker and Webley 1978) and what would and residual materials in what amounts people have been able to grow? to a microscopic analogy for normal Particle size analysis stratigraphic interpretation (Davidson and Particle size analysis is a technique Chemical and physical analyses Simpson 2001; Milek 1997) . The most that produces quantitative data on the The survey of various topsoil chemical common of these methods is the thin proportions of different grain sizes in a soil or characteristics over all or part of section viewed in two forms of polarised sediment, where ‘finger-texturing’ only gives an excavation is a fairly widespread light – a system that provides an intact approximations . The more exact values are geoarchaeological technique . Chemical view of the microstratigraphy with not needed for the majority of interpretative analysis can be used to provide quick recognition of many soil constituents, uses . Particle size analysis is valuable, multi-element maps of sites for prospection including fragments and residues of however, where processes that changed purposes (James 1999), while other materials resulting from or influenced the soil texture are suspected to have analyses concentrate on particular by human activity . The technique offers occurred, where sediments have been used groupings, such as heavy metals in potential for examination of detailed for construction (Davidson 1973), or where alluvium near centres of mining (Hudson- issues, such as individual depositional sediment sourcing affects our understanding Edwards et al 1996) . The most popular events (Matthews et al 1997) and use of of formation process (Canti 1999) . Particle chemical surveys are those measuring domestic space (Simpson et al 1999b) . size analysis also provides a definitive record phosphate levels . The relative immobility The necessarily small sample size means for future comparative purposes .

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 28 30/6/11 10:26:47 Case Study 1 Consequences of not assessing all the samples taken for

the recovery of charred plant remains Jacqui Huntley

The following case study demonstrates the 20 18 assess importance of assessing all of the samples 16 analysis taken and the different interpretation 14 offered when only about a quarter, in this 12 10 case, was initially assessed . 8 Excavations along the Walshford to 6 Dishforth section of the A1 in North Number of samples 4 2 Yorkshire were undertaken by Northern 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 500

Archaeological Associates in advance of 1000 Number of items per sample – note disjunct scale road widening . A series of pits, mostly Fig CS1.1 Comparison of samples chosen for assessment with the total dataset. shallow and irregular, was present over much of the area excavated and contained of Neolithic material for the north of occasional cereal grain or chaff fragments considerable quantities of Neolithic England . The case, therefore, was made to with no indication that storage of grain was pottery with various types recorded . The process all of the remaining material . a distinct possibility for the site as a whole site lies quite close to the major henges at Full processing and analysis of all 110 (Table CS1 .1) . The conclusion could have Thornborough: 110 samples were collected samples were therefore undertaken and this been that emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum) from these pits, ranging in volume from 6 produced some rich assemblages that were and barley were in use on the site, but to 28 litres . It was known from the outset not recognised (ie visible) during excavation . that cereal cultivation was only a minor that full analysis would be undertaken . One of these contained more than a component of the economy . The excavators chose 30 samples for thousand grains of barley (Hordeum sp .) and The situation with regard to hazel initial assessment . Consultation with the was interpreted as a storage pit . Discussion nutshell and apple remains is slightly author made it possible to estimate the of spatial patterning of the remains was also different in that the one pit was clearly full approximate time and cost for full analysis . possible . This suggested that the cereals were of something when excavated and therefore It became clear that cereal grains, both more common in the central area and that it was chosen for assessment . Four other barley (Hordeum sp .) and wheat (Triticum wild fruits and, especially tubers, were more samples contained large numbers of sp .), were present in six of them . Wild evident in the northern end . Radiocarbon one or other of these remains, but the fruits, nuts and tubers were more common, dating of material was recommended to see majority produced up to 10 fragments, being recorded as present in 21 samples, if this reflected different periods of activity . thus probably representing nothing more although, with one exception, not in huge In terms of effectiveness, the choice of than casual disposal . Onion couch tubers numbers . The exception had been selected samples for assessment moderately reflected (Arrhenatherum elatius), interestingly, by the excavators because it had obvious the range of concentrations present in the were principally recovered from the and abundant charred material in it – later total dataset, although, importantly, this initial assessment samples with only one determined as apple or pear (Malus/Pyrus) choice missed some of the samples with occurrence in the ‘only analysed’ group . pips and fruit, and hazel (Corylus) nutshell . the richest assemblages (Fig CS1 .1) . This Other fruit remains were scattered across The other samples were typical ‘brown silty selectiveness was not an issue in the current the samples in low numbers – 31 items in fills with occasional flecks of charcoal’, and situation, as it was known that full analysis total . Spatial patterning could not have had been selected from across the total would go ahead . It would, however, have been discussed in this case . area of excavation . Even at this stage, it been more problematic if this had not been The other taxa, from weeds and was clear that the charred plant remains the case, as the overall interpretation would grassland plants predominantly, were constituted a significant assemblage have been that a few samples contained the considerably more common in the ‘only analysed’ samples, although never Table CS1.1 Full data counts from the analysis phase for samples with cereal remains. Samples especially abundant (total = 98) . They are split into those that were initially assessed then analysed and those that were just analysed. certainly gave some indication of local Initial assessment was done on a subjective abundance scale for each type of charred plant remain. habitats, which would have been impossible from the assessment samples, from which Assessed then analysed samples only three items were present (one Bromus context 6205 6207 6618 6650 6655 6667 6634 6634 6634 6634 and two indeterminate) . sample – – – – – – 1 4 5 6 Thus for this site, where hindsight is Cerealia indeterminate 2 3 – 1 – – – – – – Hordeum undiff – – 1 1 1 1 – – 1 1 possible, it is clear that only a small part of Trititicum dicoccum 1 – – – 1 5 3 4 – – the picture emerged when about a quarter Triticum sp. – 8 – – – 8 – – – – of the samples taken were assessed . In Triticum sp. spikelet fork – – – – – – 1 – – – addition, the recommendations resulting Analysed samples from this assessment may well have been for no further work . The case for analysis would context 6535 6582 6598 6604 6610 6624 6661 6750 6771 6776 9119 9130 Cerealia indeterminate – 4 1 – – – 1 1 – – 5 1 have been difficult to justify . This would Hordeum hulled and naked – – – – – – – – – >1000 – – have resulted in almost three quarters of Hordeum undiff – – – – – – – – 1 2 – the samples being discarded without any Triticum dicoccum 1 – – 1 – – – – – ca.200 4 – Triticum dicoccum spikelet fork – – – – – – – – – 7 – – appraisal, which begs the question, why had Triticum sp. spikelet fork – – – – – 9 6 – – – – – they been collected in the first place .

