Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Australia
CSIRO Twenty-eighth Annual Report I975/76 CSIRO Twenty-eighth Annual Report, 1975/76
This report of the work of CSIRO for the year ending 30 June 1976 has been prepared as required by Section 30 of the Science and Industry Research Act 1949.
The Executive gratefully acknowledges the valuable help received from Commonwealth and State government departments and instrumentalities, universities and other research bodies, represen- tatives of primary and secondary industries, private individuals, and overseas institutions.
The Executive also wishes to thank those who have made their knowledge and experience freely available to the Organization by serving on its Committees or by personal advice.
J. R. Price (Chairman) V. D. Burgmann M. E. Holman V. E. Jennings A. E. Pierce W. J. Vines F. M. Wiltshire H. W. Worner
A CSIRO was established by the Science and Industry Research Act of 1949. Under the Act, CSIRO replaced the former Council for Scientific and Industrial Research established in 1926.
The powers and functions of CSIRO are:
the carrying out of scientific research in connection with Australian primary and secondary industries or any other matter referred to it by the Minister
the training of scientific research workers and the awarding of studentships
the making of grants in aid of scientific research
the recognition and support of research associations
the maintenance of the national standards of measurement
the dissemination of scientific and technical information
the publication of scientific and technical reports liaison with other countries in matters of scientific research. Contents Research
Introduction 6 Nitrogen losses from tropical soils 13 The mechanism and extent of nitrogen losses from CSIR—CSIRO 1926-1976 a number of Queensland soils are being studied. General ! I Research 13 Breeding better livestock 16 Identification of inherited characteristics which (<>ee details on right) arc economically important in livestock production and the development of methods of Finance and buildings 53 selecting for them are leading to real and lasting Researcli activities 65 improvements in the productivity of livestock. Organization 72 Controlling the rabbit 18 Advisory Council 74 Information on rabbit physiology, behaviour and State Committees 74 ecology is providing a base for the development of methods of control to supplement myxomatosis.
Grading wheat for marketing 20 Improved methods of segregating wheat varieties and of sampling and testing grain arc facilitating quality control of Australia's export wheat.
Insect pests in stored grain 22 Alternatives to current methods of controlling insect pests in stored grain are being sought.
Storing fruit and vegetables 25 Basic research on the physiologv and bio- chemistry of plant cells is helping to improve methods of storing and transporting fruit and vegetables without loss of quality.
Pine trees and termites 27 Shortage of timber in the Northern Territory has led to a search for suitable tree species that can be grown locally.
Spinning new yarns 28 Rapid spinning techniques are being used to combine wool with synthetic filaments to produce new yarns for knitting.
Bringing calibrations to industry 30 Cover The NATIONAL MEASUREMENT LABORATORY is A low intensity fire in a eucalypt forest as devising new techniques to help it provide an recorded by infra-red photography. Because on-sitc calibration service to industry. infra-red photography makes it possible to 'see' through smoke and obtain a clear view of the flames it is being used by the DIVISION1 OF Improving chemical analysis 31 FOREST RESEARCH to study forest fires. Advances are being made in chemical analysis by atomic absorption, atomic fluorescence and Photograph: Alan Edward atomic emission techniques.
\ Utilizing iron ore 32 A comprehensive program of research is being undertaken on the utilization of Australia's iron ore reserves.
High-strength industrial ceramics 36 Difficulties associated with using zirconia as an engineering ceramic may have been finally overcome.
Purifying water 37 New processes based mainly on specialized polymers of unconventional physical form arc being developed to puiify water and treat waste water.
Remote sensing of the earth's resources 40 Imagen' obtained from American satellites is providing valuable i formation on Australian resources and is beir.g used by a number of CSIRO Divisions.
Aids for planners 43 Computer-based systems have been developed to help urban and regional planners evaluate alternative courses of action.
Atmospheric pollution 47 Research by several CSIRO Divisions is helping to provide the chemical insight needed by industry and pollution control authorities to improve their assessment of particular problems and to develop more effective control strategies.
Focus on tropical meteorology 50 Research in tropical meteorology is providing a better understanding of the factors that influence ihe Australian climate.
Quasar pairs 51 Pairs of quasars have been discovered in which the members of each pair have different red shifts. Introduction
This year marks the fiftieth anniversary of the establishment of CSIR, the forerunner of CSIRO, and one could be forgiven for taking the opportunity to record some of the achievements of those past fifty years. But, while it may be both interesting and useful to look back at the past, I believe that it is much more important, in this jubilee year, to look forward to the future.
The Organization today—indeed science and technology in general— is facing situations quite different from those of yesterday; it has to adapt itself to deal with problems of a quite different nature and has to do so under changing economic and social circumstances. The problems to be solved by science and technology are unlimited, but the available financial resources are not. However, the changing situation with respect to governmental funded science and technology is not simply a matter of availability of lunds, staff and facilities; there are also significant changes in the needs of the community and, more importantly, changes in national approach to world resource utilization, be they related to energy, food, water or population.
A criticism of CSIRO, which one encounters from time to time, is that it is too large. Those who offer this criticism rarely state what they mean by 'too large'—whether the Organization is too large for effective management or whether it receives what is thought to be too large a slice of the financial cake provided for science and technology by government. Yet in the size of CSIRO lies one of its great strengths. The sense in which I use the word 'size' relates not just to numbers of people employed or to budgets, but to the wide diversity of scientific and technological activities embraced by the Organization's programs.
This aggregation of scientific skills and facilities is not only exceedingly valuable now but will become even more so in the future, for two reasons.
Firstly, because collaborative multi-disciplinary research, which is becoming increasingly important, is most easily achieved within one Organization. Collaboration with other bodies, both nationally and internationally, is of course very important and will be even more so in the future. However, such collaboration tends to operate on a more formal basis and cannot always be entered into quite so readily or operated so efficiently.
Secondly, because of the broad base of CSIRO's activities there is almost always a nucleus in one or more Divisions which can be developed and built on to initiate research on new problems arising from changing community needs or changing economic conditions. These two reasons, in my opinion, constitute a forceful argument for the existence of a broadly based governmental research organization such as CSIRO. However, it is unlikely th.-n CSIRO will, in the foreseeable future, experience growth rates comparable- with those of the fifties and sixties. Consequently, the Organization will need to develop the ability to redeploy resources in response to changing priorities (o a much greater degree than has been necessary in the past.
Moreover, CSIRO is only one component in the total structure of scientific research in the Australian community and it must maintain and improve its relationships with other components. Indeed, the changes which have taken place in the seventies have made the Organization even more aware of the need for more effective external relations with many official bodies and community groups, particularly industry, Departments of State, universities and ocher bodies either involved in or having research needs, including, of course, the Australian Science and Technology Council.
I believe that the situation, which I have briefly outlined, points to the need for a management style and goal-setting arrangements for CSIRO that differ from those which sufficed in the past. Most organizations continually undergo self-modification in response to perceived needs, and this has certainly been irue of CSIR/CSIRO over the past fifty years. But over and above the evolutionary changes that have been made, the Executive has in recent years conducted a series of reviews aimed at developing arrangements to optimize the performance of the Organization and enable it to discharge its responsibilities more effectively in the years ahead.
It is worthy of note that, in this jubilee year, the Commonwealth Government has decided to conduct an independent external inquiry into CSIRO. This decision doubtless testifies to the Government's recognition that requirements have changed during the twenty-seven years since the last external review of the Organization. I am confident that the combination of the Executive's own endeavours together with the advice resulting from the external inquiry will encourage further development of CSIRO as a national research institution, and ensure continuation of the quality of research and record of achievement that characterized CSIR/CSIRO in the past.
J. R. PRICE Chairman CSIR—CSIRO 1926-1976 advise on the organization of national scientific research in Australia. As a result of the conference recommendations and Heath's report, Parliament passed the Science and Industry Research Act in 1&><> establishing CSIR, the Council CSIRO, or CSIR as it was then called, for Scientific and Industrial Research. was set up by Act of Parliament in 1926, The Act vested control of the new but its origins go back 10 years earlier. organization in a relatively large Council Jn 1°'6 the Prime Minister, Mr W. M. which was composed almost entirely of Hughes, called together a number of part-time members representing a wide prorr inent scientists and industrialists 10 range of scientific, agricultural and discu; s the formation of a scientific industrial interests in each State. The resean ;"• institution to work on problems Act also provided for an Executive affecting primary and secondary industry. Committee of three to carry out the A temponry body, the Advisory Council Council's functions between Council of Science and Industry, was formed to meetings. The first Chairman of the prepare the way for a permanent Council anu the Executive Committee Institute of Science and Industry. Its was Mr G. A. Julius (later Sir George), aim, said Hughes, 'was to apply to the a leading consulting engineer. The pastoral, agricultural, mining and Chief Executive Officer was Professor manufacturing industries the resources A. C. D. Rivett (later Sir David) who of science in such a way as to more resigned the Chair of Chemistry at the effectively develop our great heritage'. University of Melbourne to accept the By 1917 a scheme had been drafted, appointment. The third member of the but at the critical moment political Executive Committee was Professor support failed. The Advisory Council A. E. V. Richardson, a distinguished struggled on. It had neither laboratories agricultural scientist. Julius resigned at nor research staff of its own; its the ersd of 1945 and was succeeded as financial resources were extremely Chairman by Rivett. limited. Nevertheless, it appointed a numbei of expert committees which did much valuable work in coordinating and stimulating research in existing laboratories. •i- It was not until 1920 that the Government passed an Act establishing a permanent Institute. But finance continued to be restricted. Some progress was made, however, particularly in forest products research. In 1925 the Government convened a conference of scientific and industrial The illustration opposite showing the Chairmen leaders to advise how the Institute of CSIR and CSIRO is taken from the book might best be organized and its activities 'Surprise and Enterprise—Fifty years of science for extended. At about the same time, the Australia* which was produced to celebrate the 50i& anniversary of CSIRO. 'Surprise and Enterprise' then Prime Minister, Mr S. M. Bruce, wa.; written by Andrew A'fackay, illustrated and invited an eminent British science designed by Robert Ingpen and edited by administrator, Sir Frank Heath, to Sir Frederick White and David Kimpton. Sir George Julius 1926-45 Sir Frederick While 1959-70
Sir Ian Clunies Ross 1949-59
Sir David Rivett 1946-49 Sir Robert Price 1970- 1
V number ni ihe s
5 0 k General Chemistry, was asked by the Executive in 1955 to establish and lead an Industrial Research Liaison Section Administrative arrangements to promote and facilitate the application of CSIRO's research results by secondary On 2 July 1975, an Administrative industry. He became Executive Officer Arrangements Order published in the of CSIRO in 1964, an Associate Member Australian Government Oazette made of the Executive in 1966, and a Member tiiC administration of the Science and of the Ex^outive in 1969. Throughout Industry Research Act 1949 the joint his career with CSIRO, he made a major responsibility of the Minister for Science contribution to the development of the and Consumer Affairs and the Minister Organization's industrial research for Minerals nnd Energy. The programs and to the utilization of the responsibility .if the latter Minister was results of that research by secondary defined as administration of the Act industry. 'in so far as that Act relates to mineral Professor Mollie E. Holman, Professor and solar energy research'. of Physiology at Monash University, was Following the change of Government appointed a part-time member of the in December 1976, revised Administrative Executive in November 1975. She is the Arrangements Orders restored full first woman to be appointed to the responsibility for the administration of Executive. Professor Holman, an the Science and Industry Research Act authority on the transmission of nerve to the Minister for Science. impulses to muscle, is a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science and a Executive appointments recipient of the Edgeworth David Medal of the Royal Society of New South Wales. Professor H. \V. Worner was appointed Professor Holman takes the place of a full-time member of the Executive in Professor E. J. Underwood who was January 1976. Professor Worncr joined Chairman of the Western Austialian the CSIR Lubricants and Bearings State Committee and a Member of the Section, later the Division of Tribo- Ad\ isory Council before joining the physics, in 1940. He was appointed Executive in 19b6. One of Australia's Omcer-in-Charge of the former Physical most distinguished agricultural scientists, Metallurgy Section in 1956 and in the Professor Underwood has taken part in a same year became Professor of Metallurgy number of major reviews of CSIRO's at the University of Melbourne. He was agricultural research programs and Dean of the Faculty of Engineering at contributed to recent discussions on the University of Melbourne during restructuring the Organization. 1958 and 1959, and President of the Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering from 1963 to 1964. In Senior appointments 1964 lie relinquished his position with CSIRO in order to devote his full time Dr M. F. C. Da}- resigned his position to university activities. as a member of the Executive in May Professor VVorner succeeds Mr 1975 to take up his appointment as Chief Lewis Lewis who retired from the Of the DIVISION OF FOREST RESEARCH. Organization in January 1976. Mr Dr Day, who has been acting Chief of the Lewis, who joined CSIR in 1940 as Division since its establishment last year, Secretarv of the Division of Industrial was appointed to the Executive in 1966. Dr D. S. Taylor succe-ded Dr M. Establishment of the DIVISION OF Lipson as Chief of the DIVISION OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION was undertaken to TKXTILE INDUSTRY and Chairman of the achieve greater integration of livestock Wool Research Laboratories Committee breeding and physiology research following Dr Lip^n's retirement from programs and to make more effective use those positions in February 1976. Dr of the existing research facilities. Taylor was previously a Chief Research In June 1976, Mr A. F. Gurnett-Smith, Scientist with the Division. formerly Secretary (Research), accepted a two-year appointment as Officer-in- Process Technology Charge of the CENTRE FOR ANIMAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT near BogOr, Professor A. V. Bradshaw, formerly West Java. He succeeds Dr L. J. Professor of Applied Metallurgy at the Lambourne. Royal School of Mines, London, was CSIRO's ANIMAL RESEARCH appointed Chief of the newly established LABORATORIES now comprise the DIVISION OF PROCESS TECHNOLOGY in DIVISIONS OF ANIMAL HEALTH and October 1975. The Division, which ANIMAL PRODUCTION, the MOLECULAR AND is part of CSIRO's MINERALS RESEARCH CELLULAR BIOLOGY UNIT, and the LABORATORIES, was formed from the CENTRE FOR ANIMAL RESEARCH AND Sydney-based sections of the DIVISION OF DEVELOPMENT. MINERAL CHEMISTRY which has its headquarters in Melbourne. Overseas liaison The DIVISION OF PROCESS TECHNOLOGY will carry out research into methods of Dr C. A. Anderson, formerly of the deriving alternative fuels from Australian DIVISION OF TEXTILE INDUSTRY, has coal resources. It will also continue succeeded Mr E. E. Adderley as established research programs on Counsellor (Scientific) in the Australian pelletization of iron ore, direct reduction Embassy in Tokyo. He took up his of iron ore to metal, an i environmental appointment in October 1975. protection. In January 1976, Mr J. G. Downes, formerly Chief of the DIVISION OF Animal Research Laboratories TEXTILE PHYSICS, took Up his appointment to the newly created post of In November 1975, a major part of the Counsellor (Scientific) in the Australian DIVISION OF ANIMAL GENETICS Was Embassy in Moscow. amalgamated with the DIVISION OF ANIMAL As a result of a Government directive PHYSIOLOGY to form the DIVISION OF to limit staff numbers in overseas posts, ANIMAL PRODUCTION. Dr T. W. ScOU, the number of senior staff in the who was formerly Chief of the DIVISION Organization's overseas liaison offices OF ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY, was appointed in London and Washington will be Chief of the new Division and Dr J. M. reduced to one each as from July 1976. Rendel, formerly Chief of the DIVISION OF ANIMAL GENETICS, became a Senior Research Fellow. The remainder of the DIVISION or ANIMAL GENETICS was made an independent Unit, the MOLECULAR AND CELLULAR BIOLOGY UNIT, With Dr G. W. Grigg as acting Officer-in-Charge.
12 Research
In a report of this size it is nut possible to give a full account of all ofCSIRO's current investigations. The iLinu in this section have been chosen, therefore, to show something of the wide range ofCSIRO's activities and their relevance to the needs of the Australian community. The items also illustrate that many research programs involve the collaboration of scientists fror» different disciplines and different Divisions. More comptehensive information on the Organization's current research activities can be obtained from the separate annual reports published by each Division. A brief description of the fields of research engaged in by each Division is given on pages 65-71 of this report.
