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HIGH- ESCAPE FROM A CIRCULAR AMERICAN JOURNAL OF

High-speed escape from a Philip R. Blancoa) Department of Physics and , Grossmont College, El Cajon, CA, 92020-1765 Department of Astronomy, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182-1221, USA Carl E. Munganb) Physics Department, United States Naval Academy Annapolis, MD, 21402-1363

(Accepted for publication by American Journal of Physics in 2021) You have a in a high circular orbit around a massive central body (a , or the ) and wish to escape with the fastest possible speed at infinity for a given amount of fuel. In 1929 showed that firing two separate impulses (one retrograde, one prograde) could be more effective than a direct transfer that expends all the fuel at once. This is due to the , whereby a small applied at periapsis can produce a large change in the rocket’s orbital mechanical , without violating energy conservation. In 1959 Theodore Edelbaum showed that this effect could be exploited further by using up to three separate impulses: prograde, retrograde, then prograde. The use of more than one impulse to escape can produce a final speed even faster than that of a fictional that is unaffected by . We compare the three escape strategies in terms of their final attainable, and the time required to reach a given from the central body. To do so, in an Appendix we use conservation laws to derive a “radial Kepler equation” for hyperbolic , which provides a direct relationship between travel time and distance from the central body. The 3-impulse Edelbaum maneuver can be applied to interplanetary transfers, exploration of the outer and beyond, and (in time reverse) efficient arrival and orbital capture. The physics principles employed are appropriate for an undergraduate course.

Keywords: , , impulse PACS: 45.20.D-, 96.12.De, 96.12.Fe between , with differing numbers of impulses I. INTRODUCTION employed to use the minimal amount of fuel.3 In this paper we discuss three strategies for a spacecraft Newton’s laws of and universal gravitation allow in a circular orbit to achieve a high-speed escape with v∞ > us to relate the geometrical properties of an orbit to 0. We compare their fuel requirements to achieve a given conserved quantities such as angular and v∞, and their travel times to reach a given distance from the energy. Changing the of an orbiting object changes central body. these quantities, and therefore the orbital path. One of the In Sec. II we start with conservation laws to develop earliest descriptions of such orbital maneuvers was equations that relate and distance. In Sec. III 1 Newton’s cannon, a that demonstrates we use these to compare three escape strategies in terms of the effects of changing a projectile’s launch speed on its fuel usage. In Sec. IV, with the aid of an Appendix, we resulting orbit — increasing this speed increases the size derive expressions for the travel time from the original orbit and period of the orbit. For launch speeds greater than the out to a given distance. In Sec. V we conclude by local escape speed, the projectile does not return, but discussing applications and providing suggestions for follows a hyperbolic escape path and approaches an student investigations. asymptotic final speed v∞ far from the central body. In the 20th century, pioneers of astrodynamics began to II. BASIC EQUATIONS FOR ORBITAL use these principles to chart the courses of hypothetical spacecraft that propel themselves by the directed expulsion MANEUVERS of matter carried as fuel. The resulting impulses change We assume that the of the spacecraft is tiny relative their orbital paths. Even for a simple system consisting of a to the central body, such that any change in the latter’s rocket and a massive central body, a variety of maneuvers motion can be ignored. The central body can then be used 2 are possible, such as Hohmann and bi-elliptic transfers to define an inertial frame in which we analyze the spacecraft’s .

1 Philip R. Blanco and Carl E. Mungan 1 HIGH-SPEED ESCAPE FROM A CIRCULAR ORBIT AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS