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 29 30/6/11 10:26:47 Case Study 2 Fit for purpose: a fishy tale from Chester that matches

aims, methods and site Sue Stallibrass

The site and background Method Roman results Fish bone densities were A prime commercial location in Chester Samples were processed through a flotation variable: five (n = 11) samples produced city centre, in the heart of the Roman machine on site, using a 1mm mesh to fish bones . One yielded 56 bones from 72 legionary fortress a medieval town . catch the residues .Volumes ranged from litres of processed sediment, while another Much of Chester’s historic core was 5 to 100 litres, the smaller samples being sample of 72 litres and five very small redeveloped after World War II with little constrained by the amount of sediment in samples (8–18 litres) produced no fish bone regard to environmental archaeology . the context . Both flots and residues were at all (Fig CS2 .1) . The others (24–72 litres) This site was one of the few remaining examined for fish bone . produced less than 10 each . Identified areas with intact Roman, medieval and species were eel, herring, flatfishes, post-medieval deposits, and material Results salmon, sea bass, mullet and cf. Spanish preservation was predicted to be good . The processed samples produced forty mackerel, suggesting the exploitation of times more identifiable fish bones (sieved local estuarine and inshore waters, plus National, regional and local research N = 3638) than the whole of the rest of the some Mediterranean products . Thecf. questions site put together (hand-recovered N = 90) . Spanish mackerel bones are vertebrae from The UK has little evidence for the Twice as many types of fish were identified a restricted portion of the spine, and almost exploitation of fish during the Roman (23 species from sieved material and 11 certainly arrived at Chester as processed, period, possibly owing to poor recovery from hand-recovered material) (Table salted fish, packed in an amphora imported methods, as relatively few Roman deposits CS2 .1) . from the Mediterranean . have been sieved . Chester is well placed to exploit fish from the river and its estuary, Table CS2.1 Identified specimens of fish for all periods at 25 Bridge Street, Chester; their and from inshore and deep-sea waters . As a absolute numbers and relative proportions regional administrative and military centre it could also have received long-distance taxa hand-recovered sieved through 1mm number of species/types: 11 number of species/types: 23 trade in fish products from elsewhere in the Roman Empire . Did people in Roman number of identified bones number of identified bones Chester exploit local habitats for fish and/or did they import processed products? Barrett herring 3 3% 876 24% et al (2004) have highlighted the UK-wide salmon / trout 5 6% 24 <1% smelt – – 180 5% increased exploitation of larger, offshore fish eel 1 1% 937 26% in the medieval period, but evidence often cod 20 22% 15 <1% comes from size-biased, hand-recovered other cod family 11 12% 74 2% assemblages . Did Chester see a similar rise small flatfish 40 44% 1252 34% in the exploitation of deep-sea fish and, if others 10 11% 280 8% total identified fish bones 90 3638 so, did these supplement or replace any earlier patterns of fish exploitation?

Evaluation objectives A detailed brief was prepared by Chester’s archaeological curators . Only restricted areas of the development were to go deep enough to destroy Roman levels . Objectives included an assessment of preservation conditions, the presence or absence of fish bones and their potential to address the research questions . Trial trenching included deep areas and a targeted sampling strategy .

Evaluation results Processed samples proved that fish bones did survive, in all phases, in various states of preservation .

Objectives of the excavation Well-stratified deposits were to be sampled for the recovery of (inter alia) fish bones . The same strategy and methodology was to be used throughout the excavation, so that

valid comparisons could be made between Fig CS2.1 Some of the 56 fish bones recovered from a 72 litre Roman sediment sample at 25 Bridge Street, Chester contexts and phases . (photo by Ian Smith, Chester Archaeology).

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 30 30/6/11 10:26:49 Post-medieval results Fig CS2 .2 Were the aims and objectives met by The consistent and systematic strategy was compares the identified fish bones from the sampling strategy? Yes . Questions at crucial for inter-period comparisons . sieved samples from the Roman and early the national, regional and local level could post-medieval periods (the latter mostly be addressed using the evidence recovered from 16th-century cess pits) . by using this sampling strategy . Sources The absence of mullet and cf . Spanish Barrett, J H, Locker, A M and Roberts, C M 2004 ‘Dark Age Economics revisited: the English fish bone mackerel are notable in the later collection Was the sampling strategy fit for evidence AD 600–1600’ .Antiquity 78, 618–36] and cannot be ascribed to sample size (n = purpose? Yes . Processed samples were Jacques, D, Hall, A, Kenward, H, and Carrott, J 2008 69 for the Roman period; n = 1551 for the essential at evaluation stage (to assess ‘Plant, invertebrate and fish remains’,in Garner, post-medieval period) . While large sea fish the site’s potential) and at excavation D Excavations at Chester. 25 Bridge Street 2001: Two Thousand Years of Urban Life in Microcosm . Archaeol bones were recovered from most phases at stage (to recover relevant material) . Large Serv Excav and Survey Rep 14 . Chester: Chester City Chester from the medieval period onward samples were necessary to obtain adequate Council, 381 – 406 (not shown in Table CS2 .1), the smaller, quantities . Comprehensive sampling Garner, D 2008 Excavations at Chester. 25 Bridge Street more local, fish types still predominated in was required because the productivity of 2001: Two Thousand Years of Urban Life in Microcosm . Archaeol Serv Excav and Survey Rep 14) . Chester: the 16th century . different deposits could not be predicted . Chester City Council

60 Period I Period VI Roman N = 69 Roman late 15th - mid 17th C 50 Post-Medieval N = 1551 % %

40 mullet family + aget ?Spanish mackerel 52 0 30 flatfish (plaice, flounder, dab) 24 30 20 eel +/- conger 15 38 Percen herring +/- anchovy 5 21 10 salmon species 3 0 bass 2 0 0 cod family (cod, whiting, ling) 0 5 es + geron ng) bass

kerel smelt 0 3 kat smelt chovy others species turbot)

weever, rays/sharks/skates 0 3 , family an ks/sar mac

cod family others (cyprinids, weever, ds, ack flatish (plaice

flounder, dab) stickleback, turbot) 0 1 eel +/- c mullet salmon total number identified 69 1551 ?Spanish rays/sh (cod, whiting, li (cyprini herring +/- stickleb

Fig CS2.2 Relative frequencies of identified fish bones from Roman and early post-medieval sieved samples at 25 Bridge Street, Chester.