Nitrogen losses from tropical soils PASTURES has shown that 40 to 80% of the fertilizer nitrogen added to The mechanisms and extent of nitrogen losses tropical grasses grazed by beef cattle in from a number of Qjieensland soils are being southern Queensland is lost over a period studied. of years. Most of the residual 20 to 60% accumulates in the soil's organic matter; only a small percentage goes off with In northern Australia, as indeed in the beef cattle when they are slaughtered. many other parts of Australia, most It is more difficult to detect losses of soils provide insufficient nitrogen for nitrogen fixed by legumes because there sustained good growth of pasture grasses. is no simple way of recording the Continued higli yields requue regular amount added, but there is growing additions of nitrogen. Synthetic evidence of serious wastage of this nitrogen fertilizers are a convenient nitrogen also. source of nitrogen but are too expensive Several CSIRO Divisions are studying for genera) use. Accordingly, a major the mechanisms of these losses in the hope and successful effort has been made over that it might be possible to reduce them the years by the DIVISION OF TROPICAL or at least recognize when they have CROPS AND PASTURES to find tropical occurred. One line of work is con- grazing legumes that will grow well in centrating on the loss of ammonia Australia and increase the nitrogen from the soil surface. Scientists from supply by fixing it from the air. the DIVISIONS OF ENVIRONMENTAL While most of the research effort MECHANICS and PLANT INDUSTRY have, has gone into increasing the nitrogen for the first time, developed a realistic supply economically, CSIRO scientists technique for measuring loss of ammonia have also been studying the fate of this from land surfaces. Collaborative valuable nutrient under normal grazing research by the DIVISIONS OF conditions, and have been recording ENVIRONMENTAL MECHANICS and TROPICAL large losses. It is easiest to measure CROPS AND PASTURES has shown that up losses when nitrogen is added in the to 10% of a dressing of urea fertilizer form of synthetic fertilizer because the may be lost as ammonia within a week input can be recorded exactly. Work by of application. the DIVISION OF TROPICAL CROPS AND Another approach is concerned with
13 the microbial conversion of soil nitrate tropical grass) for hay. to gases other than ammonia. In the Knowledge of the nature of nitrogen early 1960s, CSIRO scientists developed losses in these different situations could gas lysimeters in which plants could be help in the development of improved grown in soil in an enclosed atmosphere cultural practices to reduce the extent and the atmosphere analysed for nitro- of such losses. genous gases. Subsequent use of these gas lysimeters by the DIVISIONS OF TROPICAL CROPS AND PASTURES and SOILS, and by the Queensland Wheat Research Institute, has shown that significant gaseous losses from nitrate occur only when the soil is actually submerged. It is not uncommon for soils in Queensland to be submerged during heavy cyclonic rains, and such rains are also likely to be responsible for a third type of loss—leaching of nitrate from the soil. Leaching losses are being studied by the DIVISIONS OF SOILS and TROPICAL CROPS AND PASTURES. Although most of the research in progress concerns the fate of added nitrogen, there is also considerable interest in how nitrogen behaves in naturally fertile, arable soils. An important area of soils with high nitrogen fertility is the land that formerly carried brigalow forest in Queensland and northern New South Wales. An increasing proportion of this Nodules on the roots of a soybean plant. land is being used for grain cropping, Rhizobia, bacteria which live in the nodule, obtain sugars from the plant and use these as a but it is not known how long the yields source of energy to help convert nitrogen gas will remain high without additions of from the soil air into chemical compounds that can legume or fertilizer nitrogen. be used by the plant. Plants such as beans, In 1968, therefore, the DIVISION OF peas, and clovers, which are able to fix nitrogen in this way, are known as legumes. TROPICAL CROPS AND PASTURES initiated Until recently it was thought that rhizobia a long-term study of fertility trends could only fix nitrogen in association with under continuous grain crops, crop- legumes. However, the DIVISION OF PLANT pasture rotations and continuous INDUSTRY has found that some bacteria can fix pasture on brigalow land at its Narayen nitrogen in a laboratory culture independent of Research Station near Mundubbera, legumes. Similar findings have been reported by research teams at Murdoch University, Perth, Qld. Recently, this program has been and at the Canadian Research Council in expanded to measure rates of gains and Saskatoon. Since then the DIVISION OF PLANT losses of nitrogen under five contrasting INDUSTRY has been able to define the physical forms of agriculture—sorghum for and chemical conditions that will induce rhizobia to fix nitrogen in the complete absence of either grain, mung beans (an annual legume whole plants or plant cells. crop) for grain, oats for hay, lucerne fo<- hay, and green panic (a perennial Photograph: Colin Totterdell
14
i Breeding better livestock its variation; a genetic correlation is the extent to which two individuals or Identification of inherited chat acterislies groups are alike for genetic reasons; which are economically important in livestock the selection differential is the amount production and the development of methods by which a group of selected breeders of selecting f or them are leading to real and exceeds the performance of the group lasting improvements in the productivity of from which it was drawn. livestock. With these simple concepts it is For the first two decades of this century possible to design breeding programs geneticists throughout the world to change a character effectively in a concentrated their research on the way desired direction. Broadly, there are genes are distributed from parent to three choices open to the breeder— offspring. To dc this they studied mass selection, family selection and characters controlled by single genes. progeny testing. Having explained the mechanics of When heritability is high and the gene transmission underlying Mendel's character is expressed in both sexes, laws, geneticists then focused their e.g. in the weight of wool grown by a attention on characters whose variation sheep in a year, mass selection is the is controlled by more than one gene. most effective method. When only Fleece weight, body weight, milk one sex expresses the character, as in yield and number of eggs laid in a milk yield or egg laying, progeny year are characters of this type. Where testing or family selection, where the these characters vary between merit of an animal can be estimated individuals in flocks and herds, the from the merit of its relatives and variation is not caused by single genes. progeny, are the most effective methods. But variation cannot be attributed With milk yield in dairy cattle, solely to the influence of multiple genes progeny testing proves on analysis to either. In every case, variation is the be better than family selection; with product of an intricate interplay egg laying in poultry, family selection between multiple genes and differences is usually preferred because of the low in the environment. By the 1940s, generation interval. geneticists had developed methods The fonner DIVEION OF ANIMAL which unravelled this complex inter- GENETICS has published the simple action and had worked out the extent to methods most likely to succeed in which such characters are genetically increasing egg production in poultry. determined. These are adaptations to Australian Because many genes may influence conditions of methods that have raised a single character, the techniques are egg production world wide from some necessarily statistical, selecting not the 120 eggs per hen housed per year in superior individual but the superior the 1920s to 240 per year. Although group of individuals whose mean progress beyond this point has not yet performance is higher than that of the been achieved, the DIVISION OF ANIMAL herd or flock from whence they came. PRODUCTION is attempting to break Such superior groups are then used for through this genetic barrier. breeding. In recent years CSIRO has taken Key statistical concepts emerged part in discussions with State Depart- at this time: the heritability of a ments of Agriculture concerning the character is the genetic fraction of introduction of progeny testing of dairy
16 bulls used in artificial breeding centres. The breed, known as the Australian Previous attempts to prove bulls in Milking Zebu, or AMZ, is still small natural service came to nothing because in number, but surplus stock have people had to compare a bull whose been sold to Malaysia, the Philippines daughters were all milked in one herd and Trinidad, and. .semen has been with another bull whose daughters used in In< :<•, Fiji and Mauritius. were milked in a different herd. As Mass selection is the method being differences between herds are due used by the DIVISION OF ANVMAL mostly to feeding and management, PRODUCTION to breed beef cattle for the the differences between bulls in natural tropics. The characters for which service are more a reflection of the breeding stock have to be chosen are skill of the farmers than the worth of quite highly heritable and can be their bulls. But with the advent of measured directly on the individual artificial insemination and the develop- animal. Most important are those ment of artificial breeding centres, the associated with heat tolerance, fertility, genetic legacy of a bull could be and resistance to ticks, worms and observed in many herds and, as a disease. A combination of Africander, corollary, the genetic legacies of many Hereford and Shorthorn cattle, after bulls could be compared in a single some three generations of selection, herd. It became possible to compare has produced the Belmont Red, already bulls on the basis of the yield of a highly useful animal though, like daughters who had been reared and the AMZ, still capable of many milked side-by-side. generations of improvement. 'Contemporary comparison', as this procedure is now known, is the CSIRO has also used mass selection key to breeding dairy cattle. The in sheep to increase production of DIVISION OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION IS wool and meat and to improve wool using the techniqr» to create a breed quality. In the case of multiple births, of tropical dairy cattle which will however, a character expressed by combine milk production with heat the female, the selection program had tolerance and tick resistance. to include some means of assessing the The first step involved crossing Indian male, either directly on the basis of Sahiwals, which have the heat tolerance his progeny or, by inference, on the and tick resistance characteristic of Zebu merit of his sisters and half sisters. breeds, with British Jerseys. The bulls The choice of a selection and mating resulting from such crosses were system is fairly simple once the selected by direct test for their heat character to be improved and its mode tolerance and tick resistance and of expression are known and its the top six to ten bulls were mated heritability determined. The choice of to crossbred cows and progeny-tested character and the means of measurement for milk production in their daughters. depend on the type of animal wanted Finally, the top buli was used to breed and the convenience, cheapness and further teams of bulis for testing. So suitability of the measurement. far two generations of selection have However, it often happens that a been completed, each generation measurement chosen for cheapness and occupying 7 years. Already a breed convenience results in the wrong has emerged with high resistance to animals being selected for breeding. ticks and heat, and with milk-producing The crimp oi a wool staple is a ability equivalent to that of a Guernsey. classic example. Crimp frequency,
17 once used extensively as an estimate Controlling the rabbit of wool fineness, has been shown by the former DIVISION OF ANIMAL GENETICS Information on rabbit physiology, to be an unreliable guide to mean behaviour and ecology is providing a base fibre diameter. It is mean fibre for the development of methods of control to diameter which is now accepted as the supplement myxomatosis. most important measure of wool quality. Not only is crimp relatively In 1951, the successful release of myxo- unimportant in wool processing, matosis by CSIRO into the Australian but selection for crimp alone leads to rabbit population dramatically reduced reduced yield of clean wool and the numbers of rabbits which at that depressed quality. The Division has time were in plague proportions. The shown that fleece weight can be Bureau of Agricultural Economics increased by selection for high, clean- estimated that in 1952-53, Australia's fleece weight while controlling quality wool and meat production jumped by by maintaining fibre diameter. S68 million as pastures recovered from At a time when many of Australia's the ravages of rabbits. Since then less livestock industries are experiencing lethal strains of myxoma virus have considerable economic difficulties, the emerged and rabbit populations have productivity of individual animals is developed a degree of genetic resistance of prime importance. It is desirable to the disease. therefore that every effort should be To counter this, better strains of made to concentrate genetic selection virus were selected and methods of on those characters which contribute inoculation and dissemination of the most to performance. In some cases, virus were improved. The European CSIRO's research has indicated the rabbit flea was introduced into Australia particular characters that the farmer as an alternative vector for transmitting and stud master can use in their breeding the disease. Although these improve- programs to develop genetically ments have helped maintain the superior animals. In other cases, effectiveness of myxomatosis, there is important genetic characters such as little prospect of finding further tech- tick resistance and heat tolerance in niques for making the disease effective. cattle are difficult to recognize and Myxomatosis remains a significant factor select for without the kind of facilities in rabbit control, but in time its effective- that are available to CSIRO geneticists ness is likely to diminish and other in their laboratories and field stations. methods of control will become increas- In these instances, however, the results ingly important. of the geneticists' selection procedures have resulted in the development of Over the past 15 years the DIVISION genetically superior animals which OF WILDLIFE RESEARCH has made are made available progressively to the intensive studies of the biology and industry for use in commercial flocks ecology of the rabbit in an attempt to and herds. understand the factors on which its reproduction and survival depend. An adequate understanding of these fe ctors is necessary in order to form a sound basis for designing effective long- term control measures. The Division has shown that the
18 rabbit's success varies with climate—a season they live in small groups in Mediterranean-type climate with hot, territories which they deiend against dry summers and cool, wet winters intruder. For poisoning to be effective, suits it best. Within each region, the furrows in which the poison bait is distribution and numbers depend on to be laid must cut through each topography, soil, vegetation, predators, separate territory. But even if this is disease and the activities of man. done and the breeding females are A series of studies in key areas has poisoned, studies have shown that highlighted the importance of residual unweaned kittens, which are more than populations which survive to form the 17 days' old but still not old enough to nucleus for a subsequent increase in eat the poison bait, may survive the numbers. These residual populations loss of their mothers and form a may be in areas where natural mortality nucleus for another build-up in the factors are less effective than elsewhere population. Outside the breeding or where it is difficult to carry out season the survival of young kittens is control opera :ioas. not a complicating factor and the Major survival areas were pinpointed rabbits are less restricted by territorial in some regional surveys. In boundaries. Poisoning at that time is agricultural regions survival areas are therefore more effective. often in rocky, timbered hills and other The poison '1080' (sodium areas where machinery cannot be used fluoroacetate) has been widely used for eradication procedures. In arid since trials at the DIVISION OF WILDLIFE areas the surveys covered a total area RESEARCH revealed that it has advantages of 650 square kilometres and revealed over other poisons, although precautions the special importance of survival must be taken to protect stock and areas during times of drought when other animals against accidental surviving rabbits are to be found in poisoning. small areas near swamps and drainage The Division has devised a method of channels. Control efforts directed at administering the poison, known as the such areas, particularly during droughts, tarbaby technique, which minimizes can be highly effective and long lasting. the danger to other animals. Behavioural Warrens are important for survival studies showed that rabbits groom their since they afford the rabbits protection front paws by licking them. If 1080 is and provide a focal point for their mixed with a tacky base and placed gregarious behaviour. Destruction of on the floor of each opening to a warrens is therefore an important part burrow, rabbits step on it and then of many control programs. ingest the poison when they lick their feet to clean them. But although the Observations on the behaviour of technique gave promising results in rabbits have shown that they are less field trials there proved to be practical nomadic than was thought. This problems in adapting it for use by land- finding has provided extra incentive holders. for implementing projects aimed at Another technique of poisoning has eradicating rabbits completely from been developed for subalpine areas by large groups of holdings. exploiting the rabbit's appetite for Behavioural studies on rabbits in sodium. In the spring and summer enclosures have shown that poisoning is when soils and plants in these areas most effective when the rabbits are are particularly deficient in sodium, not breeding. During the breeding rabbits develop a considerable appetite
19 for it. In experiments, sodium-deficient Grading wheat for marketing rabbits gnawed avidly at softwood pegs dipped in sodium chloride and 1080 Improved methods of segregating wheat poison. varieties and of sampling and testing grain The Division hopes that it may be are facilitating quality control of Australia's able to improve poisoning by developing export wheat. chemicil attractants based on the rabbi'.'s system of communicating by In recent years wheat buyers have smelt. Behavioural studies have shown become increasingly quality conscious, thiii fluids exuded from chin, anal and setting specifications for protein content, inguinal scent glands are used for moisture content, insect contamination communication among rabbits, and so on. enabling them to recognize their home The WHEAT RESEARCH UNIT has been territory or group and alerting them to collaborating with the New South rabbits from outside their group. Wales Grain Elevators Board and other wheat industry authorities to improve Rabbits in all areas are infested with methods of segregating wheat varieties internal parasites. Many of the parasites and of sampling and testing the grain. found in rabbits in Europe are not Adoption of these methods will help found in Australia and the Division ensure that Australia's wheat crop is is giving high priority to testing these marketed in homogeneous grades of and other organisms for biological known quality. control. No parasite will be introduced, The different physical and chemical however, until it has been shown to properties of the various wheat varieties have no harmful effects on stock or determine the commercial use to which native animals. the grain is put. Hard wheat of high The role of predators in rabbit control protein content commands the highest is also being evaluated. It is already prices and is In denand in western clear that the most important predators countries for bread making, and in are two important animals, the European Asia for making certain types of noodles. fox and the feral cat. In the arid and Wheat of lower protein content is used Mediterranean-type areas predators may f >r foods such as biscuits, cakes and account annually for about 80% of the Japanese white noodlr s. death rate in young rabbits. Australian wheat varies in protein The large amount of data gathered content from 8 to 16%, hence the need by the Division on rabbit physiology, to segregate at receival points on the behaviour and ecology is providing a basis of variety and protein content. base for further experimental studies Quality control begins on the farm. on rabbit control. It has also Provided farmers follow the recom- demonstrated that there is little mendations of their State Department possibility of developing a single of Agriculture with respect to varieties strategy for control that can be applied sown, planting schedules, fertilizer to all situations. Different ecological programs and harvesting procedures, zones will require different approaches. the wheat from a particular area should be of uniform and predictable quality. Tests at receival points can then be restricted to rapid, mainly visual methods of grading according to market requirements.
20 The first place where sampling is analysis takes about 20 minutes and a practicable is at the receival points in minimum of training is required to the country. On delivery to the country operate the apparatus. The method has silo the grain is checked to ensure that been used successfully for four hai vests in it is sound and clean. If premium southern New South Wales to separate quality wheat is to be segregated, Southern Hard from Australian Standard checks on variety and protein content White wheat. are also carried out. Individual The second method depends on a truck'oads f/om farmers tend to be reaction between protein and copper. fairly uniform in quality and a sample The apparatus automatically reacts a at this stage ;s usually adequate for pre-weighed sample of ground grain segregation. with a measured quantity of chemicals. The WHFAT RESEARCH UNIT in It then filters the products and measures collaboration with State Departments of them colorimetrically. The reaction Agriculture has produced a handbook takes about 5 minutes and the results are describing the growth, head and grain presented directly ar percentage protein. characteristics of commercially grown This equipment has been tested under Australian wheat varieties. The book harvest conditions and several units, provides a reference which assists the manufactured commercially, have now managers of country silos, and others, been sold. to check the identity of wheat as it is Although additional checks are made delivered. This facilitates segregation of at several points during the pa- age of premium quality grades. the grain from the country receival point to the shipping terminal, great The Unit has also developed laboratory reliance is placed on these initial tests. methods of identification for confirming and extending the determinations made The shipping terminal is another visually. The most specific of these key sampling location since samples uses the technique of electrophoresis to taken at the terminal enable the results separate wheat proteins into marks or from the country receival points to be bands which stain blue when a dye is checked. They also aid weighing-up applied. The pattern of the bands is operations before shipment. Collecting characteristic of a particular variety, representative samples at this stage, regardless of the growing conditions. however, has presented a significant The standard method of measuring problem because of the high speeds at protein in grain is the Kjeldahl method. which conveyor belts move and the While highly accurate in the hands of huge quantities of grain involved. a trained operator, it is time consuming, Since quality control is limited by and not suitable for use in areas where the accuracy of sampling techniques, laboratory facilities are minimal. The the Unit has turned its attention to Unit has therefore developed two rapid shortcomings in the methods by which methods of protein determination which samples are drawn from the bulk grain. are suitable for "se in these situations. It has examined the two types of grain In the first method the protein is sampling probes used in Australia and treated with alkali and the ammonia found that one drew a much more liberated is distilled off and estimated by representative sample than the other. titration with acid. A numerical factor The Unit has also developed a simple is then used to convert the titration device for continuous sampling of grain figure to percentage protein. Each going either into or out of country silos,
21 Si-
arriving at seaboard terminals or, more taking part in a working party importantly, grain ready for shipment organized by the Australian Wheat overseas. The device is presently being Board to evaluate alternative insecticides tested both at country silos and at which are long lasting and leave seaboard terminals. chemical residues that are not harmful Several of the devices have been to man. So far the most promising installed at the Newcastle shipping alternatives are the synthetic pyrethroids, terminal in order to keep a close watch synthetic chemicals closely related to on the quality of overseas shipments. the natural substance found in Samples are collected every 15 minutes pyrethrum plants. One of these so that the protein and moisture content chemicals successfully controlled the of the shipment can be calculated grain insects in five commercial silos accurately and so that wheat of higher during trials and several other protein content can be blended in if pyrethroids are being evaluated. portions of the shipment are failing to Other studies at the Division have meet the specifications. resulted in far smaller amounts of chemicals such as dichlorvos and phosphine being used to fumigate the grain immediately prior to shipment Insect pests in stored grain without loss of effectiveness. By using combinations of the most effective Alternatives to current methods of controlling chemicals it may be possible to reduce insecl pests in stored grain are being sought. even further the total quantity of chemicals used both during storage Commonwealth Government regulations and for pre-shipment fumigation. require that grain for export mubt be Scientists at the DIVISION OF free from living insects and that ENTOMOLOGY have also tested methods chemical residues from insecticides do of controlling grain pests by eliminating not exceed certain specified levels. almost all the oxygen from the grain To meet these requirements, Australia store. If grain is loaded into air-tight has had to rely on a few internationally underground pits, the insects use up acceptable chemicals, especially the available oxygen until there is not malathion. However, malathion has enough left to support life. never been very effective agairst moths and most other grain insects have become resistant to it. In addition, if grain treated with malathion is stored for more than 6 months, a second treatment is necessary. The DIVISIONS OF ENTOMOLOGY and MECHANICAL ENGINEERING are seeking practical solutions to the problem of insects in stored grain. While more acceptable chemical methods of control A scanning electron micrograph of the granary are being investigated as a short-term weevil, Sitopkilus granariust on a grain of whcac. measure, the long-term aim is to The ability of the scanning electron microscope develop methods that will eliminate to resolve fine surface details at relatively low magnifications enables photographs to be used to the use of chemicals. illustrate the differences between species. The DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY is Magnification: x 66.