To simplify our analysis, we consider only impulses of transfer times. Conservation of momentum leads to the duration much less than the around the rocket equation, attributed to , central body. Equivalently, for such idealized impulsive which relates the speed change Δv to the initial and maneuvers the rocket can change its velocity without remaining mass of the rocket, changing its position, so that the pre- and post-impulse !! Δ� = �!"ln , (6) Keplerian orbits intersect. For such impulses to have the !! greatest effect on a spacecraft’s orbital energy and angular where mi and mf are the of the rocket (including fuel) before and after the impulse, respectively, and vex is momentum, they must be applied either prograde (in the 4 direction of motion, by expelling exhaust backwards) or the effective exhaust speed. (The gravitational attraction retrograde relative to the spacecraft velocity vector. This between the rocket and exhaust mass can be ignored.) results in all paths being coplanar, reducing our analysis to Equation (6) does not depend on the rate of fuel two dimensions. (We discuss orbital plane changes briefly consumption, and applies to multiple intermittent firings of in Sec V.) the . For this reason, we shall follow the standard convention of using total Δv as a proxy for fuel cost when comparing strategies to achieve an orbital 1. Speed as a function of distance transfer. Between impulses, an object in freefall in the When a mass of fuel (mi - mf) is expelled to obtain a of an isolated spherical body of mass M given Δv, the chemical energy converted to will have a constant (where we use ! ! is Δ�!"#$ = �! − �! �!". A fraction of this input energy “specific” to mean “per unit mass”), ! ! !" changes the mechanical energy of the rocket, while the rest � = �! − (1) 4 ! ! is carried away in the exhaust, as we shall discuss in Sec. Here, v is the magnitude of its velocity vector, r is its III.5. distance from the central body’s center, and G is the . (This energy properly belongs to the III. ESCAPE FROM A CIRCULAR ORBIT system of the spacecraft and central object, but since the massive central body is assumed stationary, we assign it to Initially, we have a spacecraft in a circular orbit of radius the spacecraft for brevity.) r0 with orbital speed �! = �� �!. (This relation can be From Eq. (1), in order to escape with an asymptotic final proven by centripetal arguments, or by setting rA = rP = r0 speed v∞ at infinity, an unpowered spacecraft at a distance in Eq. 5.) We desire to achieve a target final speed v∞ for rdep must have a departure speed vdep there given by the smallest total Δv, so that the smallest amount of fuel is ! ! ! ! !" !!" ! required. � = �! = �!"# − ⇒ �!"# = + �!. (2) ! ! !!"# !!"# For the maneuvers described in this paper, we also need 1. Single impulse for direct escape to relate the orbital speed of a spacecraft to its position in a The simplest escape strategy is for the rocket to fire a bound elliptical orbit. Let its speed be v at apoapsis A single, prograde impulse from the circular orbit, to increase (farthest from the central body, at distance rA) and vP at its speed past the local escape speed 2� , as shown in Fig. periapsis (the closest point, distance rP). Due to the central ! nature of the gravitational field, the specific angular 1(a). To find the ΔvD for such a direct momentum is conserved and given by escape to produce a final speed v∞, use Eq. (2) with vdep = v0 + ΔvD, and rdep = r0, i.e. ℎ = ��!, (3) !!" !! where vθ is the azimuthal component of the spacecraft’s ! ! �! + Δ�! = + �! ⇒ Δ�! = �! 2 + ! − 1 .(7) velocity. Therefore, at the extremes of the where !! !! there is no radial motion, This function is plotted as a green dotted in Fig. 2. ℎ = �!�! = �!�! ��!. (4) Combining Eqs. (1) and (4) we can solve for apoapsis and 2. Two-impulse escape - the “Oberth maneuver” periapsis speeds in terms of the corresponding In 1929, Hermann Oberth described a more fuel-efficient 5 !" ! !" ! strategy to obtain the same v∞ from a high circular orbit (of �! = !! and �! = !! . (5) !! !! !! !! !! !! radius many times that of the central body). First use a retrograde impulse to drop closer to the body, then apply a The first -root factor in each equation is the circular prograde impulse at the periapsis of that elliptical orbit, as shown in Fig. 1(b). Author Robert Heinlein (who had 2. Relating impulse to fuel usage and energy input worked with Oberth on the pioneering science fiction film Typically, a rocket engine is modeled as one that expels Destination ) described this maneuver in chapter 7 of its fuel continuously, even for short-duration impulses that his novel The Rolling Stones: represent the idealized limit of minimizing fuel usage and

2 Philip R. Blanco and Carl E. Mungan 2 HIGH-SPEED ESCAPE FROM A CIRCULAR ORBIT AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS

a. b. c.

Fig. 1. Three escape strategies from a counter-clockwise circular orbit, all with a total Δv = 1.1 v0. Dots show the spacecraft position at intervals of 1/40th of the original circular orbital period. The rocket images mark the position and direction of each impulsive . (a) Direct (single-impulse) escape. (b). Oberth (2-impulse) escape with rin = 0.15 r0. (c) Edelbaum (3-impulse) escape with rout = 1.50 r0 and rin = 0.15 r0. (These values were chosen for clarity of plotting, and are not the same as those adopted for Figs. 2 and 3.)