Case Study 3 Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction:

building better age-depth models John Meadows

Background 0 Fig CS3.1 An age-depth model for the Excavation in advance of a housing Easterton Brook pollen diagram (Wiltshire 2006; redrawn), obtained by linear regression development at Market Lavington, between the midpoints of posterior density Wiltshire exposed a Romano-British estimates of the dates of radiocarbon samples, building and a small early-mid Saxon 20 shown as triangles; the blue line provides an estimate of the date of sedimentation at settlement and burial ground . A palaeo- corresponding depths, but no guide to the environmental sequence, obtained from uncertainty in this date. the Easterton Brook palaeochannel, start end midpt depth a peat and silt filled watercourse next 40 95% 95% 95% (cm)

to the site, provides a detailed record of depth (cm) @OxA-2997 416 632 524 81 agricultural activities and human impact @OxA-6346 550 670 610 71 on local vegetation during these periods . @OxA-6345 581 760 671 61 The pollen sequence was dated using 60 @OxA-6344 652 858 755 53 10 AMS radiocarbon measurements of @OxA-6343 773 960 867 39 plant macrofossils . The results showed @OxA-6342 812 988 900 34 @OxA-6341 889 1018 953 31 age increasing with depth, and a Bayesian @OxA-6340 904 1040 972 25 80 chronological model was built, in which @OxA-6339 954 1150 1052 21 the calibrated radiocarbon dates were @OxA-2996 1008 1218 1113 18.5 400 600 800 1000 1200 constrained by the stratigraphic sequence . 1226 0 calendar date AD An age versus depth model was then created, by linear regression between

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 31 30/6/11 10:26:49 the sample depths and the midpoints of the v4 includes two models: a uniform (U_ poor overall agreement (Amodel<60) in model’s posterior density estimates of the Sequence) model that assumes a constant U_Sequence, and also in P_Sequence . This sample dates (Fig CS3 .1) . deposition rate and a random (P_Sequence) was not apparent in the original model model that takes into account some (Wiltshire 2006, fig 57), which considers Research questions variation in the rate of deposition (Bronk only the stratigraphic sequence, not the Age versus depth models are used to Ramsey 2008) . vertical spacing of samples .

construct a chronology for palaeoenviron- Both models give an index of agreement, A U_Sequence model (Amodel = 66 .7;

mental sequences from off-site sediments, Amodel, which indicates how well the Fig CS3 .2), which excludes OxA-6343, such as peat . Traditionally, estimates for the radiocarbon dates agree with the ‘prior suggests that deposition ended c cal AD dates of changes in the palaeoenvironmental information’ in the age-depth model (ie 1080–1280 (95% probability; ML6 end, Fig record not directly dated have been achieved the vertical sequence and spacing between CS3 .2), or that the deposit was truncated by interpolating between dates of adjacent samples); poor agreement means that at this level . AP_Sequence model with radiocarbon samples, assuming that the either one or more radiocarbon dates is ‘boundaries’ (changes in the deposition sedimentation rate was constant between inconsistent with the sample’s date of rate) at the transitions from silty peat each pair of samples . Such an approach deposition, or that the sedimentary sequence to organic silt between 220mm and will produce point-estimates of the dates is more discontinuous than it appears . 250mm also has good overall agreement

of sedimentation throughout the sequence, (Amodel = 60 .3; Fig CS3 .3) . Both models but does not provide a measure of the Easterton Brook revisited produce posterior density estimates of the uncertainty in these dates . The Market Lavington radiocarbon data dates of important transitions in the can be reinterpreted using both P_Sequence pollen record, which in this case are very Recent developments and U_Sequence models . There are no similar (Fig CS3 . 4) . These estimates Various programs designed to build obvious ‘age reversals’, but one sample, can be compared directly to the dates more realistic age-depth models have OxA-6343, appears slightly too recent of archaeological events, to see whether been developed in recent years . OxCal for its depth, as its inclusion produces the latter are reflected in changes in the

Fig CS3.2 A deposition model for Easterton Brook, created using U_Sequence (Bronk Fig CS3.3 A deposition model for Easterton Brook, created using P_Sequence (Bronk Ramsey 2008), which assumes a constant rate of sedimentation; OxA-6343 has been omitted, Ramsey 2008; k=10cm-1); OxA-6343 has again been omitted. The format is the same as as it appears to be too recent to date sedimentation at 390mm. The blue band shows the that of Fig 3.2, but the addition of lithostratigraphic divisions at 220mm and 250mm is posterior density estimate (95% probability) within which sedimentation took place at the reflected in the blue, green and red bands, showing the posterior density estimate (95% corresponding level, according to the model. Black probability distributions are posterior probability) for sedimentation at corresponding levels. density estimates of the dates of radiocarbon samples and of events in the pollen record.

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 32 30/6/11 10:26:54 palaeoenvironmental record . An increase in cereal pollen from the later 7th century AD at Market Lavington can be linked to finds of lava quern fragments on the site . The dating of the top of the sequence made it possible to suggest that viticulture was continuous from c AD 900 to after the Norman Conquest .

Sources Blaauw, M, and Christen, J A 2005 ‘Radiocarbon peat chronologies and environmental change’ .Applied Statistics 54, 805–16

Bronk Ramsey, C 1995 ‘Radiocarbon calibration and analysis of stratigraphy: the OxCal program’ . Radiocarbon 37, 425–30

Bronk Ramsey, C 2008 ‘Deposition models for chronological records’ .Quatern Sci Rev 27, 42–60

Bronk Ramsey, C 2009 ‘Bayesian analysis of radiocarbon dates’ .Radiocarbon 51, 337–60

Gearey, B R, Marshall, P, and Hamilton, W D 2009 ‘Correlating archaeological and palaeoenvironmental records using a Bayesian approach: a case study from Sutton Common, South Yorkshire, England’ . J Archaeol Sci 36, 1477–87

Williams P, and Newman, R 2006 Market Lavington, Wiltshire, an Anglo-Saxon Cemetery and Settlement . Wessex Archaeol Rep 19 . Salisbury: Wessex Archaeology

Wiltshire, P E J 2006 ‘The Easterton Brook palaeochannel’, in Williams, P and Newman, R Market Lavington, Wiltshire, an Anglo-Saxon Cemetery and Settlement . Wessex Archaeol Rep19 . Salisbury: Wessex Fig CS3.4 Probability distributions for the dates of events in the pollen record at Easterton Brook, derived from the Archaeology, 118–37 models shown in Fig 3.2 (top) and Fig 3.3 (bottom).