22
Initial trials of air-tight storage in Wales Grain Elevators Board the pits showed that the method was Division is searching for a compound cheap and effective, and protected that can be applied to the insides of the grain from insects and from a existing concrete silos to minimize mouse plague which devastated grain leakage. The co.npound needs to be stored above ground at the time of the of reasonable cost, long Listing, trials. impermeable, non-toxic to humans, and Additional trials are now in progress. At tough enough to resist grain abrasion Narrabri, N.S.W., polyethylene sheeting yet pliable enough to ycretch across has been used to line a pit in a trial cracks that open as the silo fills with which is due to end this year. A long- grain. Three compounds are being term trial is also under way with tested at present. another pit containing 100 tonnes of wheat. This will be opened in several The DIVISION OF MECHANICAL years' time to test the wheat for insect ENGINEERING is developing alternative damage, moisture content, and baking methods of control which exploit the and milling quality. insects' sensitivity to both cold and The principle of excluding air can heat—temperatures below about also be applied to silos, but experiments 15°C are too cold for insects to reproduce have shown that it is extremely difficult and above 60°C too hot for their to build completely air-tight silos. survival. In Australia grain is often Small holes are usually found around harvested in temperatures of 30°C or loading points near the base and where more and the warmth is retained the roof joins the walls. Convection can remarkably well in bulk storage providing cause substantial losses of gas through ideal conditions for insect attack. these holes even when the air is still. In North America a system of Steady winds of low velocity cause still forcing naturally cool air through the greater losses. Simulation studies grain mass in a silo is used extensively carried out in a wind tunnel by the to lower the temperature to a level DIVISION OF ENVIRONMENTAL MECHANICS where insect damage is prevented. showed that in moderate wind conditions Scientists from the Division found that the displacement of air in a silo con- the method could be utilized in th~ taining two small (4 sq cm) holes—one cooler areas of Australia where night at the top and one at the bottom— temperatures are low enough to cool could be as great as 8% a day. the grain sufficiently. A special control An alternative solution in which device was developed to aerate the nitrogen is used to flush out oxygen grain only at periods of low temperature from the silos is therefore being tested without creating moisture problems. by the DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY. In the more northerly wheat-growing The nitrogen is introduced rapidly at first areas of Australia, however, the nights to displace the air and then slowly to are too warm for aeration to be compensate for leakage. The results suceessful. Even in the cooler regions from silos with steel bins .ire encouraging the temperatures are low enough only and long-term trials are under way. to control insect populations but not In the case of silos with concrete bins, to eliminate them. To provide however, leakage is considerable and a conditions too cold for insect large amount of nitrogen is needed reproduction, the Division has developed continuously to make up the loss. a system of refrigerated aeration. This In conjunction with the New South reduces the temperature of the bulk
24 grain to less than 10°C over a period water—a process known as respiration. of about 6 weeks. In trials over two Slowing down respiration by storing seasons at Brookstead, QJd, no live at low but not freezing temperatures insects were found despite extensive prolongs the life of many fruits and sampling 8 months after the silo had vegetables. Moreover, the storage life been insulated and cooled with and final quality can often be improved refrigerated air. The method is safe, still further by increasing the amount of clean and does not impair the quality carbon dioxide and decreasing the of the grain. Running costs can com- amount of oxygen in the atmosphere pare favourably with current chemical around the fruit. methods of control, but the capital Since the 1930s the DIVISION OF FOOD outlay is greater. RESEARCH has carried out a considerable The DIVISION OF MECHANICAL amount of research, much of it in ENGINEERING is also testing a rapid association with State Departments of method of heat sterilization which uses Agriculture, to develop improved a fluidized bed. The individual grains storage techniques based on the use of are suspended for a short time in a jet low temperatures and controlled of hot air, then quickly cooled. By atmospheres. Although these methods controlling temperatures and exposure have brought about substantial times, insects can be destroyed at all improvements in storage, they have stages of their life cycles without given rise in some instances to new affecting the quality of the grain. The and unexpected problems such as times and temperatures required for various low-temperature storage this have been determined by the disorders of apples and pears. DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY. It is envisaged By the 1950s it had become clear that the process could be used at export that a solution to these problems terminals where a method of destroying would require a better understanding insects rapidly without leaving a residue of the basic physiology, biochemistry is needed. and biophysics of the myriad cells of which plant tissues are composed. Accordingly, the Division formed the Plant Physiology Unit in 1952 to Storing fruit and vegetables examine the basic mechanisms under- lying the post-harvest behaviour of Basic research on the physiology and fruits and vegetables. biochemistry of plant cells is helping to In order to gain a better under- improve methods of storing and transporting standing of the processes involved in fruit and vegetables without loss of quality. maturation and ripening, the Unit adopted a two-pronged attack. One Most fruits and vegetables begin to line of approach was to investigate deteriorate from the moment they are the physiology and biochemistry of harvested or shordy after they have ripening fruit to determine, both at ripened. This is because they are living the whole tissue and at the cellular /•-: material. Once detached from the level, the nature of the changes that parent plant or removed from their take place during ripening and the growth environment, they must factors that control these changes. The produce the energy needed to stay banana was chosen as the main fruit alive by breaking down the sugars in on which to carry out this research their tissues to carbon dioxide and and particular empb isis was placed
25 on the effects of ethylene gas and other quickly and evenly. In this way, cool plant hormones in initiating ripening. storage during long-distance transport The other line of work involved was avoided. studying the processes concerned with With tomatoes and many other the regulation of maturation. Much fruits, however, this technique does not of this work was directed at the chloro- work owing to uneven ripening after plast, one of the minute particles found harvest. The Plant Physiology Unit in plant cells. In leaves exposed to is trying to find out why some tomatoes light, chloroplasts are a major site of in a crop ripen earlier than others. By protein synthesis. The Unit is now comparing normal strains of tomatoes studying the regulation of the synthesis with mutant strains, which do not ripen of Fraction I protein, the main protein or which ripen only partially, scientists at of the chloroplast and the world's most the Unit are hoping to discover missing abundant protein. This work is factors which might regulate the ripening expected to give dues about how very process. This could then give a lead to long-living cells such as those found in possible genetic or chemical means of a cool-stored fruit maintain the protein regulating ripening in tomato crops so synthesizing capacity needed for their that all of the fruit ripens at the snme well being. time. It has been known for some rime that Research by the Unit has also revealed the calcium concentration in fruit is why tomatoes and many tropical fruits important in minimizing post-harvest are injured quickly by low temperatures storage disorders. Recent work at the and soften, while other fruit and Unit has shown that the level of calcium vegetables can survive low temperatures in apples can be increased after harvest with little damage. The key to under- by infiltrating calcium salts into the standing the mechanism of the process fruits. that enables some plants to withstand Although the function of calcium in chilling has been found in the physical plant membranes is largely unknown, properties of the cell membranes. studies suggest that calcium interacts These membranes are composed of with plant cell membranes to reduce fatty substances, called lipids, and the leakage of nutrients from the cell. proteins. In most tropical plants growing at temperatures of about But while the Unit's research has 15"C or above, the membrane lipids helped overcome a number of problems are in a 'melted' condition and the associated with cool storage, there are membranes are fluid. When the still many fruits, particularly tropical temperature is reduced below about ones such as bananas, that are injured 15°C (the critical temperature varies by low temperatures. from species to species), physical changes About 10 years ago the DIVISION OF in the membrane lipids cause them to FOOD RESEARCH, in conjunction with 'freeze' and the membranes become the New South Wales Department of more 'rigid'—like butter hardening in a jy. Agriculture, developed a system of refrigerator. This physical phase transporting green bananas in plastic transition from fluid to rigid state has bags over thousands of kilometres. On profound effects on the properties of reaching their destination, the bananas the membranes and of the chemical were given a dose of the natural ripening processes in the cell. When the hormone, ethylene, under conditions of membranes turn rigid they become like controlled temperature to ripen them an open mesh instead of a semi-porous
26 skin—nutrients leak out of the cell, Oxford, U.K., arranged for officers from foreign substances leak in, energy pro- the Division and the Department of the duction slows down, and the chemistry of Northern Territory to collect seed from the cell becomes disorganized. Plants the variety hondurensis in Belize, Guatemala, and fruits which are resistant to chilling Honduras and Nicaragua for inclusion have membrane lipiJs which remain in subsequent triais. Seedlings from semi-fluid at low temperatures. collections made on the coastal plains The Unit is now trying to discover of northern Nicaragua and adjacent why there is such a variation in Honduras have shown the fastest sensitivity to chilling among different growth in plantings near Darwin and species of plants. It is also working on on Melville Island. methods that could help plant breeders The Division used seeds from seed select chilling-resistant plants more easily orchards in Queensland and Fiji to test and improve the keeping quality of their potential under conditions in the their fruit. Northern Territory. Results to date, however, indicate that selection from local plantations will be necessary to achieve optimum growth and form. Pine trees and termites One major threat to the successful growth of Pinus caribaea around Darwin Shortage of timber in the Northern Territory is the termite Mastotermes darwiniensis has led to a search for suitable tree species which may kill up to 30% of young that can be grown locally. trees in a year. With the cooperation of the The inability of forests in the Northern Australian Atomic Energy Commission, Territory to meet local requirements the DIVISION OF FOREST RESEARCH has was recognized r^any years ago. During developed a radioisotope method for World War II much of the suitable tracing subterranean colonies of the timber within 250 km of Darwin was termites. Because individual termites harvested and so the problem became exchange nutrients with others in a more acute. In 1955 the Forestry and colony, a small amount of a radioisotope Timber Bureau began a search for tree eaten by a few termites spreads through species that would endure the harsh a colony containing several million northern climate and yield general members. In this way the Division purpose timber. This work continued can estimate the extent and population after incorporation of research groups of a colony before introducing an from the Bureau into the newly formed appropriate poison. The same process CSIRO DIVISION OF FOREST RESEARCH of transfer spreads the poison among in 1975. the termites and eventually wipes out A wide range of tropical trees has the colony. been studied and the most promising The Division has demonstrated that in species so far is Pinus caribaea, a native order to establish the new plantations of Central America and the Caribbean clean clearing of the existing eucalypt islands which has been successfully forest is important. The population of planted in tropical Queensland, Fiji, Mastotermes darwiniensis increases in wood and parts of Africa and Asia. debris remaining on the site after normal Most of the Pinus caribaea seed used in clearing and its early removal by the early tests came from Belize, but the burning greatly reduces the persistence Commonwealth Forestry Institute at of the termites. When economic
27 considerations preclude thorough clearing, Spinning new yarns the poison bait method of controlling termites, which may emerge from logs Rapid spinning techniques are being used to in windrows or in adjacent forests, is combine wool with synthetic filaments to effective and easy to apply. produce new yarns for knitting. In addition to research on the best tree species for the Territory, the Division Wool has outstanding natural properties has extended earlier work by the former as a textile fibre—it is warm, soft, DIVISION OF LAND RESEARCH and the resilient and easy to dye, and it absorbs Department of the Northern Territory moisture. On the other hand, wool is on the soils of the region. expensive to harvest, sell and transport Most of the soils are shallow, gravelly overseas, and turning fleece into yarn and infertile, but a few, particularly requires many processing operations. the deeper red and yellow earths, are Because of the great importance that suitable for the establishment of wool has always had in the Australian plantations. Fertilization with phosphate, economy, much of the effort of CSIRO's nitrogen and sulphur appears to WOOL RESEARCH LABORATORIES over the enhance tree growth in most cases and last 27 years has been directed towards the Division has found that relatively- overcoming wool's disadvantages and small amounts of mixed fertilizer— enhancing its virtues so that it can about 25 g a tree—establish the trees compete successfully with other textile and promote early growth. fibres. One of the most notable achievements of this work has been the self-twist spinning machine which was developed The SELFIL Spinner, developed jointly by by the DIVISION OF TEXTILE INDUSTRY in Repco Ltd and the DIVISION OF TEXTILE INDUSTRY. collaboration with Repco Ltd. The Photograph: John Card Repco Spinner occupies only a fifth of the floor space of a conventional two strands of wool are passed between spinning machine of comparable output; a pair of rotating synthetic rubber it is faster, cleaner and quieter, and it rollers which are also moving rapidly uses less power. In 1970 the Repco from side to side in opposite directions Spinner won the Prince Philip Prize for to each other. This results in a short industrial design and in the last 5 years section of each strand being twisted in more than 1600 machines worth $20 one direction, the next section in the million have been sold. opposite direction and so on. As the A new but complementary spinning two twisted strands emerge from the machine, again developed by the rollers they are immediately brought Division in collaboration with Repco, together so that they twist about each was unveiled at the International other, forming a stable two-ply yarn. Textile Machine Exhibition in Milan in In the new SELFIL Spinner, a single 1975. This machine—the SELFIL wool strand is passed through self-twist Spinner—produces a completely new rollers and is then brought into contact type of knitting yarn from a mixture of with a synthetic filament. The wool and synthetics. Whereas the Repco alternating twist of the wool causes the Spinner produces a two-ply yarn suitable filament to wrap around the strand. for weaving, the SELFIL Spinner wraps This filament-wrapped strand then two continuous synthetic fibre filaments moves forward to a second twisting around a core of wool to produce what is stage. Here, alternating twist is again essentially a single-ply yarn that is imparted, this time by bringing the particularly suitable for knitting. The strand intermittently between two new machine combines all the advantages rotating discs. A second filament is of the Repco Spinner with the additional added at this point, resulting in the advantages of outstanding yarn per- complete SELFIL structure. The two formance, both in knitting and garment filaments are phased so that a section of manufacture and in the wear properties high twist in the one filament coincides of the garments. with a section of zero twist in the other The SELFIL yarn, consisting of 80% filament, and vice versa. or more wool, is very strong and long A feature of the machine is auto- wearing and is ideal for use in products matic threading of the very fine fila- for which all-wool yarns have proved ments by blowing the thread through impracticable. For instance, fine tubes with compressed air. Quietness SELFIL yarns are suitable for knitted and cleanliness are some of its other wool suitings and shirtings. Although attractive features, leading to brighter, fine all-wool yarns can be used for cleaner, quieter working conditions. these products, they are expensive to In 1975 the SELFIL Spinner, like produce by conventional methods the Repco Spinner, won the Prince and break excessively during knitting. Philip Prize for industrial design. Fabric knitted from SELFIL yarn has all the advantages of wool—it is soft, warm and does not snag. In addition, it is stronger and more resistant to abrasion and pilling, it possesses fewer knitting faults, and the stability and ease of cutting and making-up of fabric knitted from it are greatly improved. In the Repco Self-Twist Spinner,
29 Bringing calibrations to industry is "inique in Australia, and its introduc- tion heralds a major improvement in the The NATIONAL MEASUREMENT LABORATORY accuracy of on-site calibrations in the is devising new techniques to kelp it provide an electric power industry. on-siie calibration service to industry. Some calibrations must be performed on-site because the items to be calibrated CSIRO's NATIONAL MEASUREMENT are integral parts of large built-in LABORATORY is responsible for maintaining installations. For example, in the case standards of measurement in Australia. of large quantities of liquids, such as Its instruments and techniques measure petroleum products flowing through electric resistance and potential with an pipelines, there is an increasing need for uncertainty of less than one part in a precise measurement of liquid flow. million, reproduce the wavelength of a Large meters monitor the flow and are laser beam to one part in 10 million, calibrated by on-line devices called and determine intervals of time with 'provers'. The Laboratory has devised an uncertainty of less than one part in a technique for calibrating provers which a million million. has operated under working conditions One of the main activities of the with high accuracy. NATIONAL MEASUREMENT LABORATORY IS The NATIONAL MEASUREMENT examination of instruments and standards LABORATORY also helps users calibrate to determine the nature and size of any their own equipment. Manufacturers errors in their nominal or indicated can, for instance, use standard test blocks values. These examinations, or calibrated in the Laboratory to calibrate calibrations, are usually undertaken in their hardness-testing machines. They the Laboratory. In the past few years, can also measure the viscosity of fluids however, there has been an increasing such as lubricating oils by using the need to calibrate equipment which Viscosity Standardization Service cannot be taken to the Laboratory. In operated by the Laboratory. This some instances, the Laboratory's usual Service supplies samples of liquids at calibration instruments have been taken certified viscosity so that the performance to the site where the equipment is to be of working viscometers can be checked. examined. In others, the NATIONAL Besides providing for on-site calibra- MEASUREMENT LABORATORY has either tions, the NATIONAL MEASUREMENT developed special equipment or devised LABORATORY undertakes on-site new techniques for the purpose. measurements which require the use of A recent example of the development special techniques. In some industrial of special equipment is the construction processes, for example, accurate control of a mobile high-voltage test unit to of temperature in furnaces is important. calibrate items of high-voltage measuring In these cases it is necessary not only to equipment which cannot be brought to know the average temperature in the the Laboratory because of their bulk or furnace, but also the variations in fragility. It allows calibration to be temperature from point to point. carried out in the operating situation so Scientists from the Laboratory can make that it is possible to take into account on-site measurements of the temperature local environmental factors such as the distribution within furnaces and advise nature and stability of the available on ways to improve this distribution. power supply, the arrangement of the The Laboratory also measures humidity apparatus, and the proximity of walls in industrial situations where there are and ceilings. The high-voltage test unit unusual difficulties in making measure-
30 ments or special requirements for which contain large amounts of sodium accuracy. chloride. Measurements of a different kind are Atomic absorption spectroscopy is involved in checking the accuracy of based on the fact that atoms of a given alignment of large installations such as element absorb and emit light at rolling mills. Optical techniques wavelengths specific to that element. adapted to the special requirements of In the standard instrument, an atomic each installation are used by the vapour is produced by vaporizing a Laboratory in making such measure- solution of the sample in a flame. Light ments. characteristic of the element to be Machine tools, being fixed firmly to determined is passed through the vapour their foundations, are usually examined and the amount of light absorbed on-site. The Laboratory will undertake measured by a detector. This can then 'static' tests on machine tools, such as be related to the concentration of the checks for flatness of surfaces, align- element in the sample. ments, spindle run-outs, and accuracy of One of the limitations inherent in linear and angular displacements. It is using the flame as an atomizer is that now developing equipment and tech- some elements are only partially niques for 'dynamic' testing, particularly atomized. For many years, therefore, in relation to the ability of a machine work in the DIVISION OF CHEMICAL tool to remove material from the work- PHYSICS has been directed towards piece without 'chatter'. developing alternative means of atomization. The result is a technique called cathodic sputtering in which charged atoms generated in a low- Improving chemical analysis pressure electrical discharge bombard the sample, thereby liberating atoms Advances are being made in chemical from its surface. Cathodic sputtering analysis by atomic absorption, atomic allows solid samples to be analysed fluorescence and atomic emission techniques. without having to dissolve them first. The sputtering unit has proved The technique of atomic absorption particularly useful for the direct analysis spectroscopy, developed by the DIVISION of a'loys for minor alloying constituents. OF CHEMICAL PHYSICS 20 years ago, has It can also measure the variation in been described as the most significant concentration of elements according to advance in chemical analysis this their depth in a surface layer by century. Atomic absorption successively etching away the surface instruments can identify and quantify layer through sputtering, and recording some 65 metallic elements. World the variation in absorbance of the production of these instruments now atomic vapour produced. exceeds 5,000 a year. In addition to atomic absorption, the The almost universal acceptance of Division is concerned with the two other atomic absorption has encouraged the branches of atomic spectroscopy—atomic Division to develop the equipment fluorescence and atomic emission. In further and to devise methods which atomic fluorescence, the spectrophoto- extend its usefulness. Thus work is meter arrangement closely follows that proceeding on a method of determining of the atomic absorption instrument, heavy metals in solutions like sea water, except that the detector is placed at human blood and other body fluids right angles to the incident beam to