! “A ship leaving the Moon or a for some !" !!"!! ! Δ�!"# = �!"# − �! = 2 + − ! . (9) distant planet can go faster on less fuel by dropping first ! !" !! !" !" ! toward the , then performing her principal ! while as close to the Earth as possible.” 6 The total specific impulse for the Oberth escape maneuver is the sum of the absolute values of Eqs. (8) and Reference 7 explains the physics of this Oberth effect in (9), i.e. ΔvOb = |ΔvOb1|+ ΔvOb2, which simplifies to ! detail. If a rocket body of mass m moves at speed v, a !! !!! !!! Δ�!" = �! 1 + ! + − 2 + . (10) forward specific impulse Δv increases its kinetic energy by !! !!" !!" ! ! ! ! !� � + ∆� − !�� , which increases linearly with v. Equation (10) is plotted in Fig. 2 as a dashed purple curve Since an orbiting rocket travels faster as it moves deeper for rin = 0.05r0. This curve crosses that described by Eq. (7) into the potential well, firing an impulse as close as at ΔvOb = ΔvD = v0, independent of rin, for which the possible to the central body allows it to maximize the resulting �! = 2�!, coincidentally equal to the local energy gained, in principle without limit as rP →0. (In escape speed from the original orbit. For desired values of practice rP is limited by the size of the central body). v∞ larger than this, ΔvOb < ΔvD, so the two-impulse Oberth The increase in the mechanical energy of the system of maneuver will require less fuel than the single-impulse rocket+exhaust comes from the chemical energy converted direct escape (cf. Fig. 2). in the impulse ΔEchem, which is constant regardless of As rin is decreased, the “Oberth advantage” (the where the impulse was fired. Therefore, any additional difference ΔvD - ΔvOb) gets larger for �! > 2�!, since the energy gained by a fast-moving rocket must be obtained at fuel expelled at periapsis is placed into a lower energy the expense of the mechanical energy carried by the orbit. In the theoretical limit as rin → 0, the dashed purple expelled fuel, as we discuss in Sec. III.5. curve in Fig. 2 becomes flat, and Eq. (8) shows that ΔvOb1 The two-impulse Oberth maneuver is defined by the → -v0 for any v∞. This speed change stops the spacecraft in periapsis distance rin of the elliptical orbit produced by the its original orbit and causes it to fall in radially towards the initial, retrograde impulse at radius r . From Eq. (5) with r 0 A center of attraction. Then, the tiniest boost ΔvOb2 at rin = 0 = r and r = r , the required velocity change for this first 0 P in could produce any value of v∞ desired. impulse ΔvOb1 is 3. Three-impulse escape - the “Edelbaum ! Δ� = � − � = −� 1 − ! , (8) !"# ! ! ! !! ! maneuver” !!" In 1959 Theodore Edelbaum described a coplanar escape where the leading negative sign denotes the retrograde maneuver that employs three impulses: a prograde boost to direction. Once the spacecraft reaches periapsis, it will be raise apoapsis, followed by a retrograde impulse to cause moving at speed v given by Eq. (5) with r = r and r = P A 0 P the spacecraft to fall in to a low periapsis, and thence a final r . To achieve a final speed v , use Eqs. (2) and (5) with 8 in ∞ boost to escape. An example is shown in Fig. 1(c). By r = r to find the second prograde velocity boost Δv dep in Ob2 falling in from a larger radius than the original circular from vP to vdep, orbit, the resulting faster periapsis speed enhances the

3 Philip R. Blanco and Carl E. Mungan 3 HIGH-SPEED ESCAPE FROM A CIRCULAR ORBIT AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS

Oberth effect, by transferring more of the expelled fuel’s Δv/v0 chemical and mechanical energy to the spacecraft7. The transfer from circular orbit to the intermediate ellipse 2.0 is defined by the apoapsis radius of that ellipse, rA = rout, with periapsis at the original orbit radius, rP = r0. Equation (5) gives the required post-impulse velocity vP, from which 1.5 we find the necessary boost ΔvEd1, ! � = � + Δ� ⇒ Δ� = � ! − 1 . (11) ! ! !"# !"# ! !! ! 1.0 !!"# The resulting apoapsis speed is also found from Eq. (5). Once the spacecraft reaches this position, it fires a second, 0.5 retrograde impulse to lower its periapsis distance to a new rP = rin < r0. The required velocity change ΔvEd2 is then

