Tissue Hypoxia, Oxidative Stress and Topical Analgesics in the Treatment of Complex Regional Pain Syndrome and Peripheral Neuropathic Pain

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Tissue Hypoxia, Oxidative Stress and Topical Analgesics in the Treatment of Complex Regional Pain Syndrome and Peripheral Neuropathic Pain Tissue hypoxia, oxidative stress and topical analgesics in the treatment of complex regional pain syndrome and peripheral neuropathic pain Oli Abate Fulas Integrated Program in Neuroscience Faculty of Medicine McGill University August 2020 A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy © Oli Abate Fulas, 2020 ABSTRACT Peripheral neuropathic pain (PNP) and complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) are chronic pain conditions whose pharmacological treatments are partial in efficacy and cause adverse systemic effects. This work is aimed at developing more effective and better-tolerated analgesics for PNP and CRPS through the targeting of peripheral tissue hypoxia and oxidative stress using topical agents. Both are processes that are prominent inducers of peripheral sensitization and can be directly impacted by topically administered treatments whose systemic effects are minimal. Initial studies assessed the analgesic effect of a new topical formulation made by combining the vasoactive agent meldonium and the antioxidant N-acetyl cysteine. The treatment alleviated mechanical hypersensitivity in rat models of PNP and CRPS by enhancing nitric oxide- mediated tissue oxygenation. Thus, topical treatment reversed the reduction in tissue oxygenation observed by percutaneous oxygen saturation measurements on the hind paws of chronic post- ischemic pain (CPIP) rat models of CRPS. The anti-allodynic dose of topical meldonium-NAC also produced a significant increase in the nitric oxide levels of plantar muscle of rats with CPIP. In line with this, pre-treatment with a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor attenuated the topical anti- allodynic effects of meldonium-NAC. In subsequent studies, the repertoire of similarly acting topical combinations was expanded and the method of formulating the combinations refined with the goal of simplifying the drugs’ development and hastening clinical translation. To this end, mechanochemistry was used to synthesize novel anti-hypoxic-antioxidant salts and co-crystals by pairing pentoxifylline with protocatechuic acid, clonidine with α-lipoic acid and linsidomine with caffeic acid. These three novel products displayed enhanced efficacy and/or potency in alleviating mechanical hypersensitivity after topical administration to CPIP rats. Follow up mechanism of action studies were performed on a prototype of the new products, a co-crystal between pentoxifylline and protocatechuic acid (pentx-pca). Percutaneous tissue oxygen saturation (SaO2) measurements taken from the hind paw of CPIP rats revealed that anti-allodynic doses of topical pentx-pca increased local tissue SaO2. Moreover, assessment of oxygen-dependent mitochondrial function using a triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) assay showed topical treatment with pentx-pca i significantly alleviated mitochondrial dysfunction in the plantar muscle of CPIP rats. The time point-dependent resolution of plantar muscle mitochondrial dysfunction, that occurred in the CPIP rats at six weeks post-procedure, paralleled the loss of the anti-allodynic response to topical treatment with pentx-pca. The last section of this thesis presents a phase-II clinical study protocol set to assess the analgesic efficacy of an anti-hypoxic topical combination of clonidine and pentoxifylline as evidence for the potential and feasibility of this approach. The study was designed as a randomized, double-blind and placebo-controlled investigation. It is a single-center, 5-week long cross-over study in which 2-week long treatments with the topical combination and placebo will be administered to the patients with an intervening 1-week washout period. Treatment outcomes are to be comprehensively measured in all patients with a combination of daily assessments of spontaneous pain intensity and sensory tests of dynamic mechanical allodynia and punctate hyperalgesia administered during study visits. To improve the pharmacological treatment of PNP and CRPS, this work proposes new anti- hypoxic-antioxidant topical analgesics formulations, including newly synthesized salts and co- crystals, that produced potent anti-allodynic effects by alleviating peripheral tissue ischemia/hypoxia and its metabolic consequences. It also establishes the manner by which these treatments can be developed into investigator-driven clinical trials that will aid in their translation. ii RÉSUMÉ Les traitements pharmacologiques de la douleur neuropathique périphérique (DNP) et du syndrome de douleur régionale complexe (SDRC) sont peu efficaces et source d’effets systémiques adverses. Le présent projet vise à développer