31 measure the light absorbed by the chromator in many applications, and it atomic vapour and re-emitted as contains no parts which can become fluorescent radiation. In atomic misaligned. More important, however, emission, atoms in the sample are is the fact that the separated flame excited by the action of heat or an isolator opens up the possibility of a electrical discharge. The quantity of an general purpose atomic spectrometer for element present is determined directly analysing solutions and solids, which will by measuring the amount of its be able to operate in the absorption, characteristic light which is emitted. fluorescence and emission modes. An At present, atomic absorption is experimental spectrometer of this kind mostly used for analysing solutions; has recently been constructed and its atomic fluorescence is rarely used but it performance is being evaluated. offers the possibility of a cheap though effective method of simultaneous multielement analysis; atomic emission is used for the direct analysis of solids or Utilizing iron ore when multielement analysis is required. Multielement atomic emission A comprehensive program of research is instruments are, however, very expensive. being undertaken on the utilization of One of the most notable advances made Australia's iron ou reserves. by the Division in recent years is the discovery that a special type of In 1975 Australia's exports of iron ore flame—a separated flame—can act as and pellets were worth almost S750 an efficient isolator of the characteristic million. Because of the importance of radiation of a wide range of elements, a the iron ore industry, the five Divisions function required in atomic absorption, of the MINERALS RESEARCH LABORATORIES emission and fluorescence spectroscopy. have set up a comprehensive inter- A monochromator normally fills this disciplinary research program to role, but monochromators are bulky, investigate problems associated with easily knocked out of adjustment, and exploration, mining, primary processing expensive. In fact, of all the com- and subsequent upgrading. ponents of a conventional atomic The detailed exploration of an ore absorption spectrophotometer, the body and its exploitation by drilling and monochromator is the most expensive. blasting involve sinking a large number In the separated flame technique, of bore holes. Accurate analysis of the a pure solution of the element to be material encountered during drilling is determined is sprayed into the essential for the subsequent development separated flame. On illuminating the of the ore body and for quality control atomic vapour produced, the vapour during production. gives rise to fluorescent radiation only at A logging system for determining the wavelengths characteristic of this element. grade of iron ore in blast holes has been All other radiation passes straight developed by the DIVISION OF MINERAL through the flame. The flame can be PHYSICS following earlier trials at the changed from acting as isolator of the Tom Price mine of Hamersley Iron characteristic radiation of one element Pty Ltd. The system utilizes the to that of another simply by changing interaction of y-rays with the walls of the pure solution sprayed into it. the blast hole, and provides a more This technique may provide a accurate measurement of mean ore cheaper alternative to the mono- grade for each blast hole than that
32 obtained by current techniques. It also The DIVISION OF CHEMICAL provides detailed stratigraphic data that ENGINEERING is also working on the assist mining practice. ore-dressing operations of crushing and The techniques developed for bore screening, and the way in which these hole logging are being employed by the operations combine to produce Division in a laboratory instrument that varying amounts of lump and fine measures the average grade of 25-kg products from a given batch of ore. samples of iron ore. Extensive testing at Lump ore—material with a diameter Mt Tom Price has shown that the instru- grrcater than 6 mm—is used as blast ment gives results that are just as accurate furnace feedstock, while fines— as those obtained by established methods diameter less than 6 mm—are used in while involving few processing steps and sinter and pellet plants. requiring less labour. At Dampier, W.A., lump ore is More than 90% of Australia's iron rescreened before shipment to reduce ore reserves lie in the Pilbara region of the quantity of fines to contractual Western Australia. The ores contain limits. At present, the ore is sampled 1-6% alumina and this can cause and sized automatically and the data problems during iron and steel making. recorded by a process control computer. The Division is therefore investigating The DIVISION OF CHEMICAL the use of neutron activation techniques ENGINEERING has developed a new to measure alumina content for quality operating system for the computer control during processing and to which maintains quality as close as monitor alumina levels in ore on a possible to the contractual limits and conveyor belt. yet allows ore to be loaded into ships Pilbara ores also contain traces of at maximum rates. phosphorus and these, too, can cause Because the penalties for failure to problems during iron and steel making. meet the contracted levels are so severe, The ores fall into two main groups, iron ore companies generally aim. for an those containing about 0-05% iron content in their shipments of 0-5% phosphorus and a more abundant group above the level required. This practice containing about 0 • 12%. represents an annual loss of some The DIVISION OF MINERALOGY is seeking SI million and emphasizes the need for to account for the geographic and strict quality control of tha ore. geological distribution of the low phosphorus ores with the objective of While most Australian ore is shipped developing an improved rationale for overseas as lump or fines, about 25% of future mireral exploration. the fine ore is converted to pellets for In anticipation of the future needs use as a premium blast furnace feed. of the Australian mining industry for This form of secondary processing techniques to control ore grade and involves grinding the fines and process subgrade materials, the agglomerating the particles with water DIVISIONS OF MINERAL CHEMISTRY and to produce balls with a nominal CHEMICAL ENGINEERING are studying diameter of 12 mm. These balls are fractionated haematite-goethite ores then dried and fired at a high from the Pilbara. Their investigations temperature to produce pellets. have indicated that fairly simple Conditions in the pelleting plant need processing techniques can be used to to be adjusted continuously to ensure beneficiate subgrade iron ores. that the pellets produced will be strong enough to withstand mechanical
33 This laboratory-scale ball mill is used by the The drying and heat-hardening DIVISION OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING tO grind iron stages in pellet production have been ore used in the preparation of experimental extensively studied by the DIVISION OF batches of pellets. PROCESS TECHNOLOGY. Much of this Photograph: Wallace Has tie work has been done with a 25-cm pot-grate designed to simulate handling, transport by sea, and the severe conditions in a full-scale travelling grate conditions encountered in the shaft of plant. Drying problems experienced in a blast furnace, yet will reduce readily one particular plant due to pellets in the blast furnace from iron oxide spalling or exploding were shown to be to iron. caused by an increase in the goethite At the Hamersley Iron Pty Ltd pellet content of the ore and the fact that this plant at Dampier, iron ore fines are component dries too rapidly. A control dry ground in open circuit ball mills to scheme was devised which enabled produce pellet plant feed. As part of a production to be restored to normal. cooperative program, the DIVISION OF Firing conditions have also been CHEMICAL ENGINEERING is examining the studied in considerable detail in the effects of the moisture content of the pot-grate simulator, and the effects on feed, rate of feed, and air-sweep speed fired pellets of temperature, ore size, on the size distribution of the product and the levels of silica, alumina and in the mills. lime have been examined. The results A more detailed laboratory study is have been analysed by computer to also in progress using a small con- determine conditions for optimizing tinuous air-swept dry mill with a pellet quality and production rate in length-to-diameter ratio similar to the commercial plants. This should assist Hamersley mills. The results will be operators of pellet plants to cope more used to develop a model of the grinding effectively with variations caused by process that wm allow more efficient changes in the composition and control of the mills with possible reduc- grindability of the feed ore. The work tions in the cost of producing pellets. should also provide a foundation for
34 introducing automatic control pellets with either solid or gaseous techniques to the industry. reducing agents. Considerable Conditions needed to produce strong, experience has been gained concerning readily reducible, high-grade pellets the factors controlling reduction rates have been determined for ore samples and product quality. from existing mining operations and Experiments in a rotary kiln from proposed new mining areas. simulator, using a solid reducing Studies are continuing on the effects of agent, showed that lower temperatures fluxes such as dolomite and of preformed not only required abnormally long bonding agents on the strength, swelling processing times but gave weak pellets. properties and reducibility of pellets. Excessive temperatures produced a Investigations aimed at producing coherent, highly metallized, but low-phosphorus pellets, sinter, or relatively impervious shell on each metallized products from currently pellet, and this shell impeded complete unsalable high-phosphorus iron ores are reaction. also in progress. Particular attention was given to the gaseous reduction of pellets under Recent research at the DIVISION OF conditions simulating those prevailing in MINERAL CHEMISTRY on thermal bonding shaft kilns. Close control of the lime processes in iron ore pellets of the content was found to be necessary to Pilbara type is contributing to the minimize swelling and cracking. development of improvements and Loss of pellet quality following innovations in existing production corrosion of iron during storage and schemes. transport is being assessed by sub- Mineragraphic studies have elucidated jecting metallized pellets to a severe the effects of changes in plant processing urban-marine atmosphere. Completely conditions on the properties of pellets exposed individual pellets have lost up and have helped explain the measured to one-third of their iron by rusting in variations in cold compressive strength, 6 months. The loss was greatest where abrasion index, reducibility and the original reduction was by hydrogen strength after reduction. at temperatures over 800°C. Pellets The work on the basic mechanisms shielded from direct exposure, either by that contribute to the strength of pellets storage or by being submerged in a is being supplemented by Hamersley stockpile, suffered only one-tenth of this Iron Pty Ltd which is using a pot-grate rate of deterioration. simulator built from a design supplied The DIVISION OF PROCESS TECHNOLOGY by CSIRO. The results from these has undertaken a preliminary survey of investigations are helping the DIVISION the environmental problems associated OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING develop a with processing the Pilbara ore deposits, mathematical model of the hardening particularly dust emissions from pro- process. This is part of a long-term cessing plants, stockpiles and blending project to lower the cost of manufacturing operations. The results will help the pellets. indicate how such problems might be overcome. In view of the possible introduction of direct reduction processes to Australia, the DIVISION OF PROCESS TECHNOLOGY is investigating the best processing conditions for producing metallized
35 "*" ?\
High-strength industrial ceramics strengthening the material. Zirconia undergoes a change in Difficulties associated with using zirconia as crystal structure when heated to about an engineering ceramic may have been finally 1100°C. This change causes a 4% overcome. change in volume which destroys the mechanical integrity of the material and About half of the copper and brass which needs to be countered if zirconia produced in Australia is extruded in the is to be employed in extrusion dies. form of bars or rods of different shapes Alloying zirconia with small amounts of which can be machined or subjected to other oxides such as magnesium oxide further processing. Extrusion involves (magnesia) or calcium oxide (lime) forcing a billet of hot metal through a stabilizes it by converting it to yet die of the correct contour. Because the another form. Zirconia which has been dies used to extrude brass, copper and only partially stabilized (PSZ) has other metals are expected to maintain proved to have superior properties to their dimensions and surface finish over the fully stabilized material in terms of long periods of time, technical and fracture toughness and resistance to economic limitations restrict the range thermal shock. of metals that can be extruded if the The DIVISION OF TRIBOPHYSICS has die is also made of metal. studied the effect of processing variables Engineers are turning increasingly to on the mechanical and thermal ceramic materials for use in engineering properties of PSZ (with lime or components which need to perform at magnesia as added oxide) by means of high temperature and under severe X-ray and electron diffraction methods conditions of abrasion or corrosion. to interpret the crystal structure. The Zirconium oxide (or zirconia) is one of processes studied included the the ceramics that has been studied for preparation and conditioning of the possible industrial use for many years. powders, pressing into rough shapes, Zirconia was evaluated by a large firing to high temperatures to densify, Australian company some 10 years ago and machining to final dimensions. as a material for tube extrusion dies for By close control of these processes, copper and brass. An initial batch of and the use of lime as the additive dies, made to order in the United (magnesia was used in the American States, gave excel^nt results, but that dies), the Division has produced a success has never been repeated. About material with reproducibly high 5 years ago the DIVISION OF TRIBOPHYSICS mechanical and thermal properties that began looking into the reasons for the are several times better than those erratic behaviour of zirconia dies. obtained by conventional methods of Zirconia is a chemically inert material, production. The Division believes that giving low friction during extrusion and this material is the toughest and one of a high quality surface finish on the the strongest ceramic oxides known. product when used as a die. On the Extrusion dies for 12-13-mm rod other hand, it is brittle, like all ceramics, made in this way have been tested and and requires special design measures then put into routine use in a production to avoid fracture under extrusion plant for about 2 years. Over 1000 stresses. It also possesses three different extrusions have been obtained compared crystal modifications according to its with only 100-150 really satisfactory temperature, a characteristic that has rods through metallic dies. Dies pro- become the basis of a new method of ducing 25-mm rod are currently being
36 1
evaluated by industry and preparations One of the first water treatment are being made to produce dies to projects tackled by the Division, exrrude copper tube 100 mm in therefore, was that of desalination where diameter. the high cost of conventional techniques The process has a number of pro- limited both the recycling of water and prietary features for which patents have the use of brackish water. The work been lodged and licensing to an Aust- on desalination culminated in the ralian company negotiated. Thread invention of specially designed ion- guides, made from PSZ, to suit the exchange resins which remove salt Repco-CSIRO SELFIL spinning rapidly and economically and which machine are also being developed. can be regenerated by flushing with hot water rather than expensive chemicals. Flushing with water instead of chemicals also reduces the pollution Purifying water loading of the effluent to a minimum. Desalination with heat-regenerable New processes based mainly on specialized resins was found to be economical only polymers of unconventional physical form are if the polymer particles were being developed to purify water and treat extremely finely divided in order to waste water. allow a very rapid rate of reaction. However, micro-particles present The need to purify poor quality water severe handling difficulties. When for domestic and industrial use will used in packed beds they provide become increasingly urgent in the next substantial resistance to the flow of decade. For example, desalination of water; if used in stirred vessels they brackish water from the saline catchment settle out extremely slowly. areas of Western Australia, Victoria To overcome handling problems, and South Australia will be required techniques were developed for com- on a large scale by the 1980s. bining the acidic and basic micro- Recycling of water from sewage and particles into conventional-sized, industrial effluent will also become more composite beads, either by using a important for both industry and binding agent which is permeable to agriculture. both water and salt, or by grafting the In an attempt to anticipate the future two types of micro-particle together in need to provide water supplies from the absence of a binder. The composite poor quality sources and to control beads can be handled normally and pollution of waterways, the DIVISION rapidly absorb substantial quantities OF CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY is concentrat- of salt. ing much of its present research on Marketed as Sirotherm, the resins improving the processes used for were developed in conjunction with purifying water. In particular, the ICI Australia Ltd. Water containing Division has been developing processes up to 3000 mg/1 of salt has been treated based mainly on specialized polymers successfully with these resins, resulting of unconventional physical form. in salinities as low as 50-100 mg/1. The central theme of the Division's The first commercial plant, located water purification work is the economical at an ICI factory at Adelaide, was removal of small amounts of impurities completed in 1975. Removing 80% by bringing large volumes of water into of the salinity, it produces 600 cubic contact with small amounts of reagents. metres of purified water a day. The
37
i 1 resin is regenerated with hot feed-water intermittent system, and has the added at 85CC. A pilot plant has also advantage of being suitable for large- operated successfully at a sewage works scale work since the equipment can be in Xokvo. built of concrete. Trials have now reached the pilot plant phase and As a result of the Sirotherm project, arrangements are being made for a new approach has emerged for manufacturing the resins. carrying out ion-exchange reactions. The resins are used in the form of individual micro-particles containing small amounts of iron oxide. The particles, having been made magnetic, flocculate strongly. When agitated, they disperse and react rapidly; when agitation stops they flocculate once more and quickly settle out. Modifying the structure of the polymers enables them to be used for a wide range of ion-exchange processes. For example, they can be used to remove bicarbonate, calcium and magnesium ions (de-alkalization), and heavy metals, and to soften and decolorize water. De-alkalization is currently being investigated in pilot studies and could be of practical benefit in treating alkaline bore waters in areas Individual polymer particles, averaging ^0 micro- such as the Great Australian Basin. metres in diameter, containing iron oxide. The A novel feature of the resins is the particles are not yet magnetized. Magnification: X 40. very high volume of void or space included between clusters of magnetic polymer particles in the flocculated form. Because of the high voidage, there is a certain amount of flexibility in the structure which allows the resin to be pumped directly—an impossible operation with standard resins. Previously, purification operations have not been completely continuous as the flow of water has had to be stopped periodically to allow regeneration of the resin. With the new process, water and resin are pumped in opposite directions through a column. Fresh resin is added continuously at one end of the column, while spent resin is withdrawn at the other end for regeneration. The system is more After passing between the poles of a magnet the efficient and economical than the particles arc magnetized and flocculate together. Magnification: X 40.
38 Treated sewage contains high levels devised for collecting oil spills. A cf nitrates and phosphates which, if magnetic polymer, which is wetted discharged to waterways, cause by oil rather than water and which excessive growth of weeds and algae. floats because of entrapped air, is The Division is using algae to remove first spread on the spill with the aid of the nitrates and phosphates from sewage a specially designed craft. The oil is treatment 'agoons and the algae, in absorbed in the voids of the flocculated turn, are removed with magnetic polymer in amounts up to 20 times the particles. This means that the volume of the particles. The polymer phosphate and nitrate contents can be is then recovered on magnetic discs as kept to acceptable levels, and the the craft moves through the contaminated harvested algae used as a protein-rich area. The system is designed for use animal feedstock. in harbours and the polymer can be Magnetic particles to aid chemical recovered by centrifuging. The method coagulation during the clarification is being evaluated by ICI Australia of turbid water are also being developed. Ltd as part of a joint program to By increasing the rates of settling the develop magnetic polymers for use in cost of equipment is reduced. A wafer treatment. method has been found for regenerating the magnetic particles so that they can Apart from its polymer-oriented be re-used and the cost of the research, the Division is also investigating chemicals reduced. At the same time physical and chemical methods of a smaller volume of sludge is produced. water treatment. At its pilot plant at Lower Plenty, Victoria, the Division Magnetic polymers which rely on is using lime treatment, ammonia their physical structure rather than on stripping with air, coagulation with active sites have been highly successful iron salts, sand filtration, disinfection as filter aids. The particles have the with chlorine, and activated carbon irregular shapes and approximate size treatment to produce higher quality of diatomaceous earth, the commonly effluent than is possible with commonly used filter aid on which they were used biological methods. modelled. Because of the very high The sewage is treated before the volume of void in the magnetic polymers, ammonia it contains has become a settled bed forms an open network oxidized to nitrate, so that denitri- which is a highly efficient filter. The fication involves only removal of polymers can be recovered by vigorously ammonia, an easier process than agitating the filter bed to release the removing nitrate. A method of accumulated impurities, which are then stripping t^e ammonia by blowing washed away, while the heavier with air :i also being investigated and polymer particles are collected for should prove less costly than removal re-use. Laboratory-scale tests have by biologi ~al means. proved the efficiency of the method; In the search for better and cheaper long-term testing is now needed to ways of controlling the organic content assess the costs of the process which of effluent, scientists at the Division depend on how many times the filter have adopted a novel approach. The aid can be re-used. The process is waste water is treated with ozone and currently being studied for an light emissions from the reaction industrial application. between the organic matter and the An analogous procedure has been ozone are monitored continuously. The
39
v i I • -"i§
work is now well advanced with trials buoys. It hopes to use the SEASAT-A in. progress at a sewage works. It will satellite, after its launch in 1978, to be used to improve the effectiveness of monitor the ocean off the east coast of a variety of water treatments. Australia continuously for the first time.