Case Study 4 Sampling for charred plant remains: the importance of considering context type and the archaeological

period being investigated Gill Campbell

The size of sample needed to ensure the Table CS4.1 Concentration of charred recovery of sufficient numbers of plant plant remains in samples from southern remains for meaningful interpretation England, comprising results from the following counties: Kent, East Sussex, West is a subject of considerable importance Sussex, Surrey, Berkshire, Oxfordshire, from the point of view of science and for Hampshire and the Isle of Wight, Wiltshire, resource allocation . Dorset, Somerset, Devon, Cornwall and Table CS4 .1 shows the average and the Isles of Scilly range of number of items per litre in Concentration of charred plant remains in samples samples analysed for charred plant remains expressed as items per litre from sites of different other than charcoal in southern England, periods broken down by broad chronological period . It is based on research undertaken mean range average in 2001 . It is immediately apparent that Neolithic to Early Bronze Age 0.7 0.1–23 the concentration of plant remains in Middle Bronze Age 8.89 0.07–1751.6 Neolithic, Bronze Age and early medieval Iron Age 502.96 0.03–11580 contexts is very low . Roman 765.04 0.03–5475.2 Fig CS4.1 Sampling a primary deposit from the floor The high concentration of plant remains early medieval 8.95 0.1–51.27 medieval 73.07 0.03–756 of a burnt down corn-drying oven at Grateley South, reflected in the maximum of the ranges Hampshire (© Oxford University). given in Table CS4 .1 is largely attributable to deposits of pure burned grain or crop large deposits of grain, which are easily Using the figures given in Table CS4 .1, processing debris found as primary deposits, spotted during excavation, were also the where the mean average concentration of such as in corn drying ovens and deep pits only samples examined in the early days of charred plant remains is just under nine (Fig CS4 .1) . This is not typical of the kinds archaeobotany before sieving and sampling items per litre for Middle Bronze Age and of remains recovered from most sites . These programmes became established techniques . early medieval sites, a 40 litre sample will

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 33 30/6/11 10:26:56 recover between 200 and 360 items and Wiltshire and at Grange Road, Gosport, essential it is to sample the range of contexts a 60 litre sample between 300 and 540 Hampshire . Furthermore, assemblages at a site in order to address questions of items, assuming a even distribution of from postholes have provided evidence agricultural practice and economy . remains (see Fig 5) . About 400–540 items that contrasts with evidence derived from are needed to undertake statistical analysis other features . At Rowden, the postholes Sources of the remains, while 200 items might be provided the only evidence for the Campbell, G, Pelling, R and Straker, V forthcoming ‘A Review of macroscopic plant remains studies in sufficient to characterise an assemblage cultivation of wheat at the site, while at Weir Southern England’ . English Heritage Res Rep where the diversity is low . Thus, if the Bank Stud Farm, Bray, Berkshire, postholes Carruthers W J 1991 ‘The carbonised plant remains aim of the analysis is to understand the associated with a round house contained from Rowden’, in Woodward, P J ‘The South Dorset crop processing activities that are taking large numbers of flax seeds . There was Ridgeway Survey and Excavations 1977–84’ .Dorset Nat Hist Archaeol Soc Monogr 8, 106–11 place on site, samples of 50–60 litres will only a single seed recovered from the other be needed . Alternatively, if the aim of the features sampled at this site . Therefore, Clapham, A J 1995 ‘Plant remains’, in Barnes, I, Boisnier, W A, Cleal, R M J, Fitzpatrick, A P and project is to obtain an understanding of the while the taphonomy of material recovered Roberts, M R 1995 Early Settlement in Berkshire: crops used at a site during different periods from postholes makes interpretation Mesolithic–Roman Occupation Sites in the Thames and Kennet Valleys . Wessex Archaeol Rep6, 35–45 of occupation, then smaller samples of 40 difficult, it provides an important source of litres may suffice . evidence . Pits from settlements of Middle Evans, A M and Bowman, A 1968 ‘Appendix II: Report on the carbonised grains from Tollard Royal, Berwick There is some debate about whether Bronze Age date at Rowden, Dorset and Downs, Wiltshire’, in Wainwright, G J ‘The excavation concentrations of charred plant remains are Black Patch have also produced large of a Durotrigian farmstead near Tollard Royal in Cranborne Chase, Southern England’ .Proc Prehist Soc lower in northern England, where samples assemblages . However, at both these sites 34, 102–47 often recover very few plant remains, than the pits were located inside buildings . Hinton, P 1982 ‘Carbonised seeds’, in Drewitt, P ‘Later in southern England . However, the figures The fills of Iron Age storage pits have Bronze Age downland economy and excavations at given above do not take account of regional proved a rich source of material . For Black Patch, East Sussex’ .Proc Prehist Soc 48, 321–400; 382–90 variation and the nature of the archaeology example, a sample from a pit at Hascombe, encountered at different sites . Differences Surrey did not require flotation because Murphy, P A 1977 Early Agriculture and Environment on the Hampshire Chalklands: c 800BC–400AD . Unpub M in geology as well as the depth and type it consisted of almost pure charred plant Phil thesis, U Southampton of feature excavated, and the rate of burial remains, and produced more than 9,000 Letts, J B 1995 ‘Carbonised plant remains’, in Hall, will all contribute to the survival or loss of identifiable charred plant items per litre M and Ford, S ‘Archaeological excavations at Grange charred plant remains . of soil . The large assemblages recovered Road, Gosport’, Hampshire Fld Club Archaeol. Soc Monogr 50, 5–35; 30–1 Context type can have considerable from Iron Age pits in some areas might effect both on the types of plant remains have resulted in a tendency to concentrate Straker, V 2000 ‘Charred plant macrofossils’, in Lawson, A J (ed) Potterne 1982–5: Animal Husbandry in recovered and on the concentration and sampling efforts on these features, Prehistoric Wiltshire . Wessex Archaeol Rep17 ), 84–91 preservation of the material . In southern especially where funds and or time is Veen, M van der 1985 ‘Carbonised seeds, sample size England contexts associated with Bronze limited . However, the evidence recovered and on-site sampling’, in Fieller, N R J, Gilbertson, Age houses would appear to be especially from pits may be very different from D D, and Ralph, N G A (eds) Palaeoenvironmental Investigations: Research Design, Methods and Data important as a source of Middle and Late that recovered from other features . For Analysis . BAR, Int Ser258 , Oxford, 165–78 Bronze Age charred plant remains . At example, at Tollard Royal, Wiltshire the pits Vilsteren, V T van 1984 ‘The medieval village of some sites the postholes of these buildings produced mostly wheat, while the ‘granary’ Dommelen: a case study for the interpretation of have produced the greatest concentration postholes contained mainly barley (Evans charred plant remains from postholes’, in van Zeist , W and Casparie, W A (eds) Plants and Ancient Man . of material, as for example at Potterne, and Bowman 1968) . This emphasises how Rotterdam: A A Balkema, 227–36