des agents analgésiques efficaces et tolérables pour ces deux conditions en ciblant les mécanismes de l’hypoxie tissulaire et du stress oxydatif qui sont d’importants agents de sensibilisation nociceptive périphérique et de surcroît susceptibles à des traitements topiques aux effets systémiques minimes. Les premières expériences démontrèrent les effets analgésiques d’une nouvelle préparation topique combinant l’agent vasoactif meldonium et l’antioxidant N-acétylcystéine (NAC), qui atténua l’allodynie mécanique dans un modèle du SDRC chez le rat en accroissant l’oxygénation tissulaire dépendante de l’action de l’oxyde nitrique. La mesure de la saturation d’oxygène dans le sang permis de démontrer que l’application topique de la préparation prévenait ainsi la réduction de l’oxygénation tissulaire du membre traité après induction de l’allodynie de la patte par un épisode d’ischémie. De plus, les doses topiques de meldonium-NAC ayant des effets analgésiques produisirent un accroissement significatif des niveaux d’oxyde nitrique de la musculature plantaire des pattes traitées. Conformément à ces résultats, une autre expérience démontra que les effets anti-allodyniques de la préparation topique de meldonium-NAC étaient atténués par l’administration d’un agent inhibiteur de la synthase de l'oxyde nitrique. Les expériences suivantes eurent pour but d’élargir la gamme de combinaisons topiques efficaces et de simplifier la méthode de leur préparation pour faciliter leur application clinique. De nouveaux sels et co-cristaux ayant des propriétés anti-hypoxiques et anti-oxydatives furent produits par procédé mécanochimique en associant la pentoxifylline à l’acide protocatéchique, la clonidine à l’acide alpha-lipoïque et la linsidomine à l’acide caféique. Comparée à l’utilisation individuelle de leurs composants, l’application topique de chacun de ces trois nouveaux agents produisit une activité accrue de l’effet anti-allodynique observé sur le modèle de douleur post- hypoxique du SDRC chez le rat. Des expériences portant sur la caractérisation des mécanismes d’action d’un de ces nouveaux produits furent ensuite réalisées avec un co-cristal de la pentoxifylline et de l’acide protocatéchique (pentx-pca). La mesure de la saturation d’oxygène sanguin (SaO2) permis d’établir que l’application topique de pentx-pca à des doses anti- allodyniques sur la patte post-hypoxique du rat en avait accru l’oxygénation tissulaire. De plus, iii l’évaluation des fonctions mitochondriales dépendantes de l’oxygénation par la méthode du chlorure de tétrazolium triphényle (TTC) permis d’établir que l’application topique de pentx-pca avait réduit la dysfonction mitochondriale des muscles plantaires qui caractérise ce modèle de douleur post-hypoxique du SDRC. On observa aussi sur ce modèle que le rétablissement de la dysfontion mitochondriale post-hypoxique était complet six semaines après son induction et, parallèlement, que l’activité anti-allodynique de la pentx-pca avait disparu au bout de ce laps de temps. La dernière section du présent travail décrit un protocole d’étude clinique de phase-II qui a pour but d’évaluer la faisabilité et l’efficacité analgésique d’un agent topique anti-hypoxique combinant la pentoxifylline et la clonidine dans une étude à répartition aléatoire, contrôlée avec placebo et à double insu. L’étude à site unique de type cross-over s’échelonne sur 5 semaines durant lesquelles deux périodes de traitement de deux semaines chacune utilisant la préparation topique et un placebo seront administrées en ordre aléatoire et séparées par une période d’élimination d’une durée d’une semaine. Les résultats cliniques seront évalués à partir du journal quotidien de l’intensité de la douleur obtenu de chaque patient ainsi que par des mesures de l’allodynie mécanique et de l’hyperalgésie ponctuelle effectuées lors de cinq visites programmées en clinique. Le présent travail propose d’améliorer le traitement pharmacologique de la DNP et du SDRC par l’emploi de nouvelles préparations analgésiques topiques, incluant de nouvelles synthèses de sels et de co-cristaux possédant des effets anti-hypoxiques et anti-oxydatifs pouvant soulager les conséquences métaboliques de l’hypoxie cellulaire et de l’ischémie périphérique. De surcroît, le présent travail constitut un exemple de comment développer ces nouveaux traitements par la recherche clinique menée directement à l'initiative des chercheurs dans le but d’en favoriser l’application plus rapidement. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Above all, I would like to honor and glorify my Lord and savior JESUS CHRIST who has sustained me through the past few years. “Through Him all things were made; without Him nothing was made that has been made.” John 1:3. My heartfelt gratitude and appreciation go to my supervisor Professor Terence J Coderre who kindly and patiently guided me through the years of my training. I will remain grateful for
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