News 51N

General News

Saltcedar Biocontrol: mentalist organizations, reviews and communities by dense often mono- Reconciling Risks advises the programme. typic thickets of saltcedar up to 7 metres high with up to 100% canopy Wetland Wipe-out Saltcedar or tamarisk (Tamarix spp.) is an cover. Grasses and forbs were often invasive alien weed in western US riparian Saltcedars are (mostly) deciduous species essentially non-existent because of a ecosystems, and is the subject of a classical from the Old World. They were introduced combination of dense shade and saline biocontrol programme. It sounds a familiar to the USA in the early 1800s. As the name litter, the latter a consequence of salt story, and in many ways it is. It illustrates suggests, these trees can use saline ground- excretion by saltcedar foliage. many recurring themes: riparian ecosys- water and they excrete excess salt through • Native wildlife species have not tems are particularly at risk from invasive glands on the leaves. The foliage consists of evolved with saltcedar and many spe- alien species; a combination of human cedar-like bracts, and long racemes of cies (particularly birds) are unable to impact and other factors give an invader insect-pollinated pink flowers produce utilize saltcedar because of its small competitive advantages over native spe- copious quantities of small windblown fruits and seeds, because few native cies; costs and benefits of the invader need seed. One of the some ten species intro- insects develop on it, and because it to be assessed; and the taxonomic relation- duced, Tamarix ramosissima,waswidely has unpalatable foliage. Its lack of ships of a species affect its suitability as a planted in the southwest to control river- food, and lack of plant species richness candidate for classical biocontrol. bank erosion, to form windbreaks and as an and structural diversity, make it unsuit- ornamental. able for cover or nesting for most spe- However, there are points about the saltc- cies, and those that do use it for this From the 1920s, T. ramosissima invaded edar problem that mark it as special. purpose (including most granivores) river valleys rapidly and it was soon recog- Famously, it is the first documented tend to feed elsewhere. Species of nised as a pest. For example, it spread up instance where an invasive weed, scheduled insectivores, cavity dwellers and rap- the lower Colorado River at 20 km/year. By for biological control, has begun to be uti- tors are essentially absent in saltcedar. the 1950s it had invaded most suitable hab- lized to an important degree by an endan- Bird species richness and density may itats along major streams and lakeshores gered species. To add spice to the story, be less than 50% of that in native habi- and by 1965 it occupied over one million saltcedar is a problem in the USA, where tat at some times of the year. Alto- acres of prime riparian land in the west. It not only is the debate on the nontarget gether 41 threatened or endangered has displaced or replaced native plant com- effects of weed biocontrol continuing to species are harmed by saltcedar, nota- munities, degraded wildlife habitat and rumble, but the conservation lobby is ener- bly birds and fish but also plants, may be a major contributor to the decline of getic and effective, and the government is in arthropods, amphibians, reptiles and many native species, including a number of the process of formulating national policy even a mammal, the peninsula bighorn threatened or endangered species. on invasive alien species management. sheep (Ovis canadensis cremnobates) Riparian ecosystems are amongst the most in California. The saltcedar biocontrol programme has important for sustaining wildlife, especially • Great quantities of water are used and gone to unprecedented lengths to (1) assess in semi-arid regions, providing critical hab- water tables are lowered, causing the real costs and benefits of saltcedar, (2) itat to threatened and endangered plant and springs to dry up and hence plant and predict the consequences and timescale of animal species. Human activity undoubt- animal life to perish. Sedimentation the biological control programme on the edly has had enormous impact, but modi- and narrowing of channels occurs, target weed and native flora and (3) manage fied river systems can still provide a which alters stream morphology and the biocontrol programme for maximum functional ecosystem and wildlife value. water temperature, damages or benefit and minimum risk, not just to the As recognised by the Convention on Bio- destroys fish breeding areas, and alters endangered flycatcher, but to the riparian logical Diversity (CBD), riparian ecosys- the aquatic invertebrate species com- ecosystem as a whole. The programme, led tems are particularly at risk of loss of position and populations. by Jack DeLoach, began in 1987 at the US biodiversity, and invasive alien species are • Soil salinity and fire risks are Department of Agriculture – Agricultural one of the biggest threats. In this context, increased. Both of these kill suscepti- Research Service (USDA-ARS) Grassland, saltcedar invasion is one of the worst eco- ble cottonwood and other plants, while Soil and Water Research Laboratory at logical disasters to befall western US saltcedar survives. Temple, Texas with partial support from riparian ecosystems. the US Department of the Interior (USDI) • Recreational use is impeded as a result An assessment of the environmental and Bureau of Reclamation and others. This of many of these impacts. economic costs and benefits of saltcedar in research was joined by Ray Carruthers and The benefits appear paltry by comparison. the USA identified a catalogue of negative his team of scientists at the newly formed Saltcedar has value as an ornamental or impacts. ARS Exotic and Invasive Weed Research shade tree. Some wildlife species and par- Unit at Albany, California in 1998. The • Displacement of valuable cottonwood/ ticularly game birds (for example the Saltcedar Biological Control Consortium, willow (Populus/Salix spp.), seepwil- white-winged dove, Zenaida asiatica)use with representatives from some 40 federal low (Baccharis salicifolia), mesquite it for cover or nesting in the absence of and state agencies and private and environ- (Prosopis spp.) and other native plant native species, although most have to feed

Are we on your mailing list? BiocontrolNews and Information is always pleased to receive news of research, conferences, new products or patents, changes in personnel, collaborative agreements or any other information of interest to other readers. If your organization sends out press releases or newsletters, please let us have a copy. In addition, the editors welcome proposals for review topics. 52N BiocontrolNews and Information 2001 Vol. 22 No. 3 elsewhere or on insects from other plants. because it sprouts from below-ground the southwest USA. It is not currently con- As we discuss further below, it has become buds. Fire kills even large cottonwood trees sidered as a pest in the USA, although it is a preferred nesting site for the endangered and bulldozing is very expensive. Aerial invasive in central Australia. The saltcedar southwestern willow flycatcher (Empi- spraying with Arsenal (imazapyr) or hand- programme has had to take careful account donax traillii extimus) in mid-elevational cutting and stump treatment with Garlon of these species in screening. areas of Arizona. In the absence of other (triclopyr) are effective. However, aerial plants, its pollen provides food, notably for spraying damages native vegetation, and It would be unusual if none of the abundant honey bees (although the honey produced cut-stump treatment is labour intensive and OldWorldnaturalenemieshadbeenacci- is low grade) and some insectivores feed on costly. All these methods also allow rapid dentally imported with saltcedars. In fact, the many adult insects (produced on nearby reinvasion from windblown seed, and these surveys of Tamarix in the USA revealed native vegetation) that visit its flowers. controls must be periodically repeated, that one Eurasian leafhopper, Opsius stac- multiplying the cost, the damage to native togalus, (introduced by unknown means) Humans Figure plants, and the disruption of wildlife. does act as a biocontrol agent, but does not by itself provide effective control. Four The staggering success of saltcedar has Classical Candidate other Eurasian saltcedar-specific arthro- been ascribed to recent human-induced pods have also been recorded in the USA, Saltcedar appears an ideal candidate for changes in the ecosystem. Combined with but none causes significant damage. intrinsic biological characteristics of saltc- classical biocontrol. Although Tamarix is a edar, the following factors have provided it dominant and widespread genus containing From material collected during surveys with enormous competitive advantage over 54 species in its area of origin in the Old conducted by overseas collaborators in the native plants: (1) Dams affecting spring World, there are only two other genera in native range of Tamarix, 21 species have flooding prevent establishment of native this taxonomically ancient family (Tamari- been prioritized for further study. Ten of cottonwoods and willows, which produce caceae), and only one other family (Frank- these species have been imported into quar- seed only in the spring, but allow that of eniaceae) in the same order (Tamaricales). antine in Temple. In 1994, petitions for saltcedar, which continues producing seeds The relative taxonomic isolation of Tam- field release of two species were submitted throughout the summer and after the floods arix has led to the co-evolution of a wide to and approved by the Technical Advisory have receded. (2) Prevention of spring range of host-specific natural enemies. Group for Biological Control of Weeds flooding also halts annual leach of salt from Exploration in the home range of Tamarix (TAG) of the USDA Animal and Plant soil, which favours saltcedars, and salt by the biocontrol programme and overseas Health Inspection Service (APHIS), accumulation on the surface is exacerbated collaborators in France and Italy (USDA- pending an Environmental Assessment. by saltcedar foliage which excretes salt and ARS European Biological Control Labora- These were a leaf beetle, Diorhabda elon- contributes salt-laden leaves to litter. (3) tory, EBCL), Israel (Tel Aviv University), gata, which occurs from China to western Saltcedar thickets burn easily. The frequent China (Chinese Academy of Agricultural Africa, and a mealybug, Trabutina manni- fires kill only the topgrowth of saltcedar, Sciences and Xinjiang Agricultural Univer- para,fromIsrael. which rapidly regrows, but kills even large sity), Turkmenistan (Academy of Sciences cottonwoods. (4) Feeding by livestock and of Turkmenistan) and Kazakhstan ARS scientists and cooperators have native deer and elk is destructive of young (Academy of Sciences of Kazakhstan) observed large stands of T. ramosissima in willows and cottonwoods but less so to salt- began in 1991. The literature and surveys Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan completely cedar. (5) Mechanical controls and some conducted have identified some 26 insect defoliated by D. elongata.InChina,ithas herbicides are more destructive of native genera of