Case Study 5 Romano-British cremation burials and related deposits at

Ryknield Street, Wall, Staffordshire Jacqueline I McKinley

Site mortuary features mostly associated with recovery to ensure the retrieval of all the Archaeological investigations undertaken the cremation rite . Owing to the acidic surviving archaeological components . by Oxford Wessex Archaeology in 2000–3 burial environment (free-draining sands The remains of intact or almost in advance of construction of the M6 Toll and gravels) no unburned bone survived; intact urned burials were lifted whole Road confirmed the position of Ryknield only the cremation-related deposits are for more detailed excavation under Street, long known to have run to the discussed here . laboratory conditions (Fig CS5 .1) . The east of the Roman town of Letocetum (the vessels were wrapped in crepe bandages present village of Wall) . The site straddled Methods and objectives (slightly elasticated and therefore flexible) the north–south road c 200m to the south The osteoarchaeologist visited the site and to support the urns during lifting and of its junction with the east–west orientated was in regular contact with the excavators . subsequent excavation of the fills . Watling Street . A small, multi-rite cemetery The excavation strategy generally followed Laboratory excavation was undertaken in was found to lie to either side of the standard methods with some minor 20mm spits, by post-excavation assistants, road . In addition to the 42 cremation adaptations to suit site-specific conditions . to enable details of the burial formation and 15 (possibly 21) inhumation graves All the cremation-related deposits were process to be analysed . It should be excavated, this included a variety of other fully excavated and subject to whole-earth noted that where carried out by the

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 34 30/6/11 10:26:56 identified (MNI 48) being allocated to at least a broad demographic group (73 .1% adult; 17 .3% immature) and 38 .7% of individuals were sexed (23% female; 13 .7% male – varying confidence levels) . These data made it possible to compare among the four temporal phases within the cemetery (indicating stability in population structure through time) and with other contemporaneous cemeteries . Few pathological lesions were recorded, but did include a healed rib fracture; such evidence for trauma is rarely found in archaeological cremated remains . Data pertaining to pyre technology and cremation rituals were recovered, enabling intra- and inter-site comparisons on treatment . There is some evidence for the rare preferential exclusion of skull elements from one intact grave; an unusually high proportion of the cremations appear to have included animal remains as pyre goods (recovered from 80% of urned burials), possibly a local variation; and Fig CS5.1 An urned burial being excavated in the laboratory (photo by Karla Graham). the spatial distribution of pits containing redeposited pyre debris in the western osteoarchaeologist, such excavation would in the publication report, together with half of the cemetery suggests the possible normally take the form of quadranted spits the specialist reports on each material location of the pyre sites/ ustrina adjacent accompanied by annotated scale drawings . type: cremated human and animal bone, to the road . Details of the burial formation In several cases grave cuts for urned burials artefacts, charcoal (pyre debris) and process could be deduced in some cases could not be distinguished because of small charred plant remains . where excavation in sufficient detail had grave size and the similarity between the fill been undertaken . The data demonstrated and the surrounding deposits . Where this Results that the vessels functioning as urns was the case, features had to be excavated Cremated bone was recovered from 168 were not used to full capacity, despite by first cutting a box section . contexts, which included the remains the undoubted presence of sufficient Where it was possible to distinguish the of 34 urned burials, 2 combination cremated bone to more than fill them . It remains of the burial (urned or unurned) burials (urned and unurned), 3 burials also showed that there was in general no from the subsequent grave backfill these of uncertain form, four redeposited ordered deposition (by skeletal element) of two contexts were recovered separately, burials, 5 deposits that may represent remains, which may indicate how the bone but in some cases disturbance and the remains of unurned burials with was recovered from the pyre site for burial truncation due to ploughing and machine redeposited pyre debris or just redeposited or suggest temporary storage in a different stripping meant that the two were visually pyre debris, and 15 formal or incidental receptacle before burial . indistinguishable . Some deposits were deposits of pyre debris . Interpretation recovered as single ‘samples’ and others in of deposit types relies on the combined halves or quadrants to provide information assessment of the data recovered during the Sources on the distribution of the cremated study of the cremated remains themselves, McKinley, J I 1998 ‘Archaeological manifestations of cremation’ .The Archaeologist 33, 18–20 bone, fuel ash (pyre debris) and other eg the condition of the bone and the age archaeological inclusions . As noted above, and sex of the individual, and the context McKinley, J I 2000 ‘Putting cremated human remains in context’, in Roskams, S (ed) Interpreting Stratigraphy: however, excavation in quadrants is the data particularly the levels of disturbance/ Site Evaluation, Recording Procedures and Stratigraphic advised procedure . truncation, the form of the deposit (eg Analysis . BAR Int Ser910 . Oxford, 135–9 All the fills were floated and then wet urned/unurned), and the distribution of McKinley, J I 2008 ‘Ryknield Street, Wall (Site 12)’, in sieved using a series of sieve sizes ranging the archaeological components (especially Powell, A B, Booth, P, Fitzpatrick, A P and Crockett, A D The Archaeology of the M6 Toll 2000–2003 . Oxford from 1mm to 10mm . The bone in the of the cremated bone) . Wessex Archaeol Monogr 2 . Salisbury: Wessex larger sieve fractions (10mm and 5mm) In general bone preservation at Ryknield Archaeology, 87–190 was sorted from the residues by post- Street was fairly good and, by maximising McKinley, J I forthcoming ‘ “How did it go?” . . . putting excavation assistants . The residues from the recovery of the archaeological components, the process back into cremation’, in Pearce, J (ed) Death As a Process. Oxford: Oxbow Monogr 1mm and 2mm fractions were retained for in most cases it was possible to deduce the scanning by the osteologist . deposit type with confidence, but a combi- McKinley, J I forthcoming ‘Cremation: excavation, analysis and interpretation of material from cremation- All the archaeological components nation of heavy disturbance and insufficient related contexts’, in Tarlow, S and Nilsson Stutz, L from each cremation-related deposit were detail on distribution in a few cases rendered (eds) Handbook on the Archaeology of Death and Burial . Oxford: Oxford U P, chapter 2 .3 recorded and analysed by the appropriate some deposits of uncertain form . specialist . A catalogue of the finds from The demographic data recovered McKinley, J I and Roberts, C A 1993 Excavation and Post-excavation Treatment of Cremated and Inhumed each mortuary-related feature was included was relatively detailed, with all those Human Remains . IfA Tech Pap13 . Reading