The DIVISIONS OF LAND USE RESEARCH and MINERAL PHYSICS in collaboration Remote sensing of the earth's with the South Australian Department resources of the Environment have conducted a feasibility study for an ecological survey Imagery obtained from American satellites of South Australia. LANDSAT pictures is providing valuable information on provide the mapping base used to Australian resources and is being used by a coordinate and extend the information number qfCSIRO Divisions. obtained from conventional sources. The LANDSAT satellite takes four Two earth-orbiting satellites, pictures of any scene—green, red and LANDSAT I and II, launched by the two infrared images. These are Unksd States in 1972 and 1975, have combined to form a colour picture. provided pictures of more than 95% of Once land parties have linked certain the Au ralian continent. Each picture types of vegetation or land formation covers aa area of 185 by 185 km and is with a particular image, the satellite ideally suited for studying short-lived picture provides an accurate survey of conditions that extend over wide areas; the whole area from a limited number of the extent of floods, bt: Lnre burns, the measurements on the ground. amount of land under cultivation, the LANDSAT is markedly superior to depth of water on a reef, and so on, can ordinary aerial photography in that the be estimated from a single picture. whole area being surveyed is 'photo- Several CSIRO Divisions have been graphed' at the same time and under experimenting with these picture? as a identical lighting conditions. means of obtaining information that The uniform lighting conditions and can be used in the management of the great height of the satellite make it Australia's resources. possible to infer variations in depth of Thermal imagery data from a NOAA water over reefs and shoals from a single satellite, converted into chart form, is picture. For this, the 'green' picture is being used by the DIVISION OF FISHERIES used, since green light has greater AND OCEANOGRAPHY in its fisheries penetrating power in water. The research program and by the DIVISION DIVISION OF LAND RESOURCES MANAGEMENT OF LAND RESOURCES MANAGEMENT for is developing this technique for the forest and rangeland studies. Although mapping of shoals and reefs off the ••* the NOAA satellite has poorer northern coast of Western Australia. resolution than LANDSAT, data from Obvious applications also exist in the its thermal channel and its twice daily unmapped regions of the Barrier Reef coverage of the Australian continent and the Gulf of Carpentaria. This make it a useful source of information. method permits mapping to a depth of The DIVISION OF FISHERIES AND 20 metres at a fraction of the cost of the OCEANOGRAPHY has also used visual and conventional 'sea-going' method. infrared data from the NIMBUS-6 An early, accurate prediction of the satellite to study near-shore processes wheat crop is of major economic and to track free-drifting oceanographic importance to Australia. To this end,
40
: -A a resources satellite offers the promise SOILS in eastern and southern Australia of a more accurate measurement of the have shown that soils cannot always be area sown with wheat. Consequently, recognized or mapped from satellite the DIVISION OF MINERAL PHYSICS in photographs. This is because the satellite conjunction with the New South Wales photograph has to be interpreted from Department of Agriculture is investigat- its vegetative cover. In some cases the ing the accuracy of crop identification same sort of vegetation clothes several from LANDSAT. Feasibility studies different types of soils. have been conducted by means of Satellite pictures provide a broad instruments mounted on a tower on a overview of the geology of a region which truck. These experiments have now is superior to that available from other been extended to the use of LANDSAT sources. Accordingly; the DIVISIONS OF pictures obtained during 1973-75. MINERAL PHYSICS and MINERALOGY, Application of the technique to other sometimes in collaboration with mining crops (barley, soybean) is also being companies, have been investigating investigated. several applications of satellite Preliminary results from measure- photography in exploration for minerals. ments conducted in collaboration with Specifically, attention is being given the New South Wales Department of to extracting the maximum amount of Agriculture suggest that land units of useful information from satellite pictures agricultural importance may be mapped by both conventional photographic from the data obtained from the satellite. interpretation and computer-assisted An investigation is also being conducted identification of rock types. In the with the University of Sydney to see latter case LANDSAT is being used as whether the extent and severity of an exploration guide for mineralization soybean rust (a serious plant disease in in the Fortescue region of Western south-east Asia) can be mapped with Australia. Elsewhere, the mapping of the aid of LANDSAT. Experiments faults in the earth's crust which might conducted in conjunction with the be associated with mineralization is DIVISIONS OF ANIMAL HEALTH, ANIMAL being investigated, while a study of PRODUCTION and ENTOMOLOGY have faulting in the Sydney Basin is con- clearly shown that the browning-off of centrating on features of possible pastures may be predicted from satellite significance to coal mine development data up to 2 weeks before the effect is and to civil engineering in general. visible. Moreover, this work has Each LANDSAT picture is trans- revealed that there is a strong mitted to earth as a stream of 30 million relationship between certain aspects of numbers. The picture, in its raw state, grazing practice and the information '•ontains many imperfections which must recorded by LANDSAT. be removed if the human eye or Although satellite imagery has the computer is to make the best use of the advantage of providing pictures of image. The DIVISIONS OF MINERAL regional features of earth resources, PHYSICS and COMPUTING RESEARCH have many situations still remain where more developed two alternative procedures to detailed observations are needed. For do this. Very high quality pictures are these purposes present satellite pictures now being produced, and thesp are key sometimes do not have adequate ingredients of several of the other resolution and aerial photography, in investigations mentioned previously. one of its many forms, is more useful. Recognizing that the LANDSAT For example, studies by the DIVISION OF pictures will provide a definitive base-
41 line for many different research by scattering and absorbing radiation investigations in Australia in the future, entering and leaving the earth. the DIVISION OF MINERAL PHYSICS IS The most obvious manifestation of assembling a 'once-over' cover of the air pollution is smoke, but its effect on whole of Australia of the highest the atmospheric chemical balance is quality practicable. only now being seriously considered. If satellite imagery is to be used on a Experimental equipment and routine basis to measure, say, the total techniques for aerial sampling of smoke area of Australia's wheat crop, have been developed in CSIRO over computers will have to be programmed the past 6 years. A highly sensitive to process the imagery, identify areas nephelometer has been invented by the sown to wheat, and measure their DIVISIONS OP CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY and extent. The DIVISIONS OF MINERAL MINERAL CHEMISTRY and is being offered PHYSICS and LAND RESOURCES MANAGE- for manufacture under licence as a smoke MENT are developing the expertise and detector in buildings. Quantitative means to program computers for this measurements of smoke concentration role. A specialized computer is being and its optical properties made by the used to perform classifications on an DIVISION OF MINERAL CHEMISTRY will experimental basis, and research is enable State Forestry Departments and continuing to improve the speed and the Bureau of Meteorology to calculate accuracy of the classification. and predict the effects of controlled The earth-satellite may become an burning of forest undergrowth on air important source of information on quality. Australia's resources. CSIRO is ob- taining the experience needed to deter- In association with industry and mine the effectiveness of such a data various government agencies the source. In the process, it is obtaining DIVISION OF PROCESS TECHNOLOGY has archival and other material that will be undertaken investigations of photo- of permanent value to Australia. chemical smog, urban haze and pollution by sulphur dioxide. Photochemical smog, well known in places like Los Angeles, is now Atmospheric pollution
Research by several CSIRO Divisions is helping to provide the chemical insight needed by industry and pollution control authorities to improve their assessment of particular problems and to develop more effective control strategies.
Increasing industrialization threatens By means of a technique of computer enhance- ment, the DIVISION OF MINERAL PHYSICS has the existing chemical composition of the combined three separate photographs taken by atmosphere. The recent growth in the (he LANDSAT satellite from an altitude of burning of fossil fuels is releasing 915 km to form a colour picture of a portion chemical substances in quantities of the New South Wales coastline stretching from which may corrode building stones, just south of Sydney to Lake Macquarie. CSIRO scientists are using this type of photograph in stunt development of vegetation, experimental ecological, oceanugraphic, endanger health or even affect climate agricultural, urban and geological studies.
42
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being experienced by the. larger cities least partly, by aerosols, i.e. by of Australia. The obnoxious constituents microscopic particles suspended in the of the smog are not emitted 10 the atmosphere which may or mav not be atmosphere directly, but under approp- associated with photochemical smog. riate meteorological conditions they arc In a joint program with the DIVISION generated by photochemical reactions in OF MINERAL PHVsics and the Department the atmosphere. The reactions are of .Nuclear Physics at the Australian brought about by two kinds of precursor National University, the DIVISION OF pollutants—hydrocarbons and nitrogen PROCESS TECHNOLOGY is studying the oxides—both of which are emitted chemical constitution of Sydney's smog principally front motor vehicles and aerosols to discover their origin. industrial sources. Because the coals burnt in our power Work by the DIVISION OF PROCESS stations are relatively free from sulphur, I'KCHNOLOGY in collaboration with the Australia i» *;»ared many of the problems DIVISION OF FOOD RESEARCH and the that arise from air pollution by sulphur New South Wales Pollution Control dioxide in Europe and North America. Commission is aimed at characterizing On the other hand, Australia produces the smog-forming hydrocarbons present v;>sl quantities of metals from sulphide in the atmosphere of S\dney, Australia's ores and the sulphur dioxide emitted from most smog-bound city. The minute smelters is causing concern in some areas. concentrations present in air samples To assess the environmental effects are concentrated by a special technique of the emissions it is necessary to find originally developed to study the out how long the sulphur dioxide flavours of foodstuffs. They are then remains in the atmosphere and what analysed by gas chromatography com- happens to it. The chemical history of bined with mass spectromctry. the sulphur dioxide emitted in the Results so far show the substantial plume of a large smelter at Mt tsa, presence in Sydney's atmosphere of Qld, is being studied by remote sensing aromatic hydrocarbons derived from and local sampling techniques. The unburnl petrol and perhaps other instruments are being carried in cither petrochemical sources. While this is an aircraft or a heavy-duty land vehicle. similar to the experience of large cities The smelter provides a point emission overseas, there are local peculiarities. source in the midst of hundreds of The nitrogen oxide precursors of square kilometres of sparsely inhabited photochemical smog are products of country. So far the plume has been combustion. The chemistry of their examined at distances up to 250 km formation in flames is being studied in from Mt Isa, and it appears that the (he laboratory to find better ways of sulphur dioxide is absorbed by the reducing the amounts emitted. Work ground and by vegetation much more is also being carried out on the complex slowly than is the case in Europe and reactions by which photochemical the United States. smog forms in the atmosphere. The Techniques developed by the Division is collaborating with CSIRO's DIVISION OF CLOUD PHYSICS for identifying NATIONAL. MEASUREMENT LABORATORY in small particles in the stratosphere have constructing complex apparatus to study been applied to atmospheric pollution. these reactions. For example, particles collected in the In large cities air pollution most upper atmosphere from the Mt Isa commonly appears as a yellow or brown smelters have been identified as haze. This is known to be produced, at sulphuric acid.
44
Pa- Because of its isolation from other industrial otherwise escape. During the past activity, the Mount Isa smelter provides an 100 years or so, man's burning of fossil excellent opportunity for Ihe DIVISIONS OF fuels has added very large quantities PROCESS TECHNOLOGY and CLOUD PHYSICS to study the fate of sulphur dioxide and particulates of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere emitted into the atmosphere. and scientists are now trying to correlate this build-up of the gas with changes in temperature. Australian and international airlines The existing balance between the have cooperated with the Division by earth's atmosphere and the life it carrying sampling equipment in their supports is a delicate one. For example, aircraft. In this way the Division is a fall in global temperature of only a few acquiring regular carbon dioxide degrees would bring Ice -\ge conditions samples at altitudes of up to 11 km over to large areas of the earth's surface, routes from Perth through Melbourne while an even smaller rise in temperature and Sydney to New Zealand. Analysis would melt the Polar ice caps and cause of the samples shows a rising trend in flooding of most of the world's seaboard carbon dioxide concentrations—in cities. common with findings in the northern Particles in the atmosphere are hemisphere where a similar trend has potentially capable of producing climatic iieen evident since 1958. changes. Clouds control the balance of In the early stages of the work it radiation reaching and leaving the became clear that significant discrepancies earth and it is the net energy received existed between carbon dioxide by the surface, and its distribution, that observations made by the various world drives the world's weather systems. The authorities. The DIVISION OF ATMOSPHERIC -I!'' probability that clouds will rain is PHYSICS eventually traced the problem modified by the particles that take part to the reference gases with which the in ice crystal and raindrop formation. atmospheric samples are compared. The DIVISION OF CLOUD PHYSICS is A member of the Division subsequently contributing to an international visited the main monitoring stations of program for monitoring these particles the world and with a sample of the to establish their origins and how they reference gases used at the Division's affect climatic conditions. headquarters in Melbourne, conducted The DIVISION OF ATMOSPHERIC PHYSICS comparison experiments with overseas is studying the effect of artificially workers. As a result, many of the former created carbon dioxide on the climate. inconsistencies were cleared up and the Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere intercomparison of world-wide carbon regulates ti-mperature on the earth by dioxide measurements placed on a trapping some of the heat that would sounder footing.
45 i -51 -"a Compared with our northern hemis- stations around Australia. Measure- phere counterparts, Australia's records ments are made by a ground-based are few in number and short term in spectrometric technique. The observation nature. Yet in order to properly program is now the biggest in the evaluate what is happening now, it southern hemisphere, with the Division's would be of great benefit to know what laboratory in Melbourne acting as a has happened in the past. A com- national calibration centre and the pletely new phenomenon in increasing focus for all ozone activities in the carbon dioxide concentration may be south-west Pacific. occurring or it might be part of a cycle Continued monitoring of ozone in of events. In an attempt to find the the atmosphere is essential because so answer the Division is adopting two many products of our everyday life are approaches. capable of destroying it. The chlorinated The first involves measuring carbon hydrocarbons used as dry-cleaning isotopes in old trees whose age can be solvents and the freons used as propell- determined from their growth rings. ants in aerosol cans disperse throughout Trees build up cellulose by taking the atmosphere. By decomposing and carbon dioxide from the air, the lighter liberating chlorine, they become isotope, C12, being taken up in potential catalysts for the destruction preference to C13. Because the ratio of ozone. 3 12 of C' to C depends on the source of Nitrogen oxides emitted from man- the carbon dioxide at the time, measure- made sources can affect the natural ments of the ratio make it possible to balance of ozone at high altitudes. determine whether the carbon dioxide An Australian Academy of Science came, for example, from the sea or Committee, which considered the effects from rotting vegetation. of supersonic air travel on the The second approach for obtaining atmosphere, concluded that there were past information is via air bubbles unlikely to be any deleterious trapped in the Antarctic ice sheet, consequences. However, it recommended and the Division has begun a joint that a careful watch be kept on the program with the Antarctic Division of concentration of stratospheric ozone. the Department of Science to analyse Ozone near the surface of the earth gas samples obtained at maximum depths exists in small quantities which are of 200 m in ice 10-20,000 years ol^. odourless and harmless. But the con- centration of ozone can increase markedly For many years the DIVISION OF in urban areas, and ozone is one of the ATMOSPHERIC PHYSICS has been making main constituents of photochemical smog. observations of ozone—a gas that At its laboratories at Aspendale, occurs naturally some 25 km above the Melbourne, the DIVISION OF ATMOSPHERIC earth's surface. Produced in relatively PHYSICS has been measuring low-level small c uantities by the action of solar ozone since 1965. Between then and radiation on oxygen, it plays a vital 1973 the average yearly concentration part in our lives by filtering out has doubled in the Melbourne area harmful ultraviolet radiation from the because of the increase in photochemical sun's rays. smog. The Division initiated its first daily program of ozone measurements in 1955. Since then it has set up an extensive network of monitoring
46
•I •- r •'• *•' *»*. '"•''
Focus on tropical meteorology emphasis on tropical meteorology. The Division is using theoretical and Research in tropical meteorology is providing practical observations in conjunction a better understanding of the factors that with accumulated meteorologica. data, influence Ike Australian climate. such as weather charts' and records of wind, pressure and temperature, to Half of the earth's surface lies between deduce the effects that certain meteoro- 30° N. and 30° S. and it is in these logical phenomena produce. If the tropical regions that most of the solar cause and effect relationship can be energy, which produces currents in the better understood, weather predictions atmosphere and the oceans, is absorbed. can be made more accurately from For this reason the tropics are sometimes observed meteorological patterns. described as the 'boiler house of the In this way it has been found that the atmospheric heat engine'. By means of summer monsoon which brings rain to winds and ocean currents the net gain in northern Australia is connected with the heat at the tropics is transferred upwards winds at upper levels. For example, and outwards to the poles, compensating above-average rainfall in Darwin is for heat lost elsewhere and maintaining direcdy related to stronger easterly winds the climatic balance. or lighter westerlies at an altitude of 12 Yet despite the key role of the tropical kilometres between Alice Springs and zone, tropical meteorology has lagged Darwin. Also, if the pressure at 12 far behind the advances made in the kilometres over Alice Springs is higher meteorology of the temperate zones, than usual, the summer rainfall in the mainly because the countries with area is likely to be greater. sufficient resources to provide major Whether these effects are local or part weather services are situated in temperate of a large-scale phenomenon is not yet latitudes and have concentrated on the known. Certainly the increased upper weather problems which affect them easterlies, which accompanied the record directly. The second world war rainfall over northern Australia in stimulated an interest in tropical January 1974, extended from Fiji in the meteorology which was heightened in east to Singapore in the north, through subsequent years by the needs of Cocos Islands and as far as Mauritius in international aviation and, more recently, the west. by the development of resources in Statistical analysis of precipitation and tropical regions. pressure data has shown that rainfall in For a country straddling the Tropic northern and eastern Australia is closely of Capricorn, Australia, too, has in the related to variations in surface pressure past devoted little research specifically in areas as remote from Australia as the to the problems associated with tropical central and eastern Pacific. In other weather. Yet some of these problems words, precipitation in the parts of such as the role of the tropical arm of Australia with a predominantly summer the general circulation in controlling rainfall is greatly influenced by global- climatic fluctuation, interhemispheric scale wind patterns. This relationship, flow and the summer monsoon rains, and which has been known to exist since the tropical cyclones, are particularly 1920s, is still poorly understood mainly relevant to Australia. because of a lack of meteorological In recent years, the DIVISION OF observations over some areas of the ocean. ATMOSPHERIC PHVsics has attempted to The Japanese geostationary satellite, redress the balance by placing greater due to take up a position almost directly
47 over Australia in 1977, will greatly aid partly responsible for rainfall in Australia the Divisional scientists working in this many months later. Scientists at the field. The satellite will cover large areas DIVISION OF FISHERIES AND OCEANOGRAPHY of ocean that are not covered by any are providing observations for this land-based observation stations and project—one of many overlapping areas should help to detect high level winds of interest and cooperation between from the movement of cirrus clouds. meteorologists and oceanographers. This information will increase under- The Australian merchant fleet, too, has standing of the link between the assisted in obtaining readings of sea dynamics of the atmosphere and surface temperatures over a large tract precipitation. of the western Pacific extending from the In attempting to determine the part east coast of Australia to the 180° that sea surface temperatures play in meridian and from the Equator to 45C S. modifying climate, it has been found These direct observations of sea surface that ocean influences originating in the temperature can be used to check the central Pacific Ocean are probably observations made from satellites.