which all or nearly all species are the potential to kill young plants grown to vegetation than to saltcedar. (6) Growth of completely specific to Tamarix. The cata- control blowing sand. In no-choice-quaran- native trees is restrained by natural enemies logue of natural enemies numbers over 300 tine tests, larvae fed and developed on (insects and plant pathogens), while growth and the list is incomplete. These insects Frankenia as well as on Tamarix, but in of saltcedar is not. exert heavy pressure on Tamarix in its multiple-choice selection tests in large out- native range. For example, one report from door cages, adults were not attracted to Jeffrey Lovich of the USDI’s Geological central Asia noted that it was often impos- Frankenia and rarely laid eggs on it. In sim- Survey in Sacramento, California points sible to find viable tamarisk seed because of ilar experimental cages at the release site in out that saltcedar has invaded pristine, beetle damage, while EBCL scientists Colorado, only slight feeding was observed remote areas, indicating that human influ- describe seedling establishment as rare, on Frankenia in spite of the presence of ences are not solely responsible for its suc- possibly owing to damage by plant patho- hundreds of starving adults and larvae that cess. Other factors include, notably, an gens. had defoliated the saltcedar plants. In almost complete absence of natural ene- Tunisia, no D. elongata were found on mies. ARS scientists propose that The bright prospects for biocontrol that this Frankenia growing adjacent to Tamarix importing and releasing appropriate host- plethora of candidate species holds out are that was heavily attacked. These tests, plus specific natural enemies would remove this further strengthened by the absence of thefactthatinmostareasFrankenia grows advantage, and allow saltcedar to be gradu- native Tamarix from the western hemi- in different habitats some distance from ally reduced to a less dominant member of sphere, which implies a low risk of non- saltcedar, indicate that Frankenia in nature the plant community. Classical biocontrol target effects if Tamarix natural enemies will not be damaged by D. elongata.In is a logical choice for consideration, and it were introduced there. The only species of quarantine and outdoor cage tests, athel has a track record of success and safety in Tamaricales native to North America are wasfedonandovipositedonmorethan natural areas where native flora and fauna six species of Frankenia, in the Franke- Frankenia, but still much less than on salt- need to be protected from nontarget effects niaceae. However, these species are cedar. ARS scientists concluded that D. of other control measures. uncommon, and one (Frankenia johnstonii) elongata is unlikely to damage athel, is listed as endangered. In addition, one of though some feeding may occur. In contrast, both burning and mechanical the introduced Tamarix species, the large control by bulldozing destroy native vege- evergreen Tamarix aphylla or athel, has The mealybug, T. mannipara,provedtobe tation, but saltcedar is able to regrow some value as a shade tree and windbreak in highly host specific in quarantine tests at News 53N

Temple. Feeding or survival was observed Managing Biocontrol making conditions ideal for willow and cot- only on Tamarix, among 23 genera and 36 tonwood reestablishment. species of plants tested. Populations on T. Concern about the timescale of control, and Controlledfloodingisakeymanagement ramosissima increased 20 fold from the first whether this would allow native vegetation technique for promoting site suitability, to the second generation and killed the test to recover quickly enough to prevent particularly in areas of high soil salinity. It plants, but populations declined on athel. adverse effects on fauna currently prepares substrates, distributes seed, dilutes The females are wingless, but the neonate dependent on saltcedar, and indeed whether salt, and creates a higher water table, which nymphs may be windborn, as are similar saltcedar-induced or other changes to the tips the balance in favour of cottonwoods mealybugs. In Israel, T. mannipara was col- environment might prevent the native veg- and willows and away from saltcedar. This lected beside the Dead Sea, an area hotter etation recovering or surviving at all, was isbeingusedtogoodeffect,forexample,in than any in the USA, and without frost. The not focused exclusively on the south- the Bosque del Apache National Wildlife cooperator in Israel predicted that it would western willow flycatcher. Refuge on the Rio Grande in New Mexico. surviveintheUSAonlyinthemore Mechanical clearance of saltcedar is fol- southern areas of the saltcedar infestation. Concern is based to some extent on a mis- lowed by flooding, the waters being allowed In 1994, TAG recommended its release but conception that the control insects might to recede as cottonwoods are producing clearance for release still awaits US Fish eradicate saltcedar very quickly. In fact, seed. Cottonwood has now replaced the and Wildlife Service (FWS) approval and biocontrol has never resulted in the eradica- saltcedar, and southwestern willow fly- the Environmental Assessment. tion of a weed, and it is not going to reduce saltcedar stands overnight. The biocontrol catchers, previously absent, are now Flycatcher in the Ointment team anticipates (extrapolating from dis- nesting in the area in both willows and salt- persal rates of related chrysomelids) that cedar. At Roosevelt Lake in central Ari- One endangered bird subspecies, the south- dispersal will not be rapid, but will be in the zona, which has the third largest population western willow flycatcher (Empidonax order of tens or hundreds metres per year. of breeding flycatchers, the flycatcher bred traillii extimus), seriously complicated the Thus it would take them 10-20 years to in monotypic stands of saltcedar at the Salt biocontrol programme against saltcedar. In reach the flycatcher saltcedar nesting sites River inlet but reproductive success was 1995, as the environmental assessments that lie 200 to 800 miles (320-1440 km) much lower than in mixed saltcedar/willow were being prepared for the first two bio- from the beetle release sites, and that is dis- habitat 20 miles (32 km) away on the other control agents of saltcedar, this flycatcher counting the effects of ecological barriers side of the lake. In 1996, floods raised the was placed on the Federal endangered spe- that may prevent them ever from reaching level of the lake and willows revegetated cies list. there by natural dispersal. Where the bee- naturally and extensively as the waters receded; many flycatchers now are nesting Saltcedar was documented in the decline of tles do reach, the biocontrol team expects in the willows. Studies elsewhere in New the flycatcher subspecies when it was saltcedar control to be gradual. Based on Mexico found that good bird habitat was placed on the endangered list. It probably observations in quarantine and in the area reinstated within 3-5 years of saltcedar exacerbates most mortality factors of the of origin of the beetles, they expect it to removal and re-vegetation. Manual re-veg- flycatcher and reduces reproductive suc- reach a maximum of 75-80% after 10 or etation methods that produce 95% survival cess by a half. Saltcedar has been impli- more years. This will allow ample time for and continued growth of cottonwoods, wil- cated in flycatcher decline attributed to a the concurrent recovery of willows and lows and other native plants in riparian range of factors including loss of native other native plants without loss of habitat areas have been developed by the USDA- habitat, brood parasitism by the brown- for the flycatcher and other wildlife species ARS Plant Materials Center at Los Lunas, headed cowbird (Molothrus ater), fires, that utilize saltcedar. New Mexico. food, lethal high temperatures, possible increased stress on females, inappropriate Various early manual saltcedar clearance Although there are areas where the salinity nest tree selection and lowered reproduc- and native re-vegetation schemes had a is too high and water table too low for re- tive success. poor success rate, and this led to concerns establishment and growth of cottonwoods about the fate of post-biocontrol saltcedar- and poplars (but probably not for other Paradoxically, however, in one part of salt- degraded habitat. However, early schemes native species), these areas are small and cedar’s adventive range, at mid-elevational suffered because little experimentation had none has been identified in the south- areas in Arizona, the flycatcher has begun been conducted to develop appropriate western willow flycatcher breeding sites. nesting extensively (and exclusively at management techniques. Mortality was Even in the most degraded habitats, how- some sites) in saltcedar, as its natural high owing to a number of factors including ever, the situation may improve as saltcedar willow nest trees have been displaced. It poor site selection for replanted species, begins to decline. A study of the Pecos maybehighlyattractedtonestinsaltcedar improper planting methods and irrigation, River in New Mexico showed that water because the branching structure seems to and failure to protect from the depredations table levels rose, and in west Texas that act as a super-normal stimulus. Concern of livestock and wildlife browsers and salinity levels fell, following saltcedar was expressed that the soil had become so weed and insect damage. removal by herbicide treatment. saline and water tables so deep that if saltc- edar were to be removed, other vegetation Studies since have given more promising The role of water in the success of control would not return and this would threaten results. Clearance of saltcedar from small and re-vegetation is nicely illustrated by the flycatcher further, even though present streams and around desert springs has been beavers, who provided (presumably!) inad- flycatcher nesting sites appear to be within widespread in recent years. Native plant vertent biocontrol when they moved into acceptable limits for the native cotton- communities have recovered quickly and one saltcedar-infested site in Colorado. woods and willows. Approval of the Envi- naturally where water was available and They cut saltcedar to build their dams but ronmental Assessment necessary for salinity levels were acceptable. Extensive fed little on it. When the pools flooded, the approving the biocontrol agent releases had natural inundations in the 1980s and 1990s willows returned abundantly but the saltc- to await resolution of possible effects on may have serendipitously leached salt and edar did not because of the high water table, this flycatcher. even cleared saltcedar in other locations, and the beavers then fed on the willows. 54N BiocontrolNews and Information 2001 Vol. 22 No. 3