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 35 30/6/11 10:26:57 Case Study 6 Multidisciplinary sampling in the intertidal zone at Goldcliff

East, Gwent Levels, Severn Estuary Vanessa Straker

The potential of the Severn Estuary for archaeological research questions defined point to specific activity areas? What are research into Mesolithic environment in the project research design . Eight of the implications of this for the duration and archaeology was recognised during these are listed here: and nature of settlement? multi-period research at Goldcliff . This was followed by a NERC-funded research 1 Did hunter-gatherers burn woodland or To address these questions, palaeoenviron- project entitled ‘Mesolithic to Neolithic other vegetation in a coastal setting? mental analyses concentrated on pollen, Coastal Environmental Change 6500–3500 2 Did human activity and economy change plant macrofossils, charcoal, insects, and cal BC’ and associated excavation funded as the Holocene transgression progressed mammal, bird and fish bones, and included by Cadw . This research, with associated from fen woodland to reed swamp and a programme of radiocarbon dating . PhD projects, was led by Professor Martin then to saltmarsh and mudflats? An integrated sampling strategy Bell, Dr Petra Dark, Professor Stuart 3 What was the nature and economy of was designed to ensure appropriate Manning and Professor John Allen, with a Mesolithic activity at Goldcliff East? comparisons among the results of the team of specialists . 4 Is there evidence of seasonality palaeoenvironmental analyses . The The Goldcliff East sites lay around of occupation and environmental following sequences were sampled: the edge of a former bedrock island . disturbance? The project has shown the complexity 5 What were the main species of animals, l Site A, a buried land surface on the slope of the coastal environment used by later birds and fishes present and exploited, of Goldcliff island; Mesolithic groups . The forest surrounding as indicated by footprint, track and bone l Site B, associated with the lower the sites was replaced by a dynamic evidence? submerged forest; wetland comprising episodes of reed 6 What fishing techniques were employed l Site J, a concentration of Mesolithic swamp, fen woodland, and saltmarsh and in the Mesolithic? activity below the upper submerged mudflats, which were covered at high tide . 7 What was the contribution of plant forest; The sampling strategy was designed to materials to the Mesolithic diet? l Site D, ‘off-site’ contexts closely maximise the opportunity to address 12 8 Do artefact and ecofact distributions associated with Site B .

Fig CS6.1 Excavating, recording and taking large specialist samples from the block samples supported in wooden frames (photo by E Sacre).

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 36 30/6/11 10:26:58 These sites comprise an environmental of sediment, which were lifted intact and The specialist chapters and concluding transect of c 740m, running eastwards from subsampled off-site for excavation and summary for the Goldcliff East sites the dryland edge of Goldcliff island into recording, followed by water sieving . present detailed discussions of the data the surrounding wetland . Block-lifting was achieved by dividing each recovered . Many of the research questions There were also recording and 1m3 into 16 250mm3 blocks, which were were successfully addressed, but perhaps excavation of human and other animal collected in metal four-sided tins . These the most enigmatic issue remains that footprint and tracks at sites C and E . were wrapped on site and reassembled of season or frequency of occupation . Specialist chapters give detailed accounts within 1m3 wooden frames for excavation, In a wide-ranging discussion of the of all the studies undertaken, including the recording and wet sieving . Mesh sizes were multidisciplinary evidence used to address tree-ring and radiocarbon wiggle-match 2mm for residues and 500mm for flots . this issue, Bell concludes that long-term dating of the submerged forests . Plant macrofossils and charcoal were also sedentary occupation at Goldcliff East is Sampling the peats and silty clays recovered from these samples, as well as not supported by the evidence, and that was focussed on drawn sections where from monolith tins . shorter visits were made at various times the deposits sampled could clearly be Sampling in the intertidal zone, the of year, but predominantly in late summer related to the archaeological stratigraphy area only exposed between high and low and autumn . Footprint tracks show that (Fig CS 6 .1) . Samples for different tides, is challenging, as the sites may only the same area was visited at least annually . analyses were taken adjacent to each other . be exposed for a few daylight hours and Monolith tins were taken from vertical are covered with mud and water between sections and where possible the same exposures . Getting to the sites can be Sources monolith tin was used for extraction of treacherous and transport of sampling kit Bell, M, Caseldine, AE and Neumann, H 2000 (eds) Prehistoric Intertidal Archaeology in the Welsh Severn pollen, plant macrofossil and radiocarbon and samples is difficult . At Sites A and B, Estuary . CBA Res Rep120 . York: CBA samples . As larger samples are required it was possible to transport the samples Bell, M 2007 ‘The Mesolithic site at Goldcliff for insect analysis, these were taken to dry land using a quadbike and trailer; East: introduction to the site, the sequence and adjacent to the botanical samples . elsewhere in the estuary, however, where methodology’, in Bell, M Prehistoric Coastal Communities: the Mesolithic in Western Britain . CBA Res Fish bones were recovered from blocks the mud is deeper, this was not possible . Rep 149 . York: CBA, 19–35