'['hi' DIVISION OF ATMOSI'IIKRIC: PHYSICS makes The approach of the AUSTRALIAN considerable use of physical models in i(s NUMERICAL METEOROLOGY RESEARCH experimental work. In the rase of the earth's CENTRE to the problems of tropical atmosphere, however, where there is complicated, meteorology is through the use of three-dimensional motion on a revolving sphere, numerical methods to simulate atmos- it is necessary to break down the pioblem into its component parts. For example, air ftmv over pheric processes, based on known or a mountain can be simulated by means of a estimated physical relationships between tank of salt solution containing suspended beads, various meteorological elements. These This composite photograph, which shows the relationships make it possible to project waves generated by fluid flowing over the small hillock on the Hoor of the tank, has been obtained a currently known state of the atmosphere by time-lapse photography. forward in time. This procedure forms the basis of numerical weather prediction Photograph: David Whillas and climate modelling. The Centre., which is sponsored jointly by CSIRO ways of understanding the effects that and the Department of Science, has the virtual absence at low latitudes of a successfully simulated the l>ehaviour of 'Coriolis force' has on the dynamics of the tropical atmosphere both on a global the tropical atmosphere. In temperate scale and on the scale of individual climates the 'Coriolis force' plays an cumulus clouds. For example, on a important part in the formation of global scale, the tropical doldrums and rain-bearing depressions. For the the east winds throughout the trop- laboratory models, water tanks are used, osphere have been successfully simulated where layers of salt solution simulate the using only basic physical laws. Such changes of density with height, and numerical models have great potential, spinning simulates the earth's rotation. and are being used in both short-term Recently, an experiment with (36 hour) weather prediction and for laboratory models to investigate the experiments aimed at understanding the transfer of energy in a rotating fluid like factors controlling climate, both in the the earth's atmosphere showed quite tropics and elsewhere. clearly that angular momentum—a The importance of convective clouds form of energy associated with rotating (both cumulus and cumulo-nimbus) in bodies—can be conveyed through the the tropics has been known for some atmosphere by the type of convection time; indeed an adequate understanding that gives rise to cumulus clouds. This of these processes is fundamental to the finding has important implications in the study of tropical meteorology. The formation of tropical cyclones as angular effect that large groups of cumulus momentum, generated by the earth's clouds exert on the broaJ-scale flow rotation and concentrated by convection, patterns is an important physical factor could provide the energy needed, to thit has to be taken into account in initiate the vortex of a cyclone. modern studies of the dynamics of This idea is now being investigated tropical weather patterns. To represent along two lines. Firstly, the process of this adequately ;n numerical models, it is energy transfer has been incorporated necessary to understand the structure and into numerical models and, secondly, the mechanism of formation of individual case histories and satellite photographs clouds. This work constitutes a major of indi%'idual tropical cyclones are being part of the research program of the studied in order to determine whether DIVISION OF CLOUD PHYSICS. convection could have played a part in In one study of the tropical environ- their creation. Again, the geostationary ment, conducted off the coast of satellite will provide very useful Queensland, the Division has used its information since differences in specially instrumenled aircraft to measure temperature, observed by infrared the transfer of heat and moisture from imagery, should show up deep convective the surface of the tropical ocean to the towers in contrast to overlying cirrus air. The measurements have been made and shallow convection clouds with a during both fair weather and disturbed clarity not previously possible. conditions. CSIRO is actively participating in Laboratory models are also being the Global Atmospheric Research used by the DIVISION OF ATMOSPHERIC Programme (GARP) sponsored by the PHYSICS to simulate atmospheric move- International Council of Scientific ments on a measurable scale, and have Unions and the World Meteorological proved to be one of the few successful Organisation in which the first global
49 observing experiment planned for The planner programs the computer 1978-79 will pay special attention to for specific goals based on assessments of the tropical regions. The DIVISIONS OF community needs. The goals might ATMOSPHERIC PHYSICS and FISHERIES AND include such factors as the distances OCEANOGRAPHY are developing ocean- people have to travel to and from work going buoys for monitoring variables and the effects of industries on the living such as sea and air temperatures and environment. When the needs are not wind speeds. After transmission via clear, TOPAZ can show how one satellite to the United States of America decision can affect the prospects of for processing, the data will be returned achieving other goals. to Australia for analysis. Scientists at TOPAZ is being used by the Division these Divisions hope to use this in an urban study of alternative develop- information to study such processes as ment corridors for the expansion of the interchange of heat between the Melbourne to a population of 4-5 ocean and the atmosphere, and million by the year 2000. The study turbulence and evaporation over the evaluates proposals by interested action ocean. groups and examines the effect of different population growth rates. At the request of the State Planning Authority of New South Wales, the Aids for planners Division has used TOPAZ to investigate alternative development strategies to Computer-based systems have been developed to cater for a five-fold population increase help urban and regional planners evaluate within the Gosford-Wyong region by the alternative courses of action. end of the century. The system has also been applied to urban and regional Planners—whether considering the planning studies of Blacksburg in the location of new towns, the development United States and Darwin, as well as to of a region, or the design of multi-storey the location of hospital facilities in and building»—need access to the right kind around Sydney. of information if they are to evaluate TOPAZ can also be used to solve alternative proposals properly. general layout problems in multi-storey To assist planners in their decision or industrial buildings. It has, for making, the DIVISION OF BUILDING example, been used in planning redevelop- RESEARCH has developed a general ment of the Royal Melbourne Institute planning model that can be adapted to of Technology and the State University plan any system ranging from buildings at Blacksburg in order to minimize to cities and even large regions. Known overall rebuilding and operating costs. as TOPAZ—Technique for Optimal The DIVISION OF BUILDING RESEARCH Placement of Activities in Zones—the has devised submodels of TOPAZ to deal model takes into account the significant with various social and environmental factors that apply to a particular matters. One submodel covers the planning problem and uses a computer to generation and diffusion of air pollution study the interactions between them. from industry and traffic. Another deals For an urban system these factors could with the benefits and drawbacks from a be secondary industry, transportation, variety of viewpoints including environ- and utilities, which interact through the mental impact, travel time and cost of movement of people, goods, water, power, different forms of public and private sewage, and so on. transDort.
50 Factors which influence the siting Another approach to assisting planners of buildings, roadways, tunnels, and so on is represented by the "South Coast include the engineering properties of Project' undertaken by the DIVISION OF the underlying soil and rock, the slope of LAND USE RESEARCH. As a result of this the land, and patterns of drainage. The survey, begun in 1972, the Division has DIVISION OF APPLIED GEOMECHANICS has investigated methods of collecting all therefore developed a system for the different sorts of information that classifying land on the basis of character- might be of use to regional planners. istics such as these. Known as PUCE— The Division has also devised methods of an acronym for Pattern Unit Component storing this information, and of Evaluation—it is based on a combination displaying it in a convenient and of interpreting aerial photographs of an flexible form by means of computers. area and carrying out on-site tests. This An area of the South Coast of New enables the terrain features of the area to South Wales was divided into nearly be mapped in varying degrees of detail. 4000 units. Air-photo interpretation PUCE was tested and used some 10 and field surveys of each unit were then years ago to plan beef roads in Queens- used to provide information of a land and the Northern Territory. biological and physical nature, while Later, at the request of the Town and existing statistics and interviews supplied Country Planning Board of Victoria, it the necessary information on economic was used to help with the planning of and social aspects of the unit. The units Melbourne and its environs. Areas in were also studied for various possible land the Port Philip District were eventually uses. chosen for urban development partly as a All the information has been stored in result of this work. a computer data bank and can be made \Iorc recently the Division has applied available to planners in map form once ihis technique of terrain analysis to the they have indicated their requirements. Albury-Wodonga region. The whole Now that this planning aid has been designated development area was analysed established, the Division is seeking ways and assessed for various land uses. Areas of modifying and improving the system. chosen for urban development were then analysed in more detail for various types of development such as large city buildings, a university, parks and Quasar pairs gardens, communication and service paths, and housing locations. Large- Pairs of quasars have been discoreted in which scale maps were prepared to assist with the members of each pair have different red the choice of types of development. shifts. PUCE lias also been used by the Division to advise the former Cities In 1962, shortly after the radio Commission and the More-ton Region telescope at Parkes, N S.VV , had been Strategy Investigation on specified commissioned, researchers from the engineering aspects of development of DIVISION OF RADIOPHVSICS and the the Moreton Region around Brisbane. University of Sydney used the eclipse The Division has completed the of the radio source 3C273 by the Moon development phase of PUCE and to establish the source's position so demonstrated its applicability to a wide accurately that astronomers at Mount range of situations. The system is now Palomar Observatory in the United ready for commercial application. States of America were able to identify
51 •*\ 1
it on their photographs. that the source of energy in a quasar is Up to this time many of the stronger gravitational, not nuclear, but the radio sources outside the Milky Way had problem remains unsolved. been identified with galaxies, but the Recently, scientists at the Division, photographs showed that 3C273 was working with astronomers from the not a galaxy; it was small and star-like Anglo-Australian Observatory and the and so was named a 'quasi-stellar United Kingdom Science Research object' (QSO) or "quasar'. Council at Siding Spring Mountain, When astronomers at Mount Palomar N.S.W., and from overseas, have measured the optical spectrum of discovered the existence of pairs of 3C273 they were astonished by the size quasi-i'ellar objects in which one of the of the red shift of the spectral lines. The pair is a normal radio quiisar emitting red shift is attributed to the speed at both light and radio waves and the which an object moving away from the other is non-radio, emitting only light. observer and, according to Hubble's In a number of cases the non-radio Law, the greater the red shift the further cemponent was confirmed as being a away is the object. By Hubble's Law. quasar in nature by spectroscopic 3C273 was about two thousand million observations. kilometres distant and moving away at The most intriguing feature of the 0-15 times the speed of light. At the pairs examined so far is that the two time this was considered extraordinary, members of each pair have different because for an object as distant as this red shifts. In the most extreme case the to be seen at all, it would have to be difference is so large that the two emitting light of an intensity equivalent members are moving away at speeds to ten million million stars like the Sun differing by almost a third of the speed or a hundred normal galaxies, yet of light. measurements showed that the object The pairing of quasars seems to be was a million times smaller than a single statistically significant, but a far larger galaxy. sample will be needed to establish the Since then scientists at the Division significance beyond doubt. If indeed have led the world in the investigation they are true pairs, they could cause a of quasars, discovering some 550 to date, revolution in astrophysical thinking: i.e. considerably moic than half the total the discordant red shifts would cause number catalogued. For all these the great desbts about the cosmological data are consistent with those for origin of the red shifts of quasars and 3C273 with red shifts as high as 0-9 perhaps the whole question of universal times the speed of light and emissions of gravitation would have to be rcexamined. almost unbelievable energy for their size. The magnitude of the energy emitted can be appreciated by con- sidering thai a hundred galaxies converting hydrogen to helium throughout their entire life span put out a comparable amount of energy, some 1065 ergs. With a quasar, this whole nuclear process is contained in an object with the tiny dimensions of a single star—a seemingly impossible situation. Some theorists have suggested
52 Finance and Buildings
General
The table below summarizes the sources derived from a statutory levy on of CSIRO lunds for 1975/76 and the produce with a supporting contribution categories of expenditure. Some 8r.% from the Cominonwealth Government. of CSIRO's income for the year vas During 1975/76 CSIRO spent provided directly by the Commo.iwealth S98-8 million of Treasury funds on Government. Of the remainirg 18%, salaries and general running expenses, two-thirds was contributed *Vom trust an increase of S14-4 million over the funds concerned with various primary previous year's expenditure. industries. Most of these funds are About S7-6 million, or slightly more
Source of Salaries and Grants for Capital works Total fund.* general running studentships and services expenses and grants to and major items outside bodies * of equipment (S) (S) (S) (S)
Treasury appropriation, including revenue 98,814.973 3.552,574 2,306,100 104,673,647 Wool Research Trust Fund 11.484,663 313,947 11,798,610 Meal Research Trust Account 2,505,972 40,209 2,546,18! Tobacco Industry Tiu^l .Viounl 34,9G7 34,967 Dairy Produce" Research Trcst Account 252.576 252,576 Wheat Research Trust Account 5,995 4,197 243,192 Fishing Industry Research Trust Account 140,968 85,000 225,968 Oried Fruits Research Trust Account 41,688 41,688 Chicken Meat Research Trust Account 170 170 Pig Industry Research Trust
Account 11,034 ••— 11,634 Poultry Research Trust Account 890 890 Other contributors 4,519,758 3,791,344 8,311,102
Total 118,046,364 3,552,574 6,541,687 128,140,625
53 '"'i
than half of the increase, was absorbed price rises and the occupation of new by salary adjustments arising from accommodation, and S2-9 million was arbitration determinations and by spent on salaries and operating expenses increments, reclassifications and other by the DIVISION OF FOREST RESEARCH inescapable commitments in the nature which was established on 1 July 1975. of salary. A further S3 • 9 million was In addition to the money that absorbed in offsetting increased costs CSIRO received from the Government, of goods and services resulting from from industry and other contributors, some $19-2 million was spent by the Department of Construction and by the Department of Administrative The 355-tonne research vessel Courageous was Services on buildings and other works chartered by CSIRO in September 1975 for an for CSIRO, and on the acquisition of initial period of 3 years. The vessel is being land. operated by the DIVISION OF FISHERIES AND In essence, the 1975/76 Treasury OCEANOGRAPHY as a fisheries resources survey appropriation enabled the Treasury- vessel. In addition to standard commercial bottom and midwater trawling gear, she is funded component of the Organization's fitted with advanced equipment including research activities to continue at echo-sounders whose signals are interpreted by approximately the same level as in an on-board computer to estimate the total 1974/75. However, in the case of those weight, number and size of fish beneath the vessel. The Courageous is also collecting research activities funded by primary oceanographic data to assess the environmental industry trust funds, inescapable requirements of different species offish. increases in salaries and operating
54 f-
costs arising from inflation made it three stages was let in 1974/75 for impossible to maintain these activities SI,507,000. The first two stages were at their previous level. completed during 1975/76. Stage 3 During the year the Executive will be completed during 1976/77. redeployed some 238 positions and ANIMAL HEALTH—Insect-proof, large SI-5 m of operating funds. This animal accommodation at program of redeployment wrs aimed in Indooroopilly, Brisbane—$819,000. part at reducing CSIRO's dependence FOREST RESEARCH—Library at upon the Wool Research Trust Yarralumla, Canberra—3334,000. Fund. It also enabled some FOOD RESEARCH—Environmental growth expansion of activities in high priority cabinet building at North Ryde, areas such as human nutrition, fisheries Sydney—SI 40,000. and oceanography, forestry, and ANIMAL PRODUCTION—Carcass incinerator minerals and energy. at Prospect, Sydney—$88,000.
Buildings
Owing to the Government's policy of financial restraint during 1975/76, most building projects were deferred and no major contracts were let during the year. The National Measurement Laboratory at Bradfield Park, Sydney, by far the largest single construction program undertaken by CSIRO, continued to progress and is expected to be completed during 1977. Some preliminary work on the Australian National Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, has been undertaken, but major work on the site has not yet commenced. Work is proceeding satisfactorily on the Centre for Animal Research and Development near Bogor, West Java. This project is being undertaken by •.I CSIRO in conjunction with the Australian Development Aid Agency. Major projects completed during the year include: FISHERIES AND OCEANOGRAPHY— Fisheries laboratory at Cleveland, Brisbane—S1,797,000. COMPUTING RESEARCH—Alterations and extensions to Black Mountain Laboratory, Canberra. A contract in
55 A
Annual Expenditure
The following summary gives details of expenditure by CSIRO Divisions and other Units on other than capital items from 1 July 1975 to 30 June 1976.
Treasury Contributory- Total DIVISION OR I'NIT funds funds (?) ($) ($)
Head Office The main items of expenditure under this heading are salaries and travelling expenses of the administrative staff at Head Office and the Regional Administrative Offices, salaries and expenses of officers at the Liaison Offics in London, Washington. Moscow and Tokyo, and gei 'ral office expenditure. 8,099,284 52,120 8,151,404
Research Programs Animal Health and Reproduction. Animal Production 3.617,715 3,566,971 7,184,686 Molecular and Cellular Biology UJnitn / Animal Health 3,748,369 1,023,693 4,772,062 Human Nutrition 999,699 195,480 1,195,179 Centre for Animal Research and Development- Indonesia — 4,420,419 4,420,419 Plant Industry 5,783,298 655,323 6,438.621 Entomology and Wildlife Entomology 4,452,198 1,281,240 5,733.438 Wildlife Research 1,766,196 611,956 2,378,152 Horticulture and Irrigation Horticultural Research 1.279,400 60,730 1,340,130 Irrigation Research 1,072,997 73,537 1,146,534 Tropical Crops and Pastures 3,878,298 935,869 4,814,167 Land Resources Soils 3,340,197 76,172 3,416,369 Land Use Research 2,231,908 344,761 2,576,669 Agro-Industrial Research Unit 114,243 114,243 Land Resources Management 2,411,725 692,117 3,103,842 Forest Research 2,903,215 25,958 2,929,173 Processing of Agricultural Products Food Research 4,477,549 1,083,887 5,561,436 Wheat Research 119,946 121,488 241,434 Textile Industry 188,183 2,715,023 2,903,206 Textile Physics 130,700 1,824,174 1,954,874 Protein Chemistry 484,099 1,605,652 2,089,751 Fisheries and Oceanography Fisheries and Oceanography 4,504,626 332,985 4,837,611 •.å Marine Biochemistry Unit 111,269 111,269 Chemical Research of Industrial Interest Applied Organic Chemistry (including Microanalylical Labora. iry) 2,016,371 220,668 2,237,039 Chemical Physrcs- 1,970,099 890 1,970,989 Chemical Technology 1,952,898 162.033 2,114,931 Minerals and Suiar Energy Research Mineral Research Laboratory, Clayton 1,536,697 20,883 1,557,580 Mineral Research Laboratory, Port Melbourne 2,382,699 117,535 2,500,234 Mineral Research Laboratory. Floreat Park 857,698 12,676 870,374 Mineral Research Laboratory, North Ryde 3,632,526 183,351 3,815,877 Baas Becking Geobiological Group 13,400 52,310 65,710 Solar Energy Studies Unit 98,834 98,834
56 Treasury Contributory Total DIVISION OK I'NIT funds funds ($) ($) ($)
Physical Research of Industrial Interest National Measurement Laboratory- 5.810.400 5.810,400 General Physical Research Radiophysics 3,367,092 193,915 3,561.007 Atmospheric Physics 1,633,400 16,623 1,650,023 Cloud Physics 903,193 515 903,708 Environmental Mechanics 517,899 8.140 526,039 Australian Numerical Meteorological Research Centre 239,443 239,443 General Industrial Research Building Research 4,387,899 78,051 4,465,950 Tribophysics 1,918,900 30,159 1,949,059 Applied Geomcchanics 1,382,907 207.790 1,590,697 Mechanical Engineering 1,441,599 157.933 1,599.532 Research Services Computing Research 666,876 234 667.110 Mathematics and Statistics 1.856,098 53 1.856,151 Western Australian Administration 300.799 — 300,799 Extra-mural Grants 198,520 — 198,520 Australian Mineral Development Laboratories 80,000 — 80,000 Developmental projects 169,000 — 169,000 Information and Publications Central Information, Library and Editorial Services 2.577,765 2.577,765 Film and Video Centre 180,592 180,592 Miscellaneous 1,006,255 303.663 1,309,918
Grants Research Associations 771,526 771,526 Research Studentships 428,048 — 428,048 Other grants and contributions 2,353,000 2,353,000 Total expenditure 102,367,547 23,466,977 125,834,524
• Following a reorganization of the Animal Research Divisions in November 1975, the above Division and Unit were formed from the previous Divisions of Animal Physiology and Animal Genetics. This also refers to the statement of 'Capital Expenditure under CSIRO Control' on page 58.