Reaching Resolution beetle from Israel (Cryptocephalus sinaita), horticulturists also brought back many and two gall midges (Psectrosema spp.) exotic species to Europe, some as food After a period of being quagmired, the from France and Kazakhstan. Top priority plants and some as ornamentals. Collec- southwestern willow flycatcher issue was insects still being tested overseas include tively they improved an impoverished diet resolved and the biocontrol programme was another mealybug and a moth from Israel, a and added colour and variety to gardens, able to resume. In June 1998, Scott Sten- psyllid and a stem-galling moth from Kaza- and until recently adverse impacts were quist of the Refuges Division of FWS in khstan, a leaf-tying moth, a root-galling few. Portland,Oregoncalledameetingtoreach weevil and a scale insect from China, and compromises that would resolve these another stem-galling moth, another gall Giant hogweed (Heracleum mante- issues and allow the biological control pro- midge and a seed pathogen from France. gazzianum) was not a species that crept into gramme to proceed under some mutually Europe unnoticed, far from it. There was acceptable conditions. Several of the The process of revegetation continues to be great excitement when it was first intro- National Wildlife Refuges in the USA have studied. One experiment currently being duced from the Caucasus region of western saltcedar infestations that seriously damage conducted by the US Geological Survey in Asia in the early 19th century as the tem- wildlife habitat. Measures were agreed western Colorado, to mimic the effects of perate zone’s answer to the giants being upon to safeguard the flycatcher in those the biological control through herbicide discovered in the tropics. Initially it gave areas where it was nesting in saltcedar. Pro- application and vegetation recovery, is little cause for concern and considerable posed research sites within 200 miles (320 being closely monitored. The USDI Bureau cause for admiration, but during the last 30- km) of such habitats or that shared water- of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado has initi- 60 years it has become invasive and trou- sheds were closed down. Initial releases of ated a large programme to study the reveg- blesome throughout central and northern biocontrol agents were required to be made etation potential in critical areas. Europe. In many ways it is the archetypal into cages and monitored for the first year, invasive alien weed: an escapee from gar- Although the flycatcher paradox caused a and at sites that were separated by ecolog- dens, spread by human activities, and its 4-year delay in the progress of the biocon- ical barriers from flycatcher saltcedar spread exacerbated by recent changes in trol programme, the events since show how nesting sites. Cages could be removed after land-use patterns in European landscapes. biocontrol scientists can work with conser- 1-2 years, but intensive monitoring would vationists to plan and execute a programme continue for several years to assess (1) It was in Britain for some 150 years before to manage invasive alien weeds while effects of the agents on saltcedar and any it really broke cover. In the mid 19th cen- ensuring the safety of threatened species in attack on nontarget plants, (2) rate of dis- tury, it was offered by one nursery as “... the same ecosystem. It is clear that nature persal in habitats with varying levels of salt- one of the most magnificent plants in the reserves set up to protect ecosystems will cedar infestation, (3) native vegetation world”. Even then, its habit of spreading by need management to prevent loss of biodi- recovery following saltcedar control and (4) seeding was noted, and by the beginning of versity through invasive alien species. The wildlife recovery after vegetation recovery. the twentieth century sporadic outbreaks saltcedar programme illustrates some ways were occurring. It took longer for the pho- With this agreement in place, and approval this can be achieved. tophytotoxic effects of furocoumarins in by the FWS in June 1999, D. elongata was the sap to be recognised. They produce Contact: Jack DeLoach, released in large (3 ´ 3 ´ 2 m high) field burn-like weals on the skin and make it USDA-ARS, cages in six western states (California, hypersensitive to bright sunlight and liable Grassland, Soil and Water Research Lab, Colorado, Nevada, Texas, Utah and Wyo- to redden and blister, causing rashes which 808 E Blackland Road, ming) in July and August 1999. Diorhabda can persist for many months after contact. Temple,TX76502,USA elongata fed and reproduced, and overwin- Giant hogweed is one of only two plant spe- Email: [email protected] tered at five of the eight more northern cies prohibited for cultivation under the UK Fax: +1 254 770 6561 sites. During 2000, these beetles increased Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. Herbi- to high populations at all five of these sites
cide treatment is the main weapon currently and completely defoliated the saltcedar. used in the UK against the weed, but it has Cages at the other three sites were re- had little impact on its extent and distribu- Europe Acts on Invasive stocked and two new sites were established. tion. Cutting is widely practised but is inef- The field-cage studies indicated that in the Alien Weeds fective because plants regrow, and is more southern areas (north Texas and cen- Classical biological control has never been hazardous to the manual workers involved. tral California), beetles may enter an aes- used against a weed in Europe. This may In Germany, giant hogweed’s impact on tivo-diapause in mid-summer when seem extraordinary, given the number of daylight drops below 14 hours, thus native species (owing to its suppressive biocontrol agents sent from Europe to con- nature) and incidents of injury regularly hit reducing the seasonal cycle to one or two trol weeds of European origin in other parts generations and reducing the effectiveness the media headlines. Approaches to control of the world. It was largely to service this are varied and include herbicide applica- of the beetle. Testing a population from need that the Commonwealth Institute of Tunisia that is active all summer is planned. tion, intensive soil tillage, grazing by sheep, Biological Control (now part of CABI Bio- cutting plants, digging out roots and cutting In May 2001, beetles were released from science), CSIRO (Commonwealth Scien- seed heads. Less conventional approaches, field cages in Texas and Colorado at eight tific and Industrial Research Organisation, such as applications of salt or herbicidal sites; two sites in California will remain in Australia) and the US Department of Agri- oils and even flamethrowers have been cages until 2002. culture established biological control tried. Control, however, remains poor to research stations in Europe, so Europe is non-existent. Currently, three additional insect species not short of biocontrol experts. But while it are being tested in quarantine at Temple and has a long history of (albeit inadvertently) In Denmark, giant hogweed spread from Albany: a foliage-feeding weevil from exporting weed problems as European one site where it was offered for sale in the France (Coniatus tamarisci) that has been nations explored and colonized other parts 1970s to invade adjoining fields, and is now recommended for release by TAG, a leaf of the world, its explorers, naturalists and recognised as a major problem. So far it has News 55N been countered by mechanical/chemical further spread. In these and other habitats 1979) is the main legal institute of the measures, with grazing and cutting also (national parks, nature reserves, gardens, Council of Europe for conservation issues. variously used. By January 2003, all hedgerows, roadsides, railroad embank- Article 11 paragraph 2.b specifically municipalities and counties are requested to ments and ditches), native plants are now requires "each Contracting Party … to cease herbicide use. For many of them giant being out-competed by giant hogweed. The undertake to strictly control the introduc- hogweed is the only plant against which problem is worst in disturbed environ- tion of non-native species". Since 1989 the they are still using herbicides, and they ments, but the weed is encroaching even in Standing Committee has carried out a wide urgently need alternative viable manage- less disturbed habitats. Climate change is range of activities to strengthen implemen- ment solutions. likely to provide a further advantage for the tation by signatories. In 1997 it issued invasive. The next round of CAP reforms Guidelines on the Introduction of Organ- Policies for Invasives will begin in 2004. Revisions that place less isms belonging to Alien Species, which Similar stories emerge from other countries reliance on subsidies and more on remuner- identified a framework of provisions affected by giant hogweed: signs of ation for participation in land stewardship addressing all the main aspects of IAS. The increasingly rapid invasion but little or no and conservation schemes would allow EU’s Pan-European Biological and Land- policy or effective control. Why, though, invasive alien species (IAS) issues to be scape Diversity Strategy defines conserva- should giant hogweed become an invasive addressed. tion policies. These are implemented issue now, when the plant has been with us through regulations or directives, which are Worldwide, IAS have achieved a high pro- binding instruments for member states. It for so long? Partly this can be explained by file in recent years, and there are multi-fac- the ecology of invasion. Following intro- has ranked IAS as having the fourth most eted and interlinked reasons for this. Most significant impact on biodiversity in Europe duction, there is a lag phase while the new important is the enormous increase in the species establishes itself in its new environ- and directed the European Community to number of species being moved globally in take measures to prevent detrimental effects ment and it spreads only slowly. Only a recent decades, which has led to an increase small minority of non-native species goes from them and to control, manage and in emerging invasive alien problems. Nat- wherever possible remove the risks they on to become problematic invaders, and ural barriers to species movement have even for these the lag phase can continue pose. The European section of the IUCN/ been breached through increased trade and SSC (World Conservation Union/Species for many years. But this is followed by a travel, while land-use change and global phase of exponential spread, by which time Survival Commission) Invasive Species warming facilitate the establishment and Specialist Group (ISSG) and the Council of containment and control have become diffi- spread of these species. cult and often uneconomic. Giant hogweed Europe's Directorate of Culture and Cul- in Europe has reached the exponential The global threat from IAS was highlighted tural and Natural Heritage, in a contribution phase of spread. at the UN Conference on Alien Species in to the sixth meeting of the Subsidiary Body Trondheim, Norway in 1996. This land- on Scientific, Technical and Technological This, however, is not the whole explana- mark meeting, convened in response to a Advice (SBSTTA 6) of the CBD in Mon- tion, for European agricultural policies are call from the Convention on Biological treal in March 2001, noted that despite all also involved. These, and the enormous Diversity (CBD) for Parties to take action these efforts to provide instruments for cost of the financial support they provide to on IAS, recognised IAS as the second addressing IAS issues, application remains farming, are a subject of oft-heated discus- greatest threat to