Glossary any number of different types of sample, colluvium sediment transported by slope including flotation, coarse-sieved and processes agglutinated consisting of particles sediment samples coprolites mineral-preserved faeces cemented together crustaceans class of Arthropoda including alluvium waterlain sediment; not marine C3 plant a plant that produces crabs and water fleas with an outer shell or or estuarine phosphoglyceric acid, which contains cuticle analogue an equivalent organism or three carbon atoms, as the first step in environment – modern analogues are used photosynthesis . Most temperate plants are demography the numerical study of to interpret past situations or species C3 plants human populations anaerobic oxygen-depleted, the term C4 plant a plant that produces dendrochronology tree-ring dating anoxic is usually preferred oxyaloacetic acid, which contains desiccation extreme drying out (used to anoxic oxygen-depleted four carbon atoms, as the first step describe a form of preservation) apatite a mineral form of calcium in photosynthesis . C4 plants can diagenesis the changes that occur follow- phosphate . Hydroxylapatite forms the main photosynthesize at higher light levels and ing deposition of a sediment and its contents mineral component of bone lower carbon-dioxide levels than C3 plants . diatoms unicellular aquatic algae arachnids spiders, mites and various other Many desert plants and some tropical DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid, which eight-legged arthropods plants are C4 plants contains the genetic information of an aragonite one of the crystalline forms of calcareous containing or characteristic of organism calcium carbonate calcium carbonate Arthropoda phylum including calcined burned grey-white ecdysis moulting (in the case of approximately 80% of all animals, among calcite the most commonly occurring ostracods and other crustacea – shedding which are insects, spiders, centipedes and crystalline form of calcium carbonate their old shell and secreting a new one crabs chironomids non-biting midges approximately twice the size) chitin skeletal material found in certain ecology the study of the relationship of biogenic formed by living organisms invertebrates, especially arthropods; it is a plants and animals to each other and to biomolecules biological molecules such as polysaccharide, containing nitrogen and is their surroundings lipids, proteins and DNA also found in fungi and lichens exoskeleton skeleton covering outside of bioturbation soil or sediment disturbance cladocerans a group of freshwater the body, or in the skin caused by living organisms crustaceans; ephippia (‘egg cases’) of brown earth a soil type with a dark topsoil Daphnia spp, the water flea, are the most foraminifera mainly marine protozoa over a deep brown subsoil developed commonly encountered on archaeological with shells or tests; generally microscopic on well drained circumneutral parent sites fractionation a change in the ratio of two materials collagen fibrous protein, one of the key isotopes of a chemical element caused by bulk samples a non–preferred term for skeletal substances the preferential loss or retention of one

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 37 30/6/11 10:26:58 of them . Caused by a process such as metadata data about data eg resolution rendzina dark soil that develops below photosynthesis, ingestion and metabolism, of an image, file type, percentages derived grasslands in limestone or chalk areas or evaporation from original counts of items frustule diatom cell consisting of two valves microfossil biological remains that require silica an inert compound forming part a high power microscope for identification, or all of many minerals, such as quartz, gley a soil strongly affected by typically >100–200mm (eg pollen, diatoms) but deposited by some plants within their waterlogging micron a unit of measurement: tissues thousandths of a millimetre (μm) stable isotope an isotope that does not Holocene the present warm period that undergo radioactive decay began c 11,700 years ago nematode worms unsegmented worms, spheroidal carbonaceous particles (10,000 radiocarbon years) following the typically parasitic on plants or animals (SCPs) roughly spherical, >5mm, soot last glacial period particles produced from the incomplete ombrotrophic plant or substrate receiving combustion of fossil fuels . Used as an interstadial short warm phase within a all its nutrients and water from rain (rain indicator of industrialisation; SCPs can glacial period fed) also be used as a proxy dating tool invertebrate collective term for all ostracods subclass of crustaceans animals without backbones with a two-valved shell, generally a few taphonomy study of the routes and isotope one of two or more forms of the millimetres in length processes whereby material becomes part same element differing from each other in otoliths (ear stones) calcareous structures of the archaeological (fossil) record the number of neutrons present found in the inner ear of fish taxa (singular taxon) a named taxonomic group of any rank (eg order, genus, species) karst montane hard limestone landscapes peat deposit comprising mainly decayed or tephra fine, often microscopic, volcanic Kubiena box (or tin) sampling box used partially decayed vegetable matter ash for soil micromorphology, open-sided with pH a measure of acidity/alkalinity test type of shell (typically in foraminifera) lids that can be fitted to these sides phylum major group in the classification testate amoebae single-celled organisms of living things (amoebae) that are partially enclosed in lignin complex carbohydrate polymer phytoliths microscopic silica bodies external shells, or tests found in the cell walls of many plants, produced by many plants thorax the section behind the head in giving strength and forming up to 30% of podzol an acidic soil that forms on coarse insects bearing legs and wings the wood of trees parent materials in moist climates tufa a calcareous precipitated sediment lipid fat polarised light light vibrating in a single often found in springs, rivers and lakes loess wind-blown sediment, usually of silt plane polysaccharide complex carbohydrate of vertebrate animals that have a skull, machair fixed dune pasture/grassland of large, often fibrous molecules – important spinal column and skeleton of cartilage or shell sand structural material bone macrofossil small biological remains; a posterior density estimate a function vivianite hydrated iron phosphate; it term usually applied to plant parts such that describes the likelihood of a date produces a bright blue deposit, typically as seeds, nut shells, fruit stones and stem occurring at a particular point (time) in waterlogged anoxic conditions; darkens parts, but the term is also appropriate protists single-celled and multi-cellular rapidly upon oxidation to any remains visible to the naked eye . simple organisms Macroscopic remains is normally preferred puparia the cases in which some insects marl a precipitated sediment found in lake develop from larvae into adults bottoms pyrite iron sulphide mineral