General Revenue During 1975/76 general revenue amounting to $797,593 was received by the Organization. Details of receipts are as follows: S Sale of publications 131583 Receipts in respect of expenditure of former years 194,124 Sale of produce, including livestock 141,710 Royalties from patents 139,024t Testing fees 67,699 Miscellaneous receipts 121,453
Total 797,593
Of the above sum S647,792 was spent during 1975/76. This expenditure was approved by the Minister for Science and the Treasurer as part of the general estimates. f A further SI66,328 was received as royalties on CSIRO patents and was paid to the Department of Agriculture for credit to the Wool Research Trust Fund. The patent royalties included 3156,919 for the self-twist spinning machine.
57 ' •'***• -r,\
Capital Expenditure under CSIRO Control S
The table which follows shows capital expenditure from funds made available directly to CSIRO. It includes expenditure on capital and developmental works and on items of equipment costing more than $15,000 each.
Treasury Contributory Total DIVISION OR UNIT funds funds (*) (*) ($)
Head Office 16,397 16,397 Animal Health and Reproduction Animal Production "\ Molecular and Cellular Biology UnitJ 53,671 111,727 165,398 Animal Health 82,204 18,704 100,908 Human Nutrition 35,797 35,797 Centre for Animal Research and Development —Indonesia 3,510,000 3,510,000 Plant Industry 43,830 4,041 47,871 Entomology and Wildlife Entomology 50,312 35,810 86,122 Wildlife Research 72,647 72,647 Horticulture and Irrigation Horticultural Research 11,682 2,947 14,629 Irrigation Research 32,854 32,854 Tropical Crops and Pastures 126,974 76,307 203,281 Land Resources Soils 49,453 49,453 Land Use Research 376 376 Land Resources Management 50,123 15,673 65,796 Processing of Agricultural Products Food Research 29,962 29,962 Wheat Research 26,919 26,919 Textile Industry 88,022 88,022 Textile Physics 21,861 71,072 92,933 Protein Chemistry 2,994 26,055 29,049 Fisheries and Oceanography Fisheries and Oceanography 259,764 235,000 494,764 Marine Biochemistry Unit 30,695 30,695 Chemical Research of Industrial Interest Applied Organic Chemistry 57,351 57,351 Chemical Physics 37,253 37,253 Chemical Technology 49,028 E 49,028 Minerals and Solar Energy Research Mineral Research Laboratory, Clayton 2,728 2,728 Mineral Research Laboratory, Port Melbourne 9,673 — 9,673 Mineral Research Laboratory, North Ryde 157,538 157,538 Physical Research of Industrial Interest National Measurement Laboratory 86,674 — 86,674 "S General Physical Research Radtophysics 62,939 62,939 Atmospheric Physics 95,517 — 95,517 General Industrial Research Building Research 65,218 65,218 Tribophysics 2,486 2,486 Applied Geomechanics 90,755 90,755 Mechanical Engineering 44,950 21,536 66,486 Research Services Computing Research 486,777 486,777 Western Australian Administration 1,326 — 1,326 Information and Publications Central Information, Library and Editorial Services 3,207 3,207 Miscellaneous 9,879 18,693 28,572 Central Administration—Indooroopilly 44,287 44,287 Total capital expenditure 2,306,101 4,235,587 6,541,688
58
•M. 1
AUDITOR-GENERAL'S OFFICE Prudential Building, University Avenue, Canberra City, A.C.T. 2601 17 August 1976
The Honourable the Minister for Science, Parliament House, CANBERRA. A.C.T.
Dear Sir,
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization
In compliance with Section 30(2) of the Science and Industry Research Act 1949, financial statements of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization for the year ended 30 June 1976 have been submitted for my report. These comprise— Summary of Receipts and Payments Consolidated Statement of Payments Statement of Payments—Special Account Statement of Payments—Specific Research Account. One set of the statements, which are in the form approved by the Treasurer, is attached. I now report in accordance with section 30(2) of the Act that in my opinion— (a) the accompanying statements are based on accounts and financial records kept in accordance with the Act; (b) the statements are in agreement with the accounts and financial records and show fairly the financial operations of the Organization; and (c) the receipt, expenditure and investment of moneys, and the acquisition and disposal of other property, by the Organization during the year have been in accordance with the Act. •H Yours faithfully,
(Sgd) D. R. STEELE CRAIK
(D. R. STEELE CRAIK) AUDITOR-GENERAL
59
F'Sl, •k. t
Summary of Receipts and Payments
Funds beld Receipts Total funds Payments Funds held 1 July 1975 available 30 June 1976 (5) (S) ($) ($) (?)
Special Account Parliamentary Appropriation: Operational — 101,670,000.00 101,670,000.00 101,669,754.62 245.38 (—)• (86,622,000.00) (86,622,000.00) (86.622,000.00) —
Parliamentary Appropriation: Capital 264,047.17 2,268,000.00 2,532,047.17 2,306,100.80 225,946.37 (116,457.81) (2,480,000.00) (2,596,457.81) (2,332,410.64) (264,047.17)
Revenue and Other Receipts 129,449.29 797,592.84 927,042.13 697,791.97 229,250.16 (217,999.79) (672,665.77) (890,665.56) (761,216.27) (129,449.29) Total: Special 393,496.46 104,735,592.84 105,129,089.30 104,673,647.39 455,441.91 Account (334,457.60) (89,774,665.77) (90,109,123.37) (89,715,626.91) (393,496.46)
Specific Research Account 2,059,077.95 24,413,821.29 26,472,899.24 23,466,976.61 3.00i.922.63f (1,830,292.46) (19,137,255.18) (20,967,547.64) (18,908,469.69) (2.059,077.95)
Other Trust Moneys^ 151,456.31 1,678,459.14 1,829,915.45 1,562,489.04 267,426.41 (195,410.22) (1,504,180.01) (1,699,590.23) (1,548,133.92) (151,456.31)
Cafeteria Accountg 1,965.90 47,611.91 49,577.81 43,675.00 5,902.81 (6,569.11) (52,149.76) (58,718.87) (56,752.97) (1,965.90) Total 2,605,996.62 130,875,485.18 133,481,481.80 129,746,788.04 3,734,693.76 (2,366,729.39) (110,468,250.72) (112,834,980.11) (110,228,983.49) (2,605,996.62)
* Figures in brackets refer to 1974/75 financial year. f Includes investments totalling S171,200.00. | Moneys held temporarily on behalf of other organizations and individuals. § Operating receipts and expenses of CSIRO cafeteria at Melbourne.
•/>---
J. R. Price {Chairman) R. \V. Viney (Senior Assistant Secretary, Finance and Properties)
60
.-3- •S3.
Consolidated Statement of Payments
1974/75 1975/76
Head Office (including Regional Administrative Offices) 5,177,081 Salaries and allowances 5,962,401 342,777 Travelling and subsistence 277,461 428.430 Postage, telegrams and telephone 521,217 1,C. ,o3 Incidental and other expenditure 1,390,325
7,039,651 8,151,404
Research Programs Agricultural research 12,360,149 Animal health and reproduction 13,931,914 5,818,264 Plant industry 6,434,580 7,044,106 Entomology and wildlife 8,075,780 2,127,521 Horticulture and irrigation 2,483,717 4,435,09! Tropical crops and pastures 4,737.860 8,282,943 Land resources 9,195,449 — Forest research 2,929,173 11,295,621 Processing of agricultural products 12,5P5,552 3,883,480 Fisheries and oceanography 4,713,880 5,605,148 Chemical research of industrial interest 6,322,960 7,707,711 Mineral and solar energy research 8,908,609 5,168,499 Physical research of industrial interest 5,810,400 5,985,105 General physical research 6,880,220 8,585,666 General industrial research 9,583,703 2,970,721 Research services 3,271,579 2,389,630 Information and publications 2,758,357 991,120 Miscellaneous 1,291.225
94,650,775 109,894,958
Grants 676,085 Research associations 771.526 362,599 Research studentships 428,048 1,889,400 Other grants and contributions 2,353.000
2,928,084 3,552,574
Capital Works and Services 1,876,600 Buildings, works, plant and devclopmei 4,664,677 1,595,979 Major items of laboratory equipment 1,323,772 453,007 Expansion of CSIRO computer networ 443,239 80,000 Construction of research vessel 110,000
4,005,586 6,541,688
Other Trust Moneys Remittance of revenue from investigations financed from 554,637 Industry Trust Accounts 580,313 993,497 Other miscellaneous remittances 982,176
1,548,134 1,562,489
61 \:å 1974/75 1975/76 ($) ($) Cafeteria Account 56,753 Operating expenses of CSIRO cafeteria at Melbourne 43,675
56,753 43,675
110,228,983 Total Expenditure 129,746,788
J. R. Price {Chairman) R. W. Viney [Senior Assistant Secretary, Finance and Properties)
n
62 Statement of Payments—Special Account*
1974)75 1975/76 ($) (*) Head Office (including Regional Administrative Offices) 5,172,882 Salaries and allowances 5,949,754 342,663 Travelling and subsistence 277,461 428,430 Postage, telegrams and telephone 521,217 1,079,122 Incidental and other expenditure 1,350,852
7,023,097 8,099.284
Research Programs Agricultural research 7.506,551 Animal health and reproduction 8,365,783 5,209,799 Plant industry 5,783,298 5,488,689 Entomology and wildlife 6,218,394 2,014,697 Horticulture and irrigation 2,352,397 3,350,600 Tropical crops and pastures 3,878,298 7,329,307 Land resources 8,098,073 — Forest research 2,903.215 4,771,949 Processing of agricultural products 5,400,477 3,671,198 Fisheries and oceanography 4,o i 5.895 5,293,407 Chemical research of industrial interest 5,939,368 7,403,670 Mineral and solar energy research 8,521,854 5,168,499 Physical research of industrial interest 5,810.400 5,844,786 General physical research 6,661,027 8,209,144 General industrial research 9,131,305 2,970.632 Research services 3,271,293 2,387,696 Information and publications 2,758,357 811,411 Miscellaneous 1.006.255
77,432,035 90,715,689
Grants 676,085 Research associations 771,526 362,599 Research studentships 428,048 1,889,400 Other grants and contributions 2,353,000
2,928,084 3,552,574
Capital Works and Services 529,997 Buildings, works, plant and developmental expenditure 599,919 1,269,797 Major items of laboratory equipment 1,152,943 452,616 Expansion of CSIRO computer network 443,239 Construction of research vessel 110,000 80,000 2,306,101 2,332,410 Total Expenditure 104,673,648 89,715,626
• Special Account refers to moneys paid to CSIRO out of the Consolidated Revenue Fund of the Common- wealth and other related moneys specifically covered by Section 26C of the Science and Industry Research Act 1949-1973.
J, R. Price (Chairman) R. W. Viney (Senior Assistant Secretary, Finance and Properties) h.
Statement of Payments—Specific Research Account
1974/75 1975/76 ($) Head Office (including Regional Administrative Offices) 4.199 Salaries and allowances 12,647 114 Travelling and subsistence Postage, telegrams and telephone 112,241 Incidental and other expenditure 39.473
16.554 52.120
Research Programs Agricultural research 4.853,598 Animal health and reproduction 5,566,131 608.465 Plant industry 651,282 1.555,417 Entomology and wildlife 1,857,386 112,82-1 Horticulture and irrigation 131,320 1.084.491 Tropical crops and pastures 859.562 953,63(i Land resources 1,097.376 — Forest research 25,958 6,523,672 Processing of agricultural products 7.165.075 212,282 Fisheries and oceanography 97.985 311.741 Chemical research of industrial interest 383,592 304.041 Mineral and solar energy research 386.755 — Physical research of industrial interest 140,31.) Genera! physical research 219.193 376,522 General industrial research 452.398 89 Research services 1.934 Information and publications 286 179,709 Miscellaneous 284.970 17,218,740 19,179,269
Capital Works and Services 1.346,603 Buildings, works, plant and developmental expenditure 4,064,758 326,182 Major items of laboratory equipment 170.829 Expansion of GSIRO computer network 391 4,235,587 1,673,176 Total Expenditure 23,466,976 18,908,470
J. R. Price {Chairman) R. \V. Vincy (Senior Assistant Secretary, Finance and Properties)
64 Research Activities
The various CSIRO Divisions, their APPLIED GEOMECHANICS fields of research, and the location of Properties and behaviour of soils and their laboratories and field stations are as rocks in relation to the design of civil follows: and mining engineering structures such as building foundations, earthen ANIMAL HEALTH embankments, road pavements, surface Diseases of livestock and poultry caused excavations and underground openings. by bacteria, viruses, mycoplasmas, Melbourne, with a laboratory in Adelaide protozoa and plant poisons; external and field stations at Cobar, , \~.S. 11". and parasites—cattle tick, lice and biting Goonyella, Qld. insects—as potential transmitters of disease; worm parasites of sheep and APPLIED ORGANIC CHEMISTRY cattle; immunology. Application of chemistry to problems Melbourne, with laboratories in Sydney, of national and industrial importance Brisbane, Perth, Armidale, Jf.S.W., with particular interest in biological Rockhampton and Townsville, Qld, and organic chemistry, polymer science, and field stations at Maribyrnong, Seymour and energy and environmental studies. W'erribee, Vic, Badgery's Creek, .X.S. II*., Investigations into the application of and Jimboomba, Qld. organic chemistry to animal husbandry problems; chemical agents for ANIMAL PRODUCTION improved primary product storage; Physiology, endocrinology, nutrition chemical control of insects and ticks; and ecology of sheep and cattle in chemical storage of solar energy; relation to reproductive performance smoke pollution; water pollution by and improvements in the efficiency of heavy metals; development of meat and wool production; efficient specialized polymers; surface science; use of fertilizers and mineral supplements useful chemicals from coal. in animal enterprises; control of Melbourne. metabolic disorders in grazing ruminants; use of chemical methods ATMOSPHERIC PHYSICS for defleecing sheep. Genetics and its Physical and chemical atmospheric application to Australia's animal processes that underlie and control industries; genetics and the improve- the weather and climate, and that are ment of beef cattle, dairy cattle, sheep responsible for the distribution of and poultry through breeding and airborne material including gases. selection. Research into those aspects of the Sydney, with a Genetics Laboratory at «Xorth oceans that affect the atmosphere. Ryde, Sydney, the Pastoral Research Methods include field work, theoretical Laboratory, Armidale, Ar.S.H'., the Cattle studies, laboratory and numerical Breeding Laboratory, Rockhampton, Qld, the models, and analyses of observations Bloat Research Unit, Melbourne, the Beef on a local, regional and global scale. Cattle Research Unit, Townsville, Qld, the Melbourne. Dairy Cattle Unit, Wollongbar, A'.S.tt'., and research properties at Armidale ami Badgery's BUILDING RESEARCH Creek, A.S.))'., and Rockhampton, Qld. Development of the built environment,
65 community planning and urban design; formation; artificial induction of systems research; physical performance rainfall by techniques such as cloud- of buildings in relation to the well-being seeding; studies of atmospheric of occupants; building operations and particles. economics; structural design and Sydney. engineering; conversion of forest products for the production of wood- COMPUTING RESEARCH based building elements; design and Computer science and the application improvement of building components of computers to research and and systems; development, processing development projects. The Division and properties of building materials. also provides a computer service to .Melbourne. other Divisions, certain Commonwealth Government Departments and some CHEMICAL PHYSICS universities. Development and application of 77w Division operates a computer network chemico-physical techniques and which has its centre in Canberra and is instruments in the fields of spectroscopy, linked by Telecom Australia lines to mass spectroscopy, electron diffraction, subsidiary installations in Adelaide, electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, Brisbane {various locations), Hobart, theoretical chemistry and solid-state Melbourne (various locations), Perth, chemistry. Sydney (various locations), Armidale, .Melbourne. Deniliquin and Griffith, .X.S. U'., and Rockhampton and Townsville, Qld. CHEMICAL ENGINEERING For research activities, see Minerals ENTOMOLOGY Research Laboratories. Taxonomy, ecology, population .Melbourne. dynamics, genetics, behaviour, physiology and biochemistry of insects, CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY particularly in relation to the Application of chemical technology and development of methods of control that particularly polymer technology to reduce or eliminate the disadvantages developing ways whereby Australia's commonly associated with the use of renewable and recycling resources can pesticides. be more effectively utilized and Canberra, with laboratories in Brisbane, protected. Investigations include Perth and Sydney, and field stations at fractionation of plants to produce fibre Armidale, Trangie, Warrawee and Wilton, in conjunction with protein and other X.S.IV., Rockhampton and Amberley, Qld, marketable products; studies of pulp Hobart, and Port Moresby, Papua .Yew and paper and the usi of cellulose Guinea. The Division also has biological materials in packaging, writing, printing control units at Curiliba, Brazil, and building products; assessment of Montpellier, France, and a unit for dung 'be technological potential of forest beetle investigations at Pretoria, South resources; technology of purifying a id Africa. recycling water; energy storage; ard recycling and bioenergetics. ENVIRONMENTAL MECHANICS ^Melbourne. Transfer processes in the natural environment (physical interactions CLOU) PHYSICS between soils, plants and the lowest Natural mechanisms of cloud and rain layers of the atmosphere involving the •V;
exchange of energy, water and carbon lie. and Ml Gambier, V..1. dioxide) and their effect on plant growth; mathematical and physical HORTICULTURAL RESEARCH aspects of ecology. Introduction and adaptation of fruit Canberra. crops to Australian environments; breeding of wine and drying grapes; FISHERIES AND OCEANOGRAPHY management of fruit trees and grape- Survey and appraisal of certain marine vines including effects of nematodes. fishery resources including rock lobsters, viruses and salinity processing of prawns and pelagic fisheries of the dried grapes; physiology and south-eastern area of Australia; biochemistry of horticultural plants; biology of the western rock lobster and domestication of Australian native plants. prawn species of commercial Adelaide, with a laboratory and field station importance; biological, chemical and at Merbein, Vic, and a laboratory at Hobart. physical oceanography of south-east Indian Ocean and south-west Pacific HUMAN NUTRITION Ocean; studies on the dynamics of The study of nutritional processes .Australian estuarine ecosystems. directed towards an understanding of Sydney, with regional laboratories in related human disorders. Epidemiological Brisbane and Perth, and afield laboratory «tudies of human nutrition in the social at Karumba, Qld. environment. Biochemical and physiological investigations into protein FOOD RESEARCH metabolism and malnutrition; digestion Properties, preservation, processing, and absorption of foodstuffs; efficiency packaging, storage and transport 01 food utilization relevant to obesity. of foods in relation to quality at the Aspects of inorganic nutrition, consumer level; microbial physiology particularly trace element metabolism, and methodology; membrane structure and iodine deficiency in relation to and biochemistry; identification and brain development. evaluation of flavours; plant physiology; Adelaide. polyunsaturated meat and dairy products; new protein and dairy IRRIGATION RESEARCH foods; treatment and utilization of Crop growth, management and quality processing wastes. of irrigated crops, especially vegetables Sydney, with the Meal Research and oil-seed crops; water quality and Laboratory, Brisbane, Dairy Research management in irrigation; environ- Laboratory, Melbourne, Tasmanian Food mental plant physiology, and bio- Research Unit, Hobart. chemistry and engineering aspects of intensive crop production. FOREST RESEARCH Griffith, X.S.W. Studies, especially of a long-term nature, in fields such as resource LAND RESOURCES MANAGEMENT assessment and management; forest Development of the principles of land production—taxonomy, genetics, resources management for efficient ecology, nutrition, physiology and productivity consistent with conservation; hydrology; tree pests and diseases; fire environmental implications of land use control; harvesting. in pastoral, agricultural, forested and Canberra, with laboratories in Darwin, near-urban areas; development of Hobart, Perth, Alherton, Qld, Traralgon, methods of piocessing and communi-
67 eating data to assist land-use decision Perth, with laboratories in Canberra and making. Sydney. Perth, with laboratories at Deniliquin, Ar.S.iV., and Alice Springs, X.T., and MINERAL PHYSICS field stations at Baker's Hill, W.A., and For research activities, see Minerals Deniliquin, N.S.W. Research Laboratories. Sydney, with a laboratory in Melbourne. LAND USE RESEARCH Inventory of land and water resources MINERALS RESEARCH LABORATORIES and assessment of their current and Field and laboratory work to help potential uses. Development of indicate where useful mineral deposits methods for relating these natural and might occur in Australia; development socio-economic resources in developing of search and localization techniques balanced land-use planning techniques; designed to provide direct evidence for ecology and conservation of woodlands. the existence of oil and mineral deposits; Canberra, with a laboratory at Lames, Qld. the exploitation of properties of rocks and minerals to improve the efficiency MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS of their mining, concentration and Mathematical modelling and statistical handling; the adaptation, improvement analysis of data in the agricultural, and control of methods for processing biomathematical, environmental, and treating mineral and other physical and industrial fields. In resources; the reduction, and possible addition to its consultative services to utilization of solid, liquid and gaseous other CSIRO Divisions and outside wastes from recovery and use of bodies on mathematical and statistical minerals, together with a study of problems, the Division conducts a atmospheric pollutants in urban and sizeable amount of basic research. industrial environments; the assessment Canberra, with officers stationed at Adelaide, and utilization of fossil fuels in Australia, Brisbane, Hobart, Melbourne, Perth, including the conversion of coal into Sydney, Armidale, N.S.W., and solid, liquid and gaseous fuels, and the Townsville, Qld. development of alternative processes for treatment of minerals and other materials designed to reduce the MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Utilization of recoverable energy demand on scarce energy resources. resources; engineering associated with agricultura] crop production and storage; human environmental engineering and noise control; underwater engineering; CERES, the Controlled Environment Research transportation engineering. Laboratory of the DIVISION OF PLANT INDUSTRY, Melbourne. is widely used by research workers from other CSIRO Divisions, State Departments of Agriculture and universities, as well as by a MINERAL CHEMISTRY number of visiting research workers from For research activities, see Minerals overseas. Here, a visiting scientist from Research Laboratories. Bangladesh is checking sorghum plants used in a Melbourne. grain ripening experiment in one of the glasshouse growth cabinets in CERES. These cabinets control temperature to within half a degree and MINERALOGY can also be used to regulate day length. For research activities, see Minerals Research Laboratories. Photograph: Colin Totterdell
68 •\ h:
Melbourne. The Minerals Research Sydney, with the Australian National Radio Laboratories comprise the Divisions of Astronomy Observatory at Parkes, N.S. W., Chemical Engineering, Mineral Chemistry, and a radio observatory at the CSIRO Solar Mineralogy, Mineral Physics and Process Observatory, Culgoora, Ar.S. W. Technology. (For locations see separate entries.) SOILS NATIONAL MEASUREMENT LABORATORY Physics, chemistry, mineralogy and Establishment and maintenance of the biology of soils in relation to growth Commonwealth legal standards for the and health of plants, animals and man. measurement of physical quantities; Soils in relation to forestry, water problems associated with precise supplies and land-use problems in measurements; magnetic and urban and rural areas. dielectric properties of materials; Adelaide, with laboratories in Brisbane, solid-state physics; physics of fluids; Canberra, Hobart, and Townsville, Qld. optics; solar physics; molecular collisions; air glow. TEXTILE INDUSTRY Sydney, with an optical observa, y a: '••' Development of new and improved CSIRO Solar Observatory, Culgc- »rS.W. methods and machinery for processing wool; development of new and PLANT INDUSTRY improved textile products from wool; Research in the plant sciences as a relationships between fleece properties basis for the development and utilization and processing; new uses for wool; of crops and pastures better adapted to environmental studies; cotton Australian conditions; taxonomy and processing. ecology of Australian vegetation. Ge'hng, Vic. Canberra, with a cotton research unit at Marrabri, j\".S. W., ecology units at TEXTILE PHYSICS Brisbane, Waste Point and Broken Hill, Development of methods of testing N,S. W., and experiment stations at wool as an aid to marketing and Canberra and Burren Junction, M.S. W. manufacturing; physical properties and behaviour of wool and its products; PROCESS TECHNOLOGY processing studies; surface properties For research activities, see Minerals of materials. Research Laboratories. Sydney. Sydney. TRIBOPHYSICS PROTEIN CHEMISTRY Properties, behaviour and utilization Structure and chemistry of wool fibres of industrially important metals, as a basis for developing new and alloys, ceramics and refractories; improved wool manufacturing processes; structure of these materials in relation tanning and leather manufacture; to bulk properties such as strength and meat proteins; plant proteins; plasticity, and surface reactions such biologically active proteins. as catalysis, adsorption and oxidation. Melbourne. Melbourne.