biodiversity after habitat uneven, and at the European level a sion for governments and farmers else- destruction. All signatories to the CBD regional strategy and common policy are where, and for Europe’s taxpayers. Their have an obligation under Article 8(h) to still lacking. impact on invasive problems is less well "prevent the introduction of, control or Model for Europe known. eradicate those alien species which threaten It is against this background that a Europe- The European Union (EU) Common Agri- ecosystems, habitats and species." wide initiative is being prepared to provide cultural Policy (CAP) was devised to sup- Current IAS problems in Europe are not a model of invasive species management port European farming. On the one hand, it confined to weeds, nor to terrestrial situa- and to research the use of weed biological was intended to ensure that European tions. Aid during the recent Balkan con- control agents in Europe. Giant hogweed farming was able to compete on the world flicts is believed to have been the route of has been singled out as the model system by stage, and that the declines that threatened introduction of the western corn rootworm, partners in the Czech Republic (Academy starvation during the wars of the first half of Diabrotica virgifera virgifera from the of Sciences), Denmark (Forest and Land- 20th century (when Europe was cut off USA, which threatens maize production scape Research Institute), Germany (Centre from imported food) would never be across large parts of southeastern Europe for Environmental Research and Justus- repeated; on the other hand it provided sup- and is rapidly spreading northwestwards; Liebig University of Giessen, Landscape port to farming communities, which an outbreak of the North American grey Ecology and Environmental Planning), formed a large and important sector of the squirrel has caused fierce debate in Italy; Switzerland (CABI Bioscience and Univer- electorate in a number of member coun- European crayfish are under threat from a sity of Berne, Zoological Institute) and the tries. However, when rotational ‘set-aside’, fungal invader; and the marine alga Caul- UK (CABI Bioscience). If current negotia- was introduced in the CAP reforms in erpa taxifolia is overwhelming the native tions under the EU Framework 5 pro- 1992, it encouraged farmers to leave fallow marine flora and fauna of parts of the Med- gramme are concluded successfully, work large areas of land, including land along iterranean Sea. IAS cause a multitude of should start in late 2001 or early 2002. rivers and steams, in return for subsidies; in problems and conflicts of interests across 1993-94, 6.4 million hectares were set aside all sectors. Europe has recognised the threat The overall objective of the project is to throughout the EU area. In addition, exten- and has begun to act. develop an integrated management strategy sive building development has taken place that comprises effective, practicable and on former ‘green’ cultivated agricultural The Standing Committee of the Convention sustainable means of controlling an alien land. Both habitats are prone to invasion by on the Conservation of European Wildlife non-agricultural weed. This will provide a alien species, and human activity promotes and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention generic control strategy to safeguard 56N BiocontrolNews and Information 2001 Vol. 22 No. 3

Europe’s biodiversity from the increasingly production will be assessed in a novel study onwards. During the 18th and 19th centu- serious threat of other IAS. In addition to of age structure and spatial distribution in ries, over 600 cultivars were bred by selec- the effective control of giant hogweed, a natural and semi-natural habitats, which tion and crossing, and unknown numbers concept would be produced which would can be used to assess likely impact of bio- were taken all over the globe. Many poly- serve as a template by which other exotic control agents attacking different life ploid hybrids in this species complex, species could be controlled or prevented stages. The invasion ecology of non-agri- known collectively by the misnomer ‘Lan- from reaching the invasive phase. cultural weed populations in relation to tana camara L.’, became a major pan-trop- control is poorly researched, as is invasion ical weed. Spread by birds, lantana invades To facilitate this, the project is going to at the continental level. These need to be pastures, forestry plantations, riverbanks focus on the more specific objectives of: better understood if management is to suc- and treed parts of natural ecosystems. It • providing simple and practical man- ceed, a problem that will be addressed by forms impenetrable, prickly thickets that agement methods to decrease the abun- modelling, use of GIS and knowledge built obstruct access. It secretes phytotoxic allel- dance and prevent further spread of up at the national level. ochemicals and out-competes indigenous giant hogweed; this will prevent dis- plants, threatening biodiversity. On the Extensive surveys in both the adventive and placement of native plant and animal Pacific islands, for instance, the list of inva- native range of the weed will be conducted species and thus conserve European sive alien plants threatening biodiversity is for insect and pathogen natural enemies. diversity headed by lantana. The leaves and stems of Preliminary surveys indicated no species of some varieties are also toxic to cattle and • evaluating biological control as a sus- potential in the introduced range, but mate- cause serious economic losses to farmers. tainable control strategy for invasive rial new to science in the Caucasus. How- alien weeds in Europe, using giant ever, before introduction of biocontrol Chemical and mechanical controls are hogweed as a case study agents can be considered, risks and benefits effective in the short term, but the weed readily re-infests the land as coppice • developing concepts for managing need to be considered. In particular, pos- similar invasive alien weeds which are sible nontarget effects (on humans, ani- growth and seedlings. In addition, land having a serious impact on biodiversity mals, environment, etc.) will be compared values in grazing areas are often so low that in Europe, taking into consideration with possible benefits (sustainable long- conventional means of control are uneco- conflicting human-related activities term control, reduced management costs nomic, whilst in natural ecosystems and and herbicide application, etc.) of biolog- national parks the use of chemicals and Giant hogweed is a considered a good ical control. Perhaps above all, this project machinery can also be highly damaging to model because it has all the common char- provides a unique opportunity for a coordi- the environment. acteristics of most invasive alien weeds: it nated European initiative to assess the suit- Biological control was therefore sought, is a tall (up to 4 m in height) herbaceous ability and feasibility of classical weed intermittently, throughout the 20th century. plant, perennial with a varying but short life biological control for Europe. span; it is typically dominant and wide- To date, 38 natural enemies, most of them spread over a large geographical area; it While biological control may be considered insects, have been released in 32 countries infests essentially non-agricultural land; in the long-term, it is fundamental to this against the range of weedy varieties of lan- and it is dispersed by human intervention project to provide a management strategy tana. So far, the impact on the weed has and along corridors. There are, however, a with more immediate impact. Presently been measurable, especially in hot and number of interesting aspects to giant hog- applied mechanical and chemical control humid areas, though generally localized weed that call for research if management methods will therefore be assessed, together and sporadic and, overall, inadequate. is to be successful. with possible measures to reduce and pre- Many factors appear to hinder successful vent further spread of the weed and other biocontrol. On the one hand, DNA studies The taxonomy of the species is poorly invasive alien weeds. The resultant knowl- suggest that L. urticifolia and L. tiliaefolia understood, but it is crucial that this is clar- edge and experience will be integrated to could be important parents of the weedy ified if biological control is to be a viable produce best practice guidelines and an hybrids, yet the biocontrol agents were option. Giant hogweed populations are uni- integrated control strategy. Finally, and sometimes collected from other Lantana form in Central Europe, but types have crucially, this information will be dissemi- species,andoftenreleasedinsmallnum- been reported in northern Europe, and nated to practitioners across Europe to bers, on less-preferred varieties, in climati- hybridization between it and native Hera- allow them to implement effective and eco- cally unsuitable areas, and colonized by cleum may have occurred. The situation is nomically sound control measures. local natural enemies. On the other hand, even more complex in its area of origin in the target weed’s polyploid hybrid genetic the Caucasus, which is also a region of high Contact: Hans Peter Ravn, composition also certainly confers mark- diversity within the genus. The links Danish Forest and Landscape Research edly heterogeneous varietal resistance to between the taxonomy of the plant in its Institute, Hoersholm Kongevej 11, natural enemies, and phenomenal powers native and adventive areas are therefore DK-2970 Hoersholm, Denmark of compensatory growth. poorly understood. This will be studied Email: [email protected] using molecular marking techniques, to The biocontrol battle against this notori-