v∞/v0 !" ! ! 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 Δ� = − ! − ! . (12) !"# ! !! !"# !! !"# !"# ! ! ! !" Fig. 2. Total required speed change Δv for the three escape strategies The speed vP of the rocket after it falls from apoapsis at rout as a function of desired final speed v∞, both normalized by the to periapsis at rin is given by Eq. (5), and the required original circular speed v0. Dotted green curve: Direct escape from Eq. velocity for escape from there to a specified v∞ is found (7). Dashed purple curve: Oberth (2-impulse) escape with rin = 0.05 from Eq. (10). Dot-dashed blue curve: Edelbaum (3-impulse) from Eq. (2) with rdep = rin. The difference is the final r0 escape with = 2.5 and = 0.05 from Eq. (14). Dotted gray velocity boost ΔvEd3, i.e. rout r0 rin r0 line: “no gravity” escape Δv = v∞ - v0 from Sec. III.6. ! !" !!"!! ! Δ�!"# = �!"# − �! = 2 + − !!" . (13) !!" !" !! !!"# spacecraft very far from the central body, then (much later) applies a very small retrograde impulse to nullify its The total speed change for an Edelbaum escape is the sum , causing it to fall radially inwards to r of the absolute values of Eqs. (11), (12), and (13), Δv = in Ed = 0, where a tiny impulse can produce any value of v Δv + |Δv | + Δv , and can be simplified to ∞ Ed1 Ed2 Ed3 desired. While this bi-parabolic has the smallest !! !! !! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! possible Δv (≈ 0.41v0) to achieve any desired v∞, it requires Δ�!" = �! ! + + 2 + − + − 1 .(14) !! !!" !!"# !!" !!"# an infinite travel time.9,10 Equation (14) is plotted in Fig. 2 as a blue dot-dashed curve We can invert and simplify Eq. (14) to give an expression for rin = 0.05r0 and rout = 2.5r0. It is also valid for for the mission’s final v∞ for an available overall Δv computing ΔvOb if rout = r0, and for ΔvD if rout = rin = r0. provided by the fuel, Compared to the two-impulse Oberth escape maneuver, ! �! = the Edelbaum escape always has a lower overall Δv for a ! ! !! !!! !!! !!! !!! given v∞ by an amount �! 1 + + + − 2 + − . (17) !! !!" !!"# !!"# !!" Δ� − Δ� = !" !" This relation also applies to the 2-impulse Oberth escape if !! !! !! !! 2�! 2 + + − 1 + − 1 + , (15) one sets rout = r0, and to the direct escape if one sets rout = rin !!" !!"# !!"# !!" = r0. independent of v∞, with a corresponding savings in fuel expenditure. (Readers can show that Eq. 15 is positive for 4. Four or more impulses? any rin < r0 and rout > r0.) This difference can be seen as the constant vertical distance between the dashed purple A valid question is whether additional fuel savings can be (Oberth) and dot-dashed blue (Edelbaum) curves in Fig. 2. achieved using more than three impulses. It has been shown that any fuel-optimal coplanar transfer will consist of no In Fig. 2, the dot-dashed blue curve for ΔvEd crosses the more than three impulses.10 This also holds true for dotted green curve for ΔvD when coplanar bound orbit-to-orbit transfers, which are either Δ�!" = Δ�! Hohmann (two impulses)2 or bi-elliptic (three).3 Coplanar !!! !!! = �! 2 + − 1 for �! = �!. (16) escape strategies that produce fuel-optimal transfers with !!"# !!"# more than three impulses can always be reduced to an For larger desired values of v∞, the Edelbaum maneuver 11,12 requires a lower total Δv than the direct or Oberth escapes, equivalent with three or fewer. and so is fuel-optimal for such high-speed escapes. As an example, consider the following 4-impulse strategy: (1) first slow down from circular orbit to an In the dual limit rout → ∞ and rin → 0, ΔvEd → 2 − intermediate inner radius rin, (2) use the Oberth effect there 1 � . This corresponds to a transfer which first sends the ! to boost to rout, (3) slow down again to lower periapsis to

4 Philip R. Blanco and Carl E. Mungan 4 HIGH-SPEED ESCAPE FROM A CIRCULAR ORBIT AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS

rin, prior to (4) boosting to escape. We have shown above 6. Comparison with a “no gravity” rocket that more efficient escapes are realized as r → ∞ and r out in A remarkable result is that both Oberth and Edelbaum → 0 (to increase periapsis speed and hence the Oberth escapes can attain a higher v than a fictional rocket that is advantage of the final impulse). Therefore, any ∞ unaffected by the central body’s gravity, which boosts intermediate ellipse can be made more fuel-efficient by tangentially from orbit at r to a constant speed v = v + increasing r and decreasing r to their mission- 0 ∞ 0 out in Δv, shown as a dotted gray line in Fig. 2. For example, use constrained extremes. After doing so, the optimal 4-impulse Eq. (17) to calculate v for each escape strategy using a escape degenerates to the same path as the 3-impulse ∞ mission total Δv = 1.25v . With r = 0.05r , the Oberth escape and is no more efficient. 0 in 0 escape gives v = 2.30v ; additionally setting r = 2.5r For idealized impulsive maneuvers, a rocket in a closed ∞ 0 out 0 gives v = 2.92v for the Edelbaum escape — both faster orbit will always return to the position at which the impulse ∞ 0 than v = 2.25v for the “no gravity” rocket. was applied (unless another impulse is made). A prograde ∞ 0 The Oberth and Edelbaum trajectories can end up with or retrograde impulse at one of an orbit raises or larger values of v because the fuel on board the “no lowers the other apsis. It further follows from Eq. (6) that ∞ gravity” rocket carries no gravitational multiple impulses fired at the same position in orbit are relative to the central body. With no potential energy to fuel-equivalent to a single, combined impulse. “steal” from the expelled fuel, that spacecraft’s kinetic For example, if the rocket engine cannot apply the energy gain is limited to a fraction of the fuel’s chemical retrograde impulse for the Oberth or Edelbaum maneuver and kinetic energy only.7 all at once, it can lower its periapsis successively to rin by multiple firings each time it passes through apoapsis, without any loss of overall fuel efficiency. Students can use IV. TRAVEL TIME COMPARISON the equations in Sec. II to design and evaluate their own Compared to a single-impulse direct escape, both the multi-impulse maneuvers. Oberth and Edelbaum escapes can produce faster final speeds for a given total Δv (and thus fuel). However, these 5. Energetics of impulsive escape maneuvers maneuvers require additional elliptical orbit segments How can the same fuel expenditure (and hence energy where the spacecraft moves slowly. For very distant destinations (r >> r0), the extra time on these segments may converted ΔEchem) produce different final rocket speeds v∞ for the three escape strategies? The initial mechanical not be important, but for intermediate distances there will be a trade-off in total time to destination. In this section we energy of the rocket+fuel system of mass mi in a circular ! calculate the travel times from the initial circular orbit to a orbit is � = − � �! from Eq. (1). After all the fuel is !"!,! ! ! ! specified distance r from the central body, to determine expelled, the mechanical energy added to the system is which of the three strategies will reach that distance in the ΔEchem from Sec. II.2, which provides the final rocket mass shortest time. mf with a speed change Δv given by Eq. (6). The final mechanical energy Esys, f of the system of rocket+exhaust is 1. Hyperbolic segment then All three escape strategies culminate in a hyperbolic 1 ! 1 ! �!"!,! = �!"!,! + Δ�!"#$ = − �!�! + �! − �! �!" 2 2 escape from a prograde impulse applied at periapsis. For the direct escape, the departure radius rdep = r0; for the ! ! ! ! !! = − �!�! + �!�!" 1 − exp − , (18) Oberth and Edelbaum escapes, rdep = rin. ! ! !!" which is constant for a given Δv and fuel mass expended, In the Appendix, we derive a general relationship for a and independent of the number of impulses. Therefore, if hyperbolic orbit between the time since periapsis and the one wants the rocket to end up with the highest possible distance r from the central body. Equation (A6) gives the ! ! time of from a periapsis distance rP out to a mechanical energy �!� = �!�!, one should choose an ! destination distance r . We can rewrite that equation in impulse strategy that leaves the combined exhaust masses terms of the original circular speed v0 and period T0 = with the lowest. 2πr0/v0, As an exercise, by expressing vex as a multiple of v0, students can calculate ΔEchem and the change in kinetic ! ! ! ! ! energy of the rocket (due to changes in its speed and mass) !! !! !!! !!!! �!"#(�!, �) = ! 1 + ! − 1 + ! − after each impulse. The difference gives the mechanical !! !! !!!! !!!! energy change (positive, negative, or zero) of the fuel mass ! !!! expelled. This will reveal for each strategy how the same !! ! !! !!!! cosh ! . (19) final system energy Esys,f is distributed between the !!!! !! ! escaping rocket and the total mass of expelled fuel. !!!!