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 38 30/6/11 10:26:59 Where to get advice North West Yorkshire and the Humber (Cheshire West and Chester, Cheshire (North Yorkshire, West Yorkshire, South The first point of contact should be East, Greater Manchester, Merseyside, Yorkshire, East Riding of Yorkshire, North your local English Heritage Regional Lancashire, Cumbria (excluding Hadrian’s Lincolnshire and North East Lincolnshire) Science Advisor . The Regional Science Wall: see North East) Dr Andy Hammon Advisors are available to provide Dr Sue Stallibrass English Heritage independent non-commercial advice English Heritage 37 Tanner Row on environmental archaeology and Canada House York other aspects of archaeological science . 3 Chepstow Street Y01 6WP They are based in the English Heritage Manchester tel direct line: 01904 601983 regional offices . M1 5FW mobile: 07747 486255 tel direct line: 0151 794 5046 tel Regional office: 01904 601901 East of England tel Regional office 0161 242 1400 andy .hammon@english-heritage .org .uk (Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Essex, sue .stallibrass@english-heritage .org .uk Hertfordshire, Norfolk, Suffolk) Dr Helen Chappell South East Advice can also be provided by the English Heritage (Kent, Surrey, Sussex (East and West), Environmental Studies Team, English Brooklands Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, Oxfordshire, Heritage, Fort Cumberland, Fort 24 Brooklands Avenue Hampshire, Isle of Wight) Cumberland Road, Eastney, Portsmouth Cambridge CB2 8BU Dr Dominique de Moulins PO4 9LD; telephone 02392 856704 tel direct line: 01223 582707 English Heritage Regional Office tel Regional office: 01223 582700 Eastgate Court Head of Environmental Studies; helen .chappell@english-heritage .org .uk 195–205 High Street Archaeobotany Guildford Gill Campbell: 02392 856780; East Midlands GU1 3EH gill .campbell@english-heritage .org .uk (Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Rutland, tel direct line: 01483 252000 Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire, mobile (preferred): 07810 630316 Palaeoecology Northamptonshire) tel Regional office: 01483 252000 Zoe Hazell: 02392 856781; Dr Jim Williams dominique .demoulins@english-heritage . zoe .hazell@english-heritage .org .uk English Heritage org .uk 44 Derngate Archaeobotany Northampton South West Ruth Pelling: 02392 856776; NN1 1UH (Cornwall, Isles of Scilly, Devon, Somerset, ruth .pelling@english-heritage .org .uk tel direct line: 01454 419228 Dorset, Wiltshire, Gloucestershire and mobile (preferred): 07801 213300 Unitary Authorities within; Bath and Geoarchaeology tel Regional office: 01604 735400 North East Somerset, Bristol, South Matthew Canti: 02392 856775; jim .williams@english-heritage .org .uk Gloucestershire, North Somerset) matt .canti@english-heritage .org .uk Vanessa Straker London English Heritage Zooarchaeology Dr Jen Heathcote 29 Queen Square Polydora Baker: 02392 856774; English Heritage Bristol polydora .baker@english-heritage .org .uk; 1 Waterhouse Square BS1 4ND Fay Worley: 02392 856789; 138–142 Holborn tel direct line: 0117 975 0689 fay .worley@english-heritage .org .uk London EC1N 2ST mobile: 07789 745054 tel Regional office: 020 7973 3735 tel . Regional office: 0117 975 0700 Human bones jen .heathcote@english-heritage .org .uk vanessa .straker@english-heritage .org .uk Simon Mays: 02392 856779; mobile: 07979 206699 simon .mays@english-heritage .org .uk West Midlands North East (Birmingham and surrounding (Northumberland, Durham (including unitary authorities, Herefordshire, former Cleveland), Tyne & Wear, all of Shropshire, Staffordshire, Warwickshire, Hadrian’s Wall) Worcestershire) Jacqui Huntley Lisa Moffett English Heritage English Heritage Bessie Surtees’ House The Axis, 41–44 Sandhill 10 Holiday Street Newcastle upon Tyne Birmingham NE1 3JF B1 1TG tel direct line: 0191 2691250 tel direct line: 0121 625 6875 mobile (preferred): 077134 00387 mobile: 07769 960022 tel Regional office: 0191 269 1200 tel Regional office: 0121 625 6820 jacqui .huntley@english-heritage .org .uk lisa .moffett@english-heritage .org .uk

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Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 46 30/6/11 10:27:00 Regional research frameworks Period research frameworks Regional reviews of environmental archaeology Regional research Frameworks comprising The following research frameworks have a resource assessment, research agenda been published at the time of going into English Heritage is undertaking, and research strategy (Olivier 1996) are press: either directly or through external an essential tool for setting aims and commissioning, a series of regional objectives for archaeological projects . They Champion, T C, Haselgrove, C, Armit, reviews covering the different give an overview of current knowledge I, Creighton, J and Gwilt, A 2001 types of environmental evidence and understanding with in each region Understanding the British Iron Age: An Agenda from archaeological sites and and identify priorities for future work . A for Action: A Report for the Iron Age Research palaeoenvironmental deposits (SHAPE number are now published and available on Seminar and the Council of the Prehistoric subprogramme 11172 .110 Supporting line . Please visit: http://www .algao .org .uk/ Society. Salisbury: Trust Wessex Archaeol Research Frameworks: National, Association/England/Regions/ResFwks .htm regional, local, diachronic and thematic [accessed October 2010] Gamble, C (ed) 1999 Research Frameworks frameworks) . for the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic of Britain The purpose of these reviews is to and Ireland . Salisbury: Prehist Soc determine the extent of our knowledge of the past as gained from the study of James, S and Millet, M, 2001 (eds) Britons biological remains, sediments and soils and Romans: Advancing an Archaeological in England . They seek to identify gaps in Agenda . York: CBA Res Rep125 our current understanding and highlight priorities and directions for future research Pettitt, P, Gamble, C and Last, J, 2008 at a local, regional and national level . Research and Conservation Framework for the As such the reviews provide essential British Palaeolithic . Prehist Soc and English research in support of the development of Heritage, http://www .english-heritage .org . regional and national research frameworks . uk/publications/research-and-conservation- Sixteen reviews have been produced to framework-for-british-palaeolithic/ date covering different biological remains [accessed March 2011] and geoarchaeology in southern England, northern England and the midland counties . They are published as English Heritage Research Department Reports and are available to download from the English Heritage website: http://www . english-heritage .org .uk/publications/ research-reports/ [accessed October 2010]

Environ Archaeol leaflet v4.indd 47 30/6/11 10:27:00 These guidelines are a revised and updated edition of guidelines published in 2002 .

Contributors This edition was written and compiled by Gill Campbell, Lisa Moffett, and Vanessa Straker with contributions by Polydora Baker, Duncan Brown, Greg Campbell, Matt Canti, Helen Chappell, Emily Forster, Zoë Hazell, Jacqui Huntley, Peter Marshall, Simon Mays, Jacqui McKinley, John Meadows, David Earle Robinson, Sue Stallibrass and Fay Worley

Acknowledgements We are very grateful to the following colleagues who have provided useful feedback or supplied illustrations for this edition:

Rachel Ballantyne, Polydora Baker, Martin Bell, Paul Bow, Duncan Brown, Fraser Brown, Richard Brunning, Greg Campbell, Matt Canti, Helen Chappell, Dan Charman, Sir Barry Cover Images Cunliffe, Dominique de Moulins, Judith front: A reconstruction of late medieval life on the urban fringe (by Judith Dobie) . Dobie, Chris Evans, Emily Forster, Ben Gearey, Karla Graham, David Haigh, back: Britain’s island status is the result of Holocene sea level rise . The intertidal zone Allan Hall, Andy Hammon, Zoë Hazell, around coasts and estuaries preserves fragile and eroding historic assets, including a Jacqui Huntley, Andrew Jones, Harry wealth of environmental data . This photograph shows the drowned landscape of the Isles Kenward, Sheila Keyte, Edward Lee, of Scilly (photo by V Straker) . Peter Marshall, Simon Mays, Jacqui McKinley, John Meadows, Rebecca Nicholson, A Reopstorff, David Earle Robinson, Mark Robinson, Jane Sidell, Sue Stallibrass, John Vallender, Jim Williams, Fay Worley .

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