RADIO-PHYSICS TROPICAL CROPS AND PASTURES Cosmic and solar radio astronomy; Development of efficient systems for development of microwave instrument- beef production in northern Australia landing systems for aircraft. (excluding arid zones); research on
70
1%. some tropical field crops; agronomic CENTRE FOR ANIMAL RESEARCH AND research integrated with work on DEVELOPMENT introduction, selection and breeding of Research on the nutrition, genetics, new pasture and crop varieties; studies reproduction, heat tolerance and on pasture and crop nutrition, genetics, resistance to disease of poultry, cattle, physiology and biochemistry, and on buffalo and goats with the objective of legume nodulation and animal nutrition. improving the efficiency of livestock Brisbane, with laboratories at Townsville production in Indonesia. and Lawes, Qld, and field stations at Bogor, West Java, Indonesia. Beerwah, Mundubbera, Samford and Woodstock, Qld, [Catherine, N.T., and MARINE BIOCHEMISTRY UNIT Kummurra, W.A. Distribution, structure and bio- chemistry of unicellular marine algae, WILDLIFE RESEARCH particularly in relation to the effects of Biology of birds and mammals, both environmental variations. native and introduced, in relation to Sydney. pest control and conservation. Species investigated include those which are MOLECULAR AND CELLULAR BIOLOGY UNIT clearly pests such as the rabbit and Molecular evolution of influenza virus; wild pig, those which are exploited DNA breakage and repair and its such as waterfowl and quail, and those application to the development of new which need to be conserved. antibiotic systems; mechanisms of Canberra, with laboratories at Darwin and differentiation and the properties of Perth. differentiation factors. Sydney. In addition to the above Divisions, CSIRC has seven smaller research SOLAR ENERGY STUDIES UNIT units. They are: Development of policy and planning of research within CSIRO on the use AGRO-INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH UNIT of solar energy and advising Executive Potential innovations in agricultural on allocation of resources; feasibility technology, in particular, the year-round studies; analysis and provision of data; harvesting of tropical crops, the contact with research workers in industrial processing of crop products, Australia and overseas. and the feeding of animals on crop Melbourne. and industrial by-products. Canberra. WHEAT RESEARCH UNIT Structure and biochemistry of the AUSTRALIAN NUMERICAL METEOROLOGY wheat grain and relationship to flour RESEARCH CENTRE quality; investigations into rapid Studies of the behaviour of the earth's methods of grain sampling and testing, atmosphere, with emphasis on numerical including protein determination and techniques, directed towards improve- wheat variety identification. ment in the accuracy and time scale of Sydney. weather forecasting and in understanding the distribution and variations of climate on the earth. Melbourne. The Centre is jointly sponsored by CSIRO and the Department of Science.
71 Organization
CSIRO has a total staff of some 7100 people located in more than 100 laboratories and field stations throughout Australia. About one-third of the staff are scientists.
CSIRO is governed by an Executive comprising a full-time Chairman, four other full-time members, and four part-time members. Most of the Secretariat members of the Executive are scientists. Administrative Branch
Science Branch CSIRO has 37 research Divisions, Seirrtaty (RescJ'cb) S. Uiti each led by a Chief who is responsible Central Information, Li bran 'o the Executive for the work of that and Editorial Section Officer «C&iixr P.J Judge Division. There are also seven smaller Central Communication Unit research Units. The staff of a Division •If jnjfrr G K IV ilium* consists of research scientists, experimental officers, other professional st-ff engaged on a variety of service functions, and supporting technical, administrative, and trades staff. A Overseas Offices Almum The chart opposite shows the organizational structure of CSIRO as at 1 July 1976. 72 Executive Cbji nun Sir Kubcrt Prpic Mi-mb, rs I'jfi titiii mtmhr» VU Buriinunn ProiCisurM t. l.uinun Ut A h hern V t linning H W Wiwnci Divisions and Chiefs Animal Research Laboratories 1 AIIHUI Rcstircb UbotJivrm Commuter I Animal Health DrA.K L*«dl« 1 ffcjiUHJH Di k A- I-opuion I Animal Production pr T w bum s~ Applied Chemistry Laboratories 1 Applied Clvintury laborntutui Commute 1 Applied Organic Chcmism Dr D11 Solom>n 1 CJurrnun Dr S D Hanunn 1 Chemical Tech no log) Ur D E Was-, Km ironmcnla! PJnsics Research Laboraiorics Atmospheric Ph\sies Dr G B lukker 1 FnciTonmeatjl Pcyncs Rfieireb LibutJtvriei 1 Cloud Phvsics J Warner 1 Cbwun Dr CH B Printlrj 1 Em irunmciual Mechanics Dr J K Philip Land Resources Managerne t R A tcrrv 1 UKJ Rrsourcn Ubontonn Commute f Land Use Research Di It J Miltin^iun 1 Uuirmjn Dt t.C. Hiiliwunh 1 Suits Dr A E Mutin Minerals Research Lahoraio ics Chemical Fnginccnng Mineral Chemist n Ur Df- A IVOLII Mineral Physics Mineralogy A J C^ikin Process Tcclinolug> A.V llridshju. Prulcin Chemisiry Dr W G Dchihct Textile Industry DrD 5> livliu 1 tfcjn-mJ'i Dr D S. Uvlor 1 Textile Phvsic» AK itj|> luiHi; Ajrplicu uco mechanics D,Cl> Auchu.» Building Research DiKUK sluntes Chemical Physics UlALG Rcci Computing Research Dr G N Umc Enromolog) Dr U 1 W*teth..mc Fisheries ami Occamigi aphv Dr K KiJv.a\ Allen ^ood Research MV Tiaccv Forest Research Or \\t C 1>JV Horticultural Research Ur J V f,)uin):h4in Human Nutrition Df BS Hclzcl Irrigation Research t.R HiUic Mathematics and Statistics Df J M Cini Mechanical Engineering Dr K Hj»t:np Plant Industry »i 1. T bum Kadiophv sics Dr J i' Wild Tnbophvsics Dr J H An.fciw.i; Tropical Oops and P.Tiiurcs Di LM Huiiun Wildlife Research Drilj hrilh National Measurement Laborau>r> K J LcKin> /Jiretlur Units and Officers-in-Charge Agro-industrial Research GA 5uvun Marine Biochemistry UrGF lluntphrc) Solar tncrgy Studies KN Moru: l) Australian Numerical Mcicor iluicv KM Clirkc Centre for Animal Research jnd Dciclopmcnt Molecular and Cellular Builo^, Um[ Advisory Council State Committees I Executive Queensland State Committee Sir Robert Price, K.B.E., D.Phil., D.Sc, F.A.A. Professor F. N. Lahey, D.Sc. (Chairman) (Chairman) Professor R. S. D. Campbell, Ph.D., M.R.C.V.S., V. D. Burgmann, B.Sc, B.E. M.R.C.Path., M.A.C.V.Sc. Professor M. E. Holman, M.Sc., D.Phil., D.Sc., C. Curtis, C.V.O., I.S.O. F.A.A. (part-time) A. M. Fraser, Ph.D., B.E.(Civil), B.Sc.(Eng.), V. E.Jennings, B.E.. M.I.E. (Aust.) (part-time) D.I.S.(Lond.), M.I.E.(Aust.), F.A.I.M. A. E. Pierce, M.Sc., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.C.V.S., K. E. Gibson, B.Sc. D.V.S.M., F.A.C.V.SC. B. H. Gunn, B.Comm., A.A.U.Q., A.A.S.A. W. J. Vines, C.M.G., A.A.S.A., F.C.I.S., L.C.A. R. E. Harrison, B.Agr.Sc. (part-time) J. M. Harvey, I.S.O., D.Sc., F.R.A.C.I. Sir Frederick Wiltshire, C.B.E., B.A., F.A.I.M. E. B. de N. Joyce, O.B.E. (part-time) I. W. Morley, I.S.O., B.M.E., B.Met.E. Professor Emeritus H. W. Worner, D.Sc, F.I.M., Sir Ellis Murphy, M.B., Ch.M., F.R.C.P., F.R.A.C.I., M.A.I.M.M., A.S.M.B. F.R.A.C.P. B. T. Overcll, M.Sc. Chairmen of State Committees L. V. Price, O.B.E. R. M. Reynolds QUEENSLAND—Professor F. N. Lahey, D.Sc. E. P. S. Roberts, C.M.G. SOUTH AUSTRALIA—A. M. Simpson, C.M.G., B.Sc. Professor M. Shaw, M.Eng., M.Mech. E. TASMANIA—V. G. Burley, C.B.E., B.E., W.J. D.Shaw, O.B.E. F.I.Mech.E., F.I.E.(Aust.), M.I.E.E., Professor R. L. Specht, M.Sc., Ph.D. F.I.Prod.E., F.A.I.M., F.I.D. Professor G. Wilson, B.Sc., D.Phil. VICTORIA—Professor J. M. Swan, Ph.D., D.Sc., F.A.A., F.R.A.C.I. South Australian State Committee WESTERN AUSTRALIA—L. C Brodie-HRll, C.M.G., A.W.A.S.M. A. M. Simpson, C.M.G., B.Sc. (Chairman) C. W. Bonython, B.Sc., F.R.A.C.I., F.R.G.S., Co-opted Members F.R.Met.S. J. D. Cheesman, L.F.R.I.A., F.R.I.B.A., C. K. Coogan, M.Sc., Ph.D. F.R.A.P.I. Professor R. W. Cumming, B.E., A.M., M.E., A. D. Chenery C.Eng., M.I.E.(Aust.), A.F.R.Ae.S., F.H.F.S. Professor A. M. Clark, M.Sc., Ph.D. A.B.Ps.S., M.A.Ps.S. W. W. Forrest, B.Sc., Ph.D. Professor L. W. Da .ics, B.Sc., D.Phil. G. A. Fry, B.A., B.Tech., M.I.E. (Aust.), J. M. Harvey, I.S.O., D.Sc., F.R.A.C.I. A.F.A.I.M. The Hon. C. R. Kelly B. J. Hailstone R. E. Klugman, M.B., B.S., B.Sc., J. E. Harris. B.E. R. S. Mclrmcs R. G. M. Harvey, B.ScAgr. B. W. Scott, M.B.A., B.Ec. D. R. Hawkes T. B. Swanson, C.B.E., M.Sc., F.R.A.C.I. J. F. Jenkinson, A.A.S.A., A.C.I.S. Brigadier J. G. McKinna, C.B.E., D.S.O., Representing Divisions M.V.O., C.St.J., E.D. L. W. Parkin, M.Sc. A. K. Lascelles, M.V.Sc, Ph.D. Emeritus Professor J. A. Prescott, C.B.E., D.Sc., R. W. R. Muncey, M.E.E., D.App.Sc. Hon.D.Ag.Sc, F.R.S., F.A.A. H. C. Schmidt E. W. Schroder, B.E., A.A.S.A. H. Wilckens, F.I.O.B.(Lond.), F.A.I.B., F.A.I.M., F.I.O.A.(Lond.) 74 Tasmanian State Committee E. X. Maslen, B.Sc., D.Phil. Professor R. J. Moir, B.Sc.(Agric) V. G. Burley, C.B.E., B.E. (Chairman) Professor D. C. O'Connor, D.C., B.E., M.E.. C. Alcorso, Dr.Econ.c Comm. M.Sc., Ph.D. D. D. von Bibra, O.B.E. Professor A. J. Parker, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.A.C.I. W. Brydcn, C.B.E., M.Sc, Ph.D., F.R.S.E. Professor J. Ross, B.A., Dip.Ed., Ph.D., F.B.Ps.S. E. J. Cameron, C.B.E., M.A. J. H. Shepherd, B.Sc., B.Agr.Sc, Dip.For. N. E. Casey, F.A.S.A., Dip.Pub.Admin. F. W. Statham, O.B.E., F.W.S., E.D., J. G. Cooper, F.C.I.S.A., F.A.S.A.. F.A.I.M. F.I.E.(Aust.), F.A.I.M. R. J. Downie Professor W. R. Stern, M.Sc.Agr., Ph.D. G. J. Fish, B.Sc., Dip.Ed. Professor E. J. Underwood, C.B.E., Ph.D., T. A. Frankcomb. O.B.E. Hon.D.Rur.Sc, Hon.D.Sc.(Agric), F.R.S., R. W. Henry, C.B.E., B.Sc. F.A.A. Sir Allan W. Knight, C.M.G., M.E., B.Sc., R. Woodall, M.Sc. B.Comm-, F.I.E.(Aust.) R. Pickering, M.Sc., Ph.D., D.l.C. J. F. Pottinger, M.I.M.E., A.M.I.F. Professor P. Scolt, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.A.S.S.A. M. \V. Shugg, Dip.Arch., L.F.R.A.I.A. D. Sugden, B.Eng. J. G. Symons, B.E., F.S.A.S.M. H. R. Twilley, F.I.D., F.A.I.M. Professor G. C. Wade, M.Agr.Sc, D.Sc. P. J. Wisch, A.B., M.S.Ed., Ed.D., Hon.LL.D. Victorian State Committee Professor J. M. Swan, Ph.D., D.Sc, F.A.A., F.R.A.C.I. (Chairman) A. D. Butcher, M.Sc. Professor S. D. Clark, LL.B., Ph.D. A. R. Gibbs, A.O., B.E., F.I.E.(Aust.). F.C.I.T. R. Lyon, Dip.Arch., L.F.R.A.I.A.. F.R.I.B.A. R. G. Ward, M.A., Ph.D. D. S. Wishart, B.V.Sc, M.A.C.V.Sc. Western Australian State Conunittee L. C. Brodie-Hall, C.M.G., A.W.A.S.M. (Chairman) R. F. Blanks, M.Sc., Ph.D. R. Collin, M.Sc., M.B., B.S., B.Sc, M.A.A.S. G. H. Cooper, J.P., A.A.S.A. M. Dilworth, B.Sc.(Agric), Ph.D. R. R. H. Doran, F.I.E.(Aust-) Professor R. H. Dunlop, D.V.M.. Ph.D., M.R.C.V.S. K. W. Edwards, C.B.E., A.A.S.A. J. R. de Laeter, B.Sc.. B.Ed., Ph.D., F.Inst.P., F.A.I.P. J. N. Langford P. B. Lcfroy G. \. Lewis, Dip.Agr. T. J. Lewis R. J. Lightfoot, B.Sc.(Agric), Ph.D. Printed by CSIRO, Melbourne 75