5 Philip R. Blanco and Carl E. Mungan 5 HIGH-SPEED ESCAPE FROM A CIRCULAR ORBIT AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS

Table 1. Travel times for the escape strategies discussed in this Time / T0 paper, starting from a circular orbit of radius r0 and ending at a final distance r from the central body. # Impulses Δv Total travel time (Eqs. 19-21) 20 1 (direct) Eq. (7) thyp(r0, r) 2 (Oberth) Eq. (10) tell(r0, rin) + thyp(rin, r) 18 3 (Edelbaum) Eq. (14) tell(r0, rout)+tell(rout, rin)+thyp(rin,r) 1 (no gravity) - t (r , r) v∞ v0 nog 0 16

2. Elliptical segments (2- and 3-impulse escapes) 14 rout /r0 For the direct impulse, there are no intermediate orbits so 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 the total travel time is just the hyperbolic segment time thyp(r0,r). For the Oberth and Edelbaum transfers, Kepler’s third law provides the time spent on the elliptical segments. Fig. 3. Time to reach r = 200 r0 (as a multiple of the original The transfer time tell(rA, rP) between apoapsis and periapsis circular orbit period T0) for the 3-impulse Edelbaum escape (dot- is half the period of an orbit of semi-major axis (rA + rP)/2, dashed blue curve) as a function of its normalized swing-out as seen in Fig. 1, radius rout/r0, for Δv = 1.1 v0 and rin = 0.05 r0. Travel times using these values are also shown for the direct (dotted green line), ! !!! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! � � , � = ! ! = ! ! ! . (20) Oberth (dashed purple line), and “no gravity” (dotted gray line) !"" ! ! ! !" ! ! !! ! escapes, computed according to Table 1. To obtain the total travel time for the two-impulse Oberth maneuver, we must include the time for the infalling segment tell(r0, rin). For the three-impulse Edelbaum fictional rocket that experiences no gravitational attraction maneuver, we must include two elliptical segment transfer to the central body. The travel time tnog for this putative “no times tell(r0, rout) + tell(rout, rin). gravity” rocket is simply the length of the linear segment

from r0 to r divided by its constant v∞ = v0 + Δv, 3. Shortest travel time for Edelbaum escape !! !! !!!!! !! Expressions for the total travel times for the three escape ! !! ! �!"#(�!, �) = = !! , (21) strategies are summarized in Table I. These are plotted in !! !! !! !! Fig. 3 as a function of the Edelbaum maneuver “swing out” and is shown as the dotted gray line in Fig. 3. radius rout, using the same parameters as for Fig. 2 and a destination distance r = 200r0. Clearly for this case there is V. DISCUSSION an optimal swing-out radius rout ≈ 2.5r0 for the Edelbaum transfer to minimize the travel time. For larger values of For a spacecraft that can barely escape the central body rout, the additional travel time in the first elliptical segment (v∞ ≈ 0), Fig. 2 shows that a single-impulse direct transfer is of Fig. 1(c) offsets the Oberth effect’s advantage of gaining efficient in terms of Δv. This is also the case for a a larger v∞ for the same overall Δv. spacecraft in a low orbit that cannot approach the central There is no tractable closed-form solution for the time- body any closer than its original orbital radius r0. For a minimizing rout as a function of destination distance r and high-speed escape from a high circular orbit, the Oberth mission constraints ΔvEd and rin. Instead, students can use and Edelbaum maneuvers can produce a larger v∞ for a Eq. (17), followed by Eqs. (19) and (20), to evaluate travel given Δv, as shown in Fig. 2. However, to obtain the benefit times for a range of values of rout given the values of the of reduced travel times, the destination distance must be other parameters. As the destination distance r increases, much greater than the original orbital radius, since the the time-optimal value of rout also increases, since the Oberth and Edelbaum transfers require slow elliptical elliptical segments take up a smaller fraction of the overall segments prior to the hyperbolic escape. A mission that trip duration, while the larger v∞ reduces the remaining time calls for a high-speed escape from a lunar-like orbit around 6 spent on the hyperbolic segment. Earth (r0 ≈ 60 Earth radii and v0 ≈ 1 km/s), or from a high orbit around any planet or , can benefit from 4. Travel times compared employing the Oberth or Edelbaum maneuver. Most mission concepts are constrained by the total Δv Despite their slow starts, spacecraft executing Oberth and available from the fuel on board. If employing either the Edelbaum escapes can overtake a spacecraft on a direct Oberth or Edelbaum transfer, the inner radius rin of the escape and arrive at a distant destination sooner, as shown intermediate orbit is limited by the radius of the central in Fig. 3. As discussed in Sec. III.6, a spacecraft on either body (including its ), and in the case of the Sun, of the 2- or 3-impulse trajectories can even overtake a by heating and radiation considerations. (The Parker Solar

6 Philip R. Blanco and Carl E. Mungan 6 HIGH-SPEED ESCAPE FROM A CIRCULAR ORBIT AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS

Table 2. Pros and cons of the 3-impulse (Edelbaum) escape. Analysis Tool,17 ,18 or .19 An Pros Cons STK animation of a race to escape between spacecraft Can maximize v∞ for a given Only advantageous for high employing the strategies discussed in this paper is provided 20 Δv (and fuel expended). orbits (Fig.1), fast escapes online. In time reverse, can provide (Fig. 2), and distant most efficient orbital capture. destinations (Fig. 3). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A plane change requires less r is limited by the central in Thanks to San Diego State University Library staff for fuel if executed at rout of body’s size and radiation assistance with locating aerospace journals published intermediate orbit. environment. before 1970, to an anonymous referee for suggestions, and Can be executed at any time Requires two engine restarts. to Donna and Laura Edelbaum for encouraging this . (unlike ). Mission can be aborted back Spacecraft spends APPENDIX: RELATING POSITION AND to the original circular orbit substantial time ~ T0 in the after the 1st or 2nd impulse, vicinity of the original orbit TIME FOR A HYPERBOLIC for a fraction of total ΔvEd. before escaping. TRAJECTORY Probe makes perihelion passes as close as 10 solar radii ≈ How does an orbiting object’s position change with time? 0.05 AU,13 but an escaping spacecraft would only have to Many textbooks derive equations for this do so once.) using a geometrical method similar to that first described 21 To date, no mission has used an Oberth or Edelbaum by himself. This requires the definition transfer to send a spacecraft to the outer solar system. This of new angular measures (the mean, true, and eccentric is mainly because the “Oberth advantage” over direct “anomalies”) to locate the object on its path. escape works best for values of total Δv ≈ v0 (≈ 30 km/s for Such an approach makes sense for closed periodic orbits, 22 a at r0 = 1 AU), which is not currently and can be extended to unbound hyperbolic paths. attainable by chemical . Some mission concepts However, for our purposes we desire a direct relationship have proposed hybrid gravity-assist/Oberth trajectories that that gives the time taken for an escaping object to reach a use a carefully timed fly-by of (rout = 5.2 AU) to given distance r from the central body, starting from provide some of the retrograde ΔvEd2 necessary to cause the periapsis. Here we derive such a relationship using only spacecraft to fall in close to the Sun.14 conservation laws that will be familiar to students of Thus far we have restricted our analysis to coplanar . orbits and impulses. However, if one desires to change the plane of the escape , the Δv (and fuel cost) to do 1. The radial Kepler equation so is greatly reduced by applying the plane-change impulse simultaneously with the second, retrograde impulse of the We can rewrite the conserved of Eq. Edelbaum transfer at rout, where the spacecraft is moving (1) by separating the spacecraft’s velocity into radial and slowest. azimuthal components vr and vθ, respectively,. An important application of the 3-impulse Edelbaum ! ! ! ! ! ! !" � = �! = �! + �! − . (A1) maneuver is in time reverse, for efficient arrival and capture ! ! ! ! Use Eq. (3) to express v in terms of the conserved specific into a chosen circular orbit when a spacecraft approaches a θ angular momentum h to form an expression for the radial planetary body at high relative speed. For approaches with speed as a function of distance, v > v , the optimal strategy is shown in Fig 1(c) by ∞ 0 !!" !! �! = �! + − . (A2) reversing the direction of the arrows, and consists of a ! ! ! !! braking impulse at periapsis (which could be partially The last “centrifugal barrier” term on the right-hand side achieved by repeated passes) into an eccentric reduces the radial speed as the spacecraft approaches the orbit, followed by a periapsis-raising prograde impulse, and central body. At the periapsis distance r = rp, we have vr = a third, “circularization burn”. 0, so from Eq. (A2) we can express the specific angular For student discussions, Table II summarizes pros and momentum h in terms of rp and v∞, i.e. cons of the Edelbaum transfer compared to direct escape ℎ! = �! �! + 2��� . (A3) 15 ! ! ! and gravity-assist (“slingshot”) trajectories. Students can Substitute for h back into Eq. (A2) to obtain the differential explore how the functions in Figs. 2 and 3 change as they equation vary r , r , and total Δv to plan their own escape and in out ! ! approach maneuvers. They can also extend the analysis !" ! !!" !!!!!!!"!! �! = = �! + − ! . (A4) presented here to incorporate noncircular initial orbits, !" ! ! While there is no closed-form solution for r(t) when v > 0, which can alter the choice of fuel-optimal transfer strategy. ∞ this equation can be integrated numerically to give radial Trajectories can be simulated using software such as position versus time for an infalling or escaping object.23 Systems Tool Kit (STK),16 NASA’s General Mission

7 Philip R. Blanco and Carl E. Mungan 7 HIGH-SPEED ESCAPE FROM A CIRCULAR ORBIT AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS

Alternatively, to find the time since periapsis as a function transfer maneuver,” American Rocket Society J. 29, of radial distance from the central body, we can integrate 864-865 (1959). the reciprocal of Eq. (A4), 9. P. Blanco, “Slow down or speed up? Lowering !" ! = , (A5) periapsis versus escaping from a circular orbit,” Phys. !" ! ! ! !! ! !!! !!!" !!!! Teach. 55, 38-40 (2017). 10. T. Edelbaum, “How many impulses?” and with t(rp) ≡ 0. The solution for v∞ > 0 and r ≥ rP can be written as Aeronautics 5, 64-69 (1967). �(�) = 11. L. Ting, “Optimum orbital transfer by several ! ! ! !!! impulses,” Astronautica Acta 6, 256–265 (1960). !" !!! ! !! !! 1 + ! − 1 + ! ! − cosh!! !" .(A6) 12. M. Pontani, “Simple method to determine globally !! !" !" ! !! ! !! ! ! !" optimal orbital transfers,” J. Guidance Control & This radial version of the hyperbolic Kepler equation also Dynamics 32, 899-914 (2009). encompasses purely radial trajectories with h = 0 and hence 13. D. Longcope, “Using Kepler’s laws and Rutherford 24 22 rp = 0. For comparison with traditional derivations, the scattering to chart the seven gravity assists in the epic hyperbolic anomaly is given by the inverse hyperbolic sunward journey of the ,” Am. J. cosine term in Eq. (A6). Phys. 88, 11-19 (2020). 14. A. Hibberd, A. Hein, and T. Eubanks, “Project Lyra: 2. Plotting the hyperbolic escape trajectory catching 1I/’Oumuamua – mission opportunities after 2024,” Acta Astronautica, 170, 136-144 (2020).

For nonradial trajectories (rp > 0), the spacecraft’s angular 15. J. A. van Allen, “Gravitational assist in celestial position θ can be described in coordinates in terms of mechanics - a tutorial,” Am. J. Phys. 71, 448–451 r and the conic section’s semi-major axis a and eccentricity (2003). e, 16. To obtain free educational licenses for STK, visit ! !!!! ! http://www.agi.com/education. � = where � < cos!! , (A7) !!!!"#! ! 17. http://opensource.gsfc.nasa.gov/projects/GMAT. with θ = 0 at the periapsis distance rP = a(1-e); the bounds 18. Online at http://orbit.medphys.ucl.ac.uk. on θ constrain the object’s position to the correct branch of 19. Online at http://www.kerbalspaceprogram.com. the hyperbola between its asymptotes. The geometrical 20. See the supplementary materials online. parameters a and e are obtained from v∞ and rp using the 21. F. G. Orlando, C. Farina, C. A. D. Zarro, and P. , 22 standard results “Kepler’s equation and some of its pearls,” Am. J. ! !" !" !! !!!! Phys. 86, 849-858 (2018). � = − = − ! , and � = 1 − = 1 + , (A8) !! !! ! !" 22. C. A. Kluever, Spaceflight Dynamics, 2nd ed. (Wiley, where for all hyperbolae a < 0 and e > 1. Examples of such Hoboken, 2018). paths are shown in Fig. 1 23. P. Blanco, “Angular momentum and Philae’s descent,”

Phys. Teach. 53, 516 (2015). a)Electronic mail: [email protected] 24. C. E. Mungan, “Radial descent of an energetically b)Electronic mail: [email protected] unbound spacecraft towards a ,” Phys. Teach. 53, 1. I. Newton, A Treatise of the System of the World, (F. 452-453 (2015). Fayram, London, 1728), pp. 5-7. 2. W. Hohmann, The Attainability of Heavenly Bodies (NASA Technical Translation F-44, Washington, 1960). 3. F. W. Gobetz and J. R. Doll, “A survey of impulsive trajectories,” AIAA J. 7, 801-834 (1969). 4. See P. Blanco, “A discrete, energetic approach to rocket propulsion,” Phys. Educ. 54, 065001 (2019). Here we define vex such that the mechanical energy ! input per unit fuel mass expelled is given by �! . ! !" 5. H. Oberth, Ways to Spaceflight (NASA Technical Translation F-622, Washington, 1972), pp. 194-217. 6. R. Heinlein, The Rolling Stones (Scribner, New York, 1952). 7. P. Blanco and C. Mungan, “Rocket propulsion, classical relativity, and the Oberth effect,” Phys. Teach. 57, 439-441 (2019). 8. T. Edelbaum, “Some extensions of the Hohmann

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