ously difficult weed was therefore pursued help ensure that proposed strategies for with renewed determination from 1994, in control are sustainable in the context of the collaboration between ARC-PPRI (Agri- genetic variability of the weed. Global Lantana Biocontrol Initiative cultural Research Council, Plant Protection Knowledge of biology and ecology has Research Institute) of Pretoria, South gaps, notably in understanding germination Prized for their attractive, multicoloured Africa, and QDNR&M-AFRS (Queens- and patterns of spread. Geographical varia- flowers, perennial woody shrubs of the land Department of Natural Resources and tion in life history and other characteristics genus Lantana, native to the tropical and Mines, Alan Fletcher Research Station) of also need investigating, in both the native sub-tropical Americas, were imported into Brisbane, Australia. At present, funding is and adventive range. Annual potential seed Europe from the mid-17th century from state organizations in both countries, News 57N and the South African Department of Water rosis and leaf abscission and barely flower, Pathogens are being considered alongside Affairs & Forestry's Working for Water whilst emerging seedlings are heavily the new insect biocontrol agents. CABI (WfW) Programme is also mass-rearing attacked. Impact on lantana in subtropical Bioscience has been assessing the life new agents for distribution. areas of KwaZulu-Natal Province is cycle, biological parameters and host spe- expected to improve when Falconia are cificity of a potential biocontrol agent, the The strategy includes renewed surveys in supplied fresher, from two new mass- rust Prospodium tuberculatum from Brazil lantana’s native range to try and broaden rearing stations being set up in closer prox- for AFRS and PPRI. The rust was shown to the suite of available agents, so as to attack imity to the infestations. infect only Lantana camara, and to cause additional niches on the plant and more severe defoliation in the process. Encourag- varieties of lantana, and cope with a wider The mirid failed to multiply noticeably or ingly, it infected a number of the weedy L. climatic range and periodic leaflessness. A exert any marked impact at some sites that camara varieties present in Australia, par- number of insect and fungal candidates are were neither frosted nor drought-stricken, ticularly the most widespread and invasive currently being investigated in quarantine and this may be due to some local lantana ‘common pink’, though, unfortunately, in South Africa, Australia and the UK. varieties being somewhat resistant. In the Information and starter colonies of new none of the varieties from South Africa. In laboratory, Falconia showed a statistically February 2001, permission was granted by agents will be made available free of charge significant 20-fold range in reproductive to responsible organizations worldwide. the Australian Quarantine Inspection performance on five Australian varieties of Service (AQIS) to introduce the rust into The international collaboration recently lantana, which could be ranked from highly Australia, making it the first pathogen to be bore its first fruit: the first new agent susceptible to virtually totally resistant. released in Australia against lantana. First released was the leaf-feeding lantana mirid, Regardless of the possible varietal resist- shipments of the rust to AFRS were made Falconia intermedia. The Australians had ance that is a characteristic feature of lan- in June and July 2001. found Falconia to be promisingly narrowly tana, it appears likely that the lantana mirid will always form an important component stenophagous but rare in Mexico. The The rust will be reared through one genera- of the solution to lantana, and for that South Africans then found Falconia causing tion in quarantine to ensure that it is a pure reason it was also released in Australia, in extensive damage to lantana in Jamaica, culture (a mandatory requirement of September 2000. and imported it into South Africa in 1994. AQIS). Cultures will then be bulked up in Since then, it has been subjected to rigorous The failure of the mirid to persist where the glasshouse. First releases are planned safety testing. In the laboratory, although winter leaf loss occurs is a problem that for later this year in Queensland and immature stages were able to develop on may be best addressed by developing fur- northern New South Wales (either side of South African species of a closely related ther agents that attack other parts of the the border between the two states) once genus, Lippia, adults preferred to land, feed plant or can bridge periods of leaflessness. there has been enough rain to ensure ade- and oviposit on lantana during choice tests. Several other candidate agents are under- quate leaf wetness. There are large areas of It was concluded that F. intermedia is going host specificity and potential impact lantana in native forests with moist situa- unlikely to have any significant impact on studies. Three leaf-chewing chrysomelids, tions in gullies and on stream banks in this the indigenous species in the field in South Alagoasa decemguttata, Omophoita albi- area, which should give the pathogen the Africa, and it was approved for release collis and Charidotis pygmaea, have been best chance of establishment. there in April 1999. rejected as unsuitable for release in Africa, So far, more than 16 million mirids have but a fourth, Alagoasa quadrilineata, is still Permission is awaited to release the first been released by the WfW implementation being tested. The herringbone leafminer, lantana pathogen in South Africa: the leaf- programme, mainly in the Northern Prov- Ophiomyia camarae, a suitably specific spot fungus, Mycovellosiella lantanae var. ince and Mpumalanga. One year into the agromyzid that causes leaf abscission, will lantanae. It was isolated from diseased release programme and after the first winter, be released in South Africa as soon as per- leaves collected in South, Central and good signs of establishment were recorded mission is granted. In addition, permission North America between 1987 and 1997, from small (1000 nymphs or adults) is about to be requested to release a petiole- andtestedattheARC-PPRIWeeds releases throughout the lantana problem galling brentid weevil, Coelocephalapion Pathology Laboratory in Stellenbosch. It areas in South Africa. However, there was a camarae, which has been shown to be was found to be suitably specific, and path- question mark against how the mirid would acceptably host-specific for Africa, and ogenic to several weedy varieties of lantana perform, because its home range in Jamaica highly damaging. Promising candidates found in South Africa. An experiment to is tropical, whilst in South Africa lantana that attack other niches on the target plant investigate the compatibility of Falconia grows in a wide range of climatic regions are currently under investigation in Aus- and Mycovellosiella will be undertaken in varying from subtropical to temperate. All tralia (the stem-boring cerambycid beetle, quarantine within the next 2 months. the mirid’s life stages are leaf-feeding, and Aerenicopsis championi) and South Africa it seemed unlikely that it would persist in (the flower-galling eriophyid mite, Aceria The performance of these pathogens will be the colder and drier regions where lantana is lantanae and the root-feeding flea-beetle, watched with particular interest as another predominantly leafless during winter. Longitarsus sp., which would be the first promising candidate is awaiting further Indeed, although low numbers of mirids real root-attacker released). A stem-sucking testing: a Peruvian isolate of the widely dis- were recorded during the winter months, membracid, Aconophora compressa,which tributed Neotropical rust, Puccinia lan- populations failed to persist in frosted and is established in New South Wales and tanae. This isolate has exceptional potential drought-stricken areas. On the other hand, Queensland, Australia, has been rejected to debilitate L. camara, since it infects all releases made in the subtropical areas, par- for use in Africa, as it prefers to attack some the aerial parts of the plant (laminae, peti- ticularly near Tzaneen (Northern Province) African Lippia species in the laboratory. oles and stems) thereby causing dieback of were followed by rapid population growth, However, this stem-sucking bug seems whole branches. In addition, although it and extremely high populations persist. likely to make a valuable contribution in appears to be specific to L. camara, it is Where mirid numbers are high, their impact Australia, as it survives the dry winter, even capable of infecting a broad range of the can be dramatic: plants suffer severe chlo- on plants void of leaves. invasive varieties of the weed. 58N BiocontrolNews and Information 2001 Vol. 22 No. 3

Any organization wanting to suppress lan- indiscriminate omnivores, eating more or ibises (Threskiornis spp.) and crows tana is invited to join (free of charge) the less anything that fits in their mouths. They (Corvus spp.) have learned to flip the toad informal Lantana Biocontrol Working feed voraciously on insects, frogs, small on its back to avoid the venom and eat only Group. Potential active collaborators are reptiles and even birds and mice. On the the non-toxic inner organs. encouraged to make contact now with any other hand, the toads themselves are highly or all of the people named below for more poisonous. The poison, which is released Control Metamorphosis information. from glands on the skin, in particular from a well-developed cluster of these glands on Various control measures have been Sources: the shoulder of the toad, is highly toxic and attempted over the years. Historically, Baars, J.R. (2000) A cure for lantana at lethal to most domestic and native animals manual measures have been used most. last? Plant Protection News No. 57 that ingest it. Dollops of toxin can also be Chemical compounds such as 3% chloral (Summer 2000), 8-11. fired up to 2 m if the toad is roughly treated, hydrate and various local anaesthetic agents CABI Bioscience website: which is the greatest threat to humans as the have been recommended, but most people Studies on the rust Prospodium tubercu- toxin in contact with the eyes causes do not normally keep these compounds in latum, a potential biological control agent intense pain and temporary blindness. their kitchen cupboards. Dettol has been for lantana weed (Lantana camara)in used and most amphibians are very sensi- Australia. Competition for food and breeding grounds tive to phenolic compounds. Freezing http://www.cabi-bioscience.org/index- may have reduced populations of some remains the most popular unofficial eutha- flash.htm native frogs (but not tree frogs as the cane nasia method (as dormancy is initiated by toads do not climb). Competition from cane cold so the animal dies in its sleep), but offi- Contacts: toads is most likely to displace species [Insects: Africa] Alan Urban, ARC-PPRI, cial approval of this is qualified. In New where they are also under pressure from South Wales, freezing is recommended P. Bag X134, Pretoria 0001, South Africa man and grazing animals. Especially at risk Email: [email protected] only if toads have first been put in an ordi- are animals that rely on waterholes during nary fridge at 4ºC until they are flaccid, [Insects: Australia, Asia & Pacific] the dry season. Cane toads are more adapt- Michael Day, QDNR&M-AFRS, after which they can be put in a freezer. able than native amphibians to varying Fencing50cmhighisrecommendedto PO Box 36, Sherwood, Brisbane, water salt levels (hence their other common Qld 4075, Australia keep toads out of ponds intended for native name, 'marine' toad), and can survive and fish and frogs, and birdwire of 1-cm diam- Email: [email protected] breedinbrackishwaterandinverysmall eter mesh will exclude them. Methods of [Fungi: Prospodium and Puccinia] pools, although unlike many native species Carol Ellison, CABI Bioscience UK Centre, biological control of cane toad are being they are unable to 'shut down' and aestivate investigated as part of a wider project Silwood Park, Ascot, SL5 7TA, UK during dry conditions. Email: [email protected] administered by CSIRO Sustainable Eco- [Fungus: Mycovellosiella] With an almost unlimited food supply, systems, which is looking at the impact and Alana den Breeÿen, ARC-PPRI, favourable environmental conditions and control of the cane toad in Australia. P.Bag X5017, Stellenbosch 7600, no effective predators, cane toad popula- Interest first focused on natural enemies South Africa tions grew (reaching up to ten times the from the pest’s home range. Ranaviruses Email: [email protected] density found in their home range in Vene- zuela and Brazil), and began to spread were found in cane toads in Venezuela.
across Australia. They now rank as one of However, laboratory studies at CSIRO's Australia's worst invasive alien species. Australian Animal Health Laboratory Cane Toads, Possums These large (up to 15 cm long), heavily (AAHL) demonstrated that although these were lethal to cane toad tadpoles, they also and GM built amphibians have now colonized more than half of Queensland and the northern killed one species of Australian native frog. Thecanetoad(Bufo marinus)isoneofthe parts of the Northern Territory and northern The team also found that some Australian biocontrol scientist's least favourite crea- coastal New South Wales, and their spread cane toads and native frogs had already tures. This has nothing to do with its unfor- across the top end is continuing relentlessly. been exposed in the wild to a ranavirus tunate appearance, but all to do with the fact Inter-state quarantine measures have inter- apparently very similar to the Venezuelan that it is probably the most spectacularly cepted them a number of times on the viruses, which are known to cause death disastrous (and well-known) case of bio- Western Australia border. Their profile was and disease in fish and amphibian popula- logical control gone wrong. raised further in March 2001 when they tions. Thus they cannot be used in unaltered were reported from a remote part of the form as species-specific biocontrol agents. Cane toads were introduced into Australia Kakadu National Park, a world heritage site The team also identified two fungal patho- in 1935 to control economically damaging comprising almost 20,000 km of tidal flats, gens lethal to cane toads and other amphib- beetle pests in Queensland's sugarcane floodplains, lowlands and plateau, and ians, and one of these is thought to be fields. This they failed to do, because the home to a wide range of rare and/or responsible for frog fatalities in Australia intended prey were either too infrequently endemic species. and Panama. on the ground and thus within reach of the toads, or present in cane fields only when There are some encouraging signs that old At the end of 2000, the Australian govern- there was insufficient cover for the toads. populations have declined after the initial ment made available Aus$1 million from The beetles still have pest status in sugar- explosion. Some predators are learning to the Natural Heritage Trust to investigate cane, although new biocontrol measures avoid eating them, while a number are what gene technology had to offer. The 2- using Metarhizium-based biopesticides apparently able to cope with them. The year project has two objectives: (1) to iden- against canegrubs are showing promise keelback snake (Styporynchus (= tify a gene critical to toad development, [BNI 19(1) (March 1998), 5N. Sugarcane Amphiesma) mairii) can detoxify the which if manipulated would interfere with biopesticide.] Cane toads, however, did not venom, while white-tailed rats (Uromys metamorphosis and prevent the transition fade quietly away but thrived. They are caudimaculatus) and some birds such as from tadpole to adult, and (2) to develop a News 59N means of distributing the gene effectively Possum Poser survey are indicative of support for the through the toad population. approach that Landcare Research is Public acceptance of biotechnology is seen adopting: interfering with fertility through Because so many aspects of the immature as an important feature of the Australian a GM plant bait. It will repeat the survey in tadpole and adult toad are different (the cane toad research. It is interesting in this about 2 years time to see whether attitudes immune, digestive and circulatory sys- context to look at recent results from New change. If the current research timetable tems), it is thought likely that a suitable Zealand, where possum fertility control goes according to plan and the public gene can be found. The aim would be to using genetic manipulation is being approve, limited field trials using GM cause the gene to be expressed at the researched [See BNI 21(4) (December carrot bait could take place in 3-4 years 'wrong' stage of development, say an adult 2000), 89N-93N. Mammal biocontrol: the time. gene to be expressed at the tadpole stage. hunt continues.]. The tadpole's immune system would recog- For further information see the following The question of how the public would react nise the protein as 'foreign' and initiate an websites: to gene technology being used to control a immune response to it. The antibodies http://www.csiro.au/ pest species was tackled by Landcare formed in the larval (tadpole) stage would page.asp?type=faq&id=CaneToadControl Research, New Zealand. A team conducted bind to the protein as it begins to be http://www.landcare.cri.nz/science/possums/ a nationwide telephone survey (1000 expressed during metamorphosis and the http://www.landcare.cri.nz/ people) in March-April 2001. They asked expectation is that this would interfere with information_services/media/images/ interviewees for their views on possums, normal development of the adult. There is a preliminary_report.pdf current control methods and two potential precedent for this in bullfrogs, Rana cates- fertility control techniques, one of which
beiana, where inoculation of adult haemo- would use genetic modification (GM). The globin into larvae prevented most from first method is based on a bait containing developing into adults. The idea to use this New Canadian Biocontrol protein from possum eggs, which induces finding for cane toads came from Dr Zjelko Network an immune response in females so that they Zupanovic,whowasworkingonanearlier subsequently react against their own eggs cane toad project (at CSIRO, AAHL) but A Research Network on Biologically and this decreases their fertility. The second has since returned to his native Croatia. Based Pest Management and Control has aims to curtail the possum’s sex drive with been established to speed the introduction Importantly, the target gene will be selected a bait containing a hormone-toxin complex of natural pest control products in green- so that an immune response against it will that acts on the brain to inhibit production houses, tree nurseries and managed stands only affect the development of the cane of breeding hormones. in Canada. Co-led by Raynald Laprade and toad (the only toad species in Australia) and Results showed that an overwhelming Jean Louis Schwartz (University of Mon- not native Australian frogs. The identifica- majority of respondents (96%) perceived treal), the network will stimulate collabora- tion of a suitable gene will be a little like tion by bringing together more than 40 possums as a problem, and 70% rated fer- looking for a needle in a haystack, and tility control as acceptable. Acceptance of scientists from university and government recent advances in technology will aid the fertility control was higher than acceptance laboratories. Funded by the Natural Sci- identification of a unique cane toad gene. of the existing control measures of leg-hold ences and Engineering Research Council, it For example microarray technology, with traps (29%) and poisoning (31%). will form the nucleus for expanding the the aid of computers, allows thousands of biocontrol network in Canada. genes to be analysed at one time. Respondents were also asked to rate delivery of a transgene via the following Co-led by Jacques Brodeur (University of Distribution of the gene provides an equal carriers: baits containing either a GM plant Laval) and Mark Goettel (Lethbridge challenge. The team at AAHL is researching or a GM bacterium (both would be killed to Research Centre), part of the research pro- the possibility of using a naturally occur- preclude the possibility of either spreading) gramme will look into interactions between ring ranavirus as a carrier for it. The gene or two self-replicating methods using either plant pests and diseases and their natural wouldbeinsertedintothevirus.Whenit live GM virus or GM parasitic worms enemies. Introducing a beneficial species infects the cane toad tadpoles the gene which would spread naturally from possum may have negative impact on other benefi- would be expressed as part of the viral to possum. The results were polarized, with cials already in the system. By bringing DNA. Before it could be used though, the each rated as acceptable by at least 30%, microbials into the equation, Mark Goettel virus must be attenuated, or weakened, so it and unacceptable by at least 30%. How- hopes that the network will facilitate an does not adversely affect other amphibian ever, people were clearly fearful of viruses, increase in the choice of natural controls, species. with far more rating them as unacceptable and quite quickly in some cases. For than acceptable, and the GM plant bait example, several fungi are available for use This is not a short-term fix, and the first 2- in glasshouses in the USA, but not yet in year project is designed to show that the delivery system was acceptable to more people (43%) than any other method. Canada. By using insect, bacterial, fungal concept can work. It may take 10 years to and viral agents in a coordinated way to develop a product, and conduct risk assess- As found in previous surveys, men were control pests and diseases, greenhouse and ments and public consultations before a more enthusiastic (i.e. less risk-averse) than tree nursery growers will be able to reduce release can be considered. Until then, the women about possum control for all control or eliminate pesticide use while protecting cane toad population needs to continue to methods (but particularly poisoning) and their crops. be monitored and assessed and where the delivery systems. A significant difference impact of toads is assessed to be high, they was not found for any other breakdown of A major aim of the network is the develop- will have to be controlled as best they can respondents (e.g. rural vs urban). ment of innovative tools for discovery and by currently available methods. Successful testing for glasshouse pest management, control will, in the long run, depend on a Landcare Research has undertaken not to including DNA-based technologies, cell variety of safe and sustainable strategies, of pursue any research avenues the public says mode-of-action based technologies and more which genetic manipulation may be one. clearly it does not want. The results of this research at the microbial level (reflecting 60N BiocontrolNews and Information 2001 Vol. 22 No. 3

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada’s man- Elizabeth A. Verzola and Mr Nicasio S. Beech Surveys on a Major date to support innovation for growth and Baucas (Department of Agriculture- Scale environmental health). Regional Field Unit-Cordillera Adminis- trative Region). The glasshouse industry worldwide has Surveys in Crown-owned royal woodlands long been at the cutting edge of biological The parasitoids were identified by Dr John in the UK are the first step in a project that control in agriculture. Releasing biological LaSalle, CSIRO Entomology (Australia) will be searching across Europe and control agents is the method of choice for as: Asecodes delucchii (a palaearctic para- western Asia for natural enemies of the many glasshouse pests. The main goal of sitoid found recently in Southeast Asia), beech scale Cryptococcus fagisuga. The the network is to increase collaboration and Cirrospilus ambiguus (known from scale is a highly invasive alien insect in communication between pockets of green- Taiwan, Africa and recently in Southeast North America, where it has severely dam- houses and area-focused researchers across Asia), Diglyphus isaea (widespread aged and continues to threaten the native the country. Pest problems vary across the throughout the Palaearctic Region and beech, Fagus grandifolia. The scale facili- country, but there may be common solu- North Africa), Hemiptarsenus varicornis tates attack by fungal pathogens (beech tions. However, because a glasshouse is a (an Old World parasitoid which is common bark disease) resulting in tree deformation. contained and manageable system, it may in Southeast Asia), Neochrysocharis for- Only a small proportion of trees shows a also provide a model for more open mosa (a common cosmopolitan parasitoid), farming and forestry systems. Once the net- Neochrysocharis okazakii (known from degree of resistance. work is fully functional, Mark Goettel Japan and China south to Indonesia), Pni- hopes it will stimulate investment in and galio katonis (an Asian parasitoid), Quad- As part of a management initiative for the expansion of biocontrol research in other rastichus ?liriomyzae (now known from scale, the USDA (US Department of Agri- sectors. China to Southeast Asia), Opius sp. 1 and culture) Forest Service is investigating the Opius sp. 2. potential for classical biological control. Contact: Mark Goettel, Surveys were conducted during earlier Lethbridge Research Centre, Diglyphus isaea is the predominant parasi- work, but the only extensive exploration for Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, toid reared from leafminer-infested leaves 5403 - 1st Avenue, in the Cordilleras. Its high occurrence in the natural enemies was done in Germany and P.O. Box 3000, Cordilleras is quite puzzling, as it was not northern France and only generalist insect Lethbridge, Alberta, previously recorded from Southeast Asia. It predators were found. These areas repre- Canada T1J 4B1 is commonly used as a biological control sent only a small proportion of the exten- Email: [email protected] agent in Europe, and its presence could be sive known range of the scale in the Old Fax: +1 403 382-3156 due to an introduction with infested host World, and they may not even fall within plants, mass release of adults, or a natural
the true centre of origin of the scale. spread of this species south from China. The USDA Forest Service has asked CABI Philippines Home to Further surveys will be conducted, focusing on finding predators of the adult Bioscience to make more representative Leafminer Parasitoids leafminer fly and larva. The parasitoids and extensive surveys for potential biocon- Although Liriomyza leafminers are not new already identified in the Cordilleras will be trol agents throughout the known range of to the Philippines, they did not achieve studied in more depth to determine the leaf- the beech scale. The surveys will be cen- important pest status until late 1999. This miner species and stage attacked; their spa- tered within the two main regions where the change in status has been attributed at least tial, temporal and seasonal dynamics; scale has been recorded: Europe and in part to the use of broad-spectrum insecti- species composition and competition; and western Asia. The European beech, Fagus cides (often applied to control other pest crop preferences. sylvaticus, occurs through much of Europe, species such as thrips, aphids and mites), The aim of this work is to help farmers to although replaced by the subspecies F. syl- which decimates the natural enemy fauna preserve 'friendly wasps' and cut out unnec- vaticus ssp. orientalis in the Balkans. This and leads to outbreaks of leafminers. essary and expensive interventions to con- same subspecies also occurs throughout Because leafminer parasitoids are not trol leafminer damage on potato, celery, cut western Asia. Surveys will focus on two easily visible to the naked eye, farmers are flowers and other economically important areas in each region to encompass the entire generally unaware that they exist, let alone crops in the Cordilleras. The team plan to range of the scale and both tree hosts. Sur- of their role in suppressing leafminer popu- work with farmers to familiarize them with veys in England, Hungary/Romania/Bul- lations, so the adverse effects of insecticide the natural enemies, and show them how to use remain under-estimated. garia, eastern Turkey and Iran are planned. conserve them. Towards this end, an exten- Natural enemies collected during these sur- sion pamphlet for farmers on leafminer par- Extensive surveys and intensive sampling veys will be identified and assessed for asitoids is already in press. of leafminer-infested leaves in pesticide- potential as biocontrol agents. free vegetables, ornamental crops and By: Dr Ravindra C. Joshi, weeds by the Potato Leaf Miner Task Department of Agriculture-Philippine Rice Contact: Sean Murphy, Force (PLMTF) from the Department of Research Institute, CABI Bioscience UK Centre, Agriculture, Regional Field Unit, Cor- Munoz Science City, Silwood Park, dillera Administrative Region revealed Nueva Ecija-3119, Philippines Ascot, that leafminer parasitoids are numerous in Email: [email protected] / Berks SL5 7TA, UK the Philippine highlands of the Cordilleras, [email protected] / joshiravi@hot- Email: [email protected] with at least ten species recorded so far. mail.com The team was led by Dr Ravindra C. Joshi Fax: +63 44 4560112 Fax: +44 1491 829100 (Department of Agriculture-Philippine Rice Research Institute) and included Dr

News 61N

Sunn Pest is a mine the effectiveness of selected isolates gest that infestation is on the increase in all Cereal Killer are in the planning stage. ecosystems. The project is also looking at how to opti- The sunn pest, a complex of pentatomid Mikania thrives in forest areas where the mize pest management decision making, bugs, is responsible for the application of canopy is open, and invasion is low at and investigating compatible options such pesticides costing US$ 40 million on up to higher altitudes (over 1000 m above sea as the development of sex pheromone traps 15 million hectares of wheat and barley level). Mikania micrantha was the only and the use of egg parasitoids. annually. Sunn pest occurs in a broad Mikania species recorded in the surveys. sweep across North Africa, through the Contact: Dave Moore, Eight new pathogens were recorded on it, Middle East to central Asia. It causes eco- CABI Bioscience UK Centre, but all proved to be opportunistic pathogens nomic damage in the Middle East (Syria Bakeham Lane, Egham, and therefore to have little potential as bio- and Jordan), through Iran and Afghanistan, Surrey TW20 9TY, UK control agents. Herbicide trials in forest and in the newly independent states of cen- Email: [email protected] plantations showed triclopyr + picloram to tral Asia (Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Kaza- Fax: +44 1491 829100 give best results. Herbicide treatment was more cost-effective than manual methods khstan). It reduces crop yield, lowers seed
germination and decreases grain and flour (sickle weeding or uprooting) as a short- quality. In extreme cases, wheat damage term control measure in this situation. can be so severe that the harvest is lost. Mikania Management Socio-economic studies found that cost Calls for Biocontrol escalation was the most important eco- Research into the pest has a long history, nomicimpactinforestandagriculturalsit- and has been aimed at developing an inte- A report* from Kerala Forest Research uations. Intensive weed management kept grated management strategy based on bio- Institute (KFRI), India presents the findings impact on productivity and profitability logical control. ICARDA (International of a DFID (UK Department for Interna- down in agricultural land, but in forests Centre for Agricultural Research in Dry tional Development) funded project to both were reduced drastically because Areas) and the University of Vermont assess the severity and impact of Mikania weeding is not carried out regularly. Infes- (USA) have been key to progress made so micrantha in the Western Ghats and to tations also make harvesting of non-wood far with additional input by Simon Fraser develop a management plan for it. It con- products such as bamboos an onerous task. University (British Columbia, Canada). cludes that mikania is a growing threat in this part of India, and suggests that classical The report argues that current control Now a DFID (UK Department for Interna- biological control holds the best prospects options such as manual weeding and herbi- tional Development) funded project, man- for a sustainable solution cide applications are expensive, unaccept- aged by ICARDA has given new impetus Mikania is thought to have been introduced able and likely to be ineffective in the long to the search for a solution. Also collabo- to India in the 1940s as ground cover in tea run. Moreover, herbicide use is environ- rating with ICARDA are the Plant Pest and plantations, and is now a serious invasive mentally damaging. It concludes that clas- Diseases Research Institute, Tehran, Iran, weed. It first appeared in the Western Ghats sical biological control offers the best hope and the Plant Protection Research Institute in the 1980s and surveys conducted during of environmentally benign, cost-effective, of Adana, Turkey, CABI Bioscience and this project confirmed that mikania- sustainable and safe control. NRI (the Natural Resources Institute, Uni- invaded areas are widespread in Kerala, versity of Greenwich, UK). Additional where the weed poses a threat to natural *Sankaran, K.V.; Muraleedharan, P.K.; institutes from Syria and Turkey are also forests, forest plantations and agricultural/ Anitha, V. (2001) Integrated management significant collaborators. agroforestry zones. It has not yet spread of the alien invasive weed Mikania into other States. In Kerala, invasion was micrantha in the Western Ghats. Scientists from ICARDA and the Univer- most common in moist-deciduous forest. Final report of the research project KFRI/ sity of Vermont have isolated over 200 Some 75% of teak plantations surveyed 283/97 August 1997– December 1999. strains of entomopathogenic fungi from there were affected, with young teak suf- KFRI Research Report No 202, 51 pp. sunn pest in west and central Asia. These fering most from the effects of the weed. In included more than 100 Beauveria bas- agricultural systems, intensive weed man- Contact: Dr K. V. Sankaran, siana and nearly 60 Paecilomyces fari- agement keeps infestations down, but Kerala Forest Research Institute, nosus isolates. Following assessments to mikania was found in 92% of surveyed Peechi- 680 653, find the most promising strains, the aim sites. Plantain, pineapple, cassava and Kerala India now is to develop an effective biopesticide. ginger were the worst-affected crops. Data Email: [email protected] To this end, mass production methods are collected from permanent sample plots in under development and field trials to deter- Kerala over the period of the project sug-

IPM Systems

This section covers integrated pest man- Managing the Coffee worst insect pest of coffee and has caused agement (IPM) including biological con- Berry Borer heavy losses costing millions of dollars trol, and techniques that are compatible worldwide. It has been spread through trade with the use of biological control or mini- The coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus from its central African centre of origin mize negative impact on natural enemies. hampei, CBB) is arguably the world’s across Africa, Asia and Central and South 62N BiocontrolNews and Information 2001 Vol. 22 No. 3

America. An innovative project funded by introduction of Farmer Participatory • maintenance of trap plants around the the CFC (Common Fund for Commodities) Research (FPR) to the coffee sector. FPR drying yard with supervision of the ICO (International involves farmers directly in the develop- • use of CBB traps Coffee Organization) and implemented by ment and testing of new technologies. This CABI Bioscience and in-country partners approach has proven successful for solving Cultural controls worked best, especially has been working to develop locally rele- the complex problems presented by infor- new interventions such as picking mats. vant and affordable integrated management mation-intensive management techniques CBB incidence was assessed regularly systems for CBB based on biological and such as IPM in other crops. Developed in (every 1-2 months) by systematic sam- cultural methods. Participating countries rice in Southeast Asia, it has been adapted, pling. The on-farm experimentation pro- include Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Gua- for example, for cotton and vegetables, but vided an insight into aspects crucial to CBB temala, Honduras, Jamaica and India. The until now not for coffee. The project has management. This was particularly true in US Department of Agriculture (USDA) is looked at how FPR can help smallholder the smallholder sector, where plot owners also funding rearing work in Mississippi. coffee farmers manage CBB. who participated in prescribed interven- Here we highlight major achievements of Working with Indian Farmers tions and data collection gained substantial the project so far. knowledge. Group participatory-style gath- From India comes news of an IPM package CBB damage is caused by the female, erings were held at many IPM plots, to for smallholder coffee growers that reduces which bores into coffee berries to lay her share experience gained in IPM techniques CBB infestation from more than 50% to eggs, producing legless white larvae that and demonstrate them to neighbouring less than 5%. This is cause for celebration then feed on the beans for up to 3 weeks. farmers. The meetings included question- not only amongst farmers, for coffee is a Theeconomicdamageistwofold: and-answer sessions, practice in field iden- key export earner for India and the sector tification, and discussion and reinforce- • premature fall of berries and hence employs 400,000 people directly. Small- ment of IPM technologies to be adopted. total loss of these to production holders are responsible for 60% (175,000 tonnes) of total annual production. Coffee Amongst aspects investigated in on-farm • damaged berries are retained on the is also instrumental in preserving forest experiments were: tree until harvest, making them of ecosystems in traditional coffee-growing lower commercial value by reducing 1. The use of various trap designs and areas, while in non-traditional areas it is weight of the bean and downgrading helping reduce deforestation caused by lure combinations. A 1:1 combination the quality and affecting the flavour of of methyl and ethyl alcohol attracted shift cultivation. the coffee most CBB, with high catches made in CBBarrivedinIndiainTamilNaduin As most of the pest’s life cycle is passed some circumstances (in one case 600 1990, and spread rapidly through the main within the coffee berry, chemical control is in one day). However, a comparison coffee cultivation areas of the Western difficult. It is also costly (often pushing the of trap catches with estimates of CBB Ghats, which cover southern Karnataka, cost of production above the value of the populations indicated that percentage Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Severe outbreaks crop) and hazardous (endosulfan, generally catch may be very low: in one trial with infestation rates of more than 50% regarded as the most effective chemical in with 109 traps/acre (270/ha) the catch were reported in some areas. use, is a Category 1 poison). Natural ene- was calculated as only 0.7%. mies have been identified in CBB’s region Since 1998, the ICO/CFC project in India, 2. The extent of emergence of CBB dur- of origin in Africa. Two bethylid parasitoid implemented by CABI Bioscience and the ing drying, and migration and reinfes- species (Cephalonomia stephanoderis and Indian Coffee Board has used a participa- tation of nearby coffee trees. The Prorops nasuta) have been imported into a tory approach in farm communities. A total results of life-table experiments indi- number of Latin American countries of 52 1-ha IPM pilot plots were set up on cated that CBB can remain alive (Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, El Sal- holdings of different sizes (from one to throughthefirstweekofdryingand vador, Nicaragua, Colombia, Ecuador and more than 100 ha) in three CBB-infested that significant numbers of CBB Brazil), and at least one has established in areas, Wayanad, Karnataka and Tamil emerge from the berries and fly to the each. A braconid parasitoid (Heterospilus Nadu. The main interventions prescribed five rows of coffee nearest the drying coffeicola) has been under study in Uganda for CBB management were: yards. A battery of alcohol traps under a separate project, but there are no placed around the yards and regularly • timely harvest plans currently to introduce it elsewhere. serviced during the harvesting season Native pathogens (Beauveria bassiana • thorough and clean harvest could be an effective procedure to strains) are locally important as natural • collection of gleanings monitor or even protect against rein- controllers in CBB’s introduced range and festation of plots. further work on these is planned. So far, • removal of infested berries though, biocontrol agents by themselves 3. Biopesticide applications. Poor con- • removal of off-season and left-over have been at most moderately effective. trol was achieved in field trials with berries Biocontrol interest currently is focusing on Beauveria bassiana. Best control of the eulophid Phymastichus coffea,whichis • use of picking mats (placed under the 24% compared poorly with 80% being supplied to countries under this tree to collect the picked berries) using endosulfan or 70% with chlo- rpyrifos. project. • drying coffee to the standard test Manual control (picking infested berries) is weight Over the 2 years of the project, 80 labour-intensive and hence expensive, but • early disposal of coffee produced bimonthly training and dissemination is still the key recommendation for CBB workshops were held in Kodagu, Chik- • spot spraying of endosulfan where nec- control. The development of more (cost-) maglur, Wayanad and Tamil Nadu zones. essary as a last resort effective technologies is seen as crucial. A Other activities included follow-up exten- main feature of this project has been its • biological control methods sion visits, village meetings, conventions News 63N and workshops, training programmes and • communities were disorganized they now understand the value farmers mass contact and media programmes. • control measures were expensive place on their own time and labour, and this will inform their research in the future. By working in collaboration with (although exact cost was unknown) researchers and extensionists, smallholder • unharvested berries left food for CBB The project has also had a positive effect on coffee farmers have made progress in CBB community interaction (identified as a • labour shortage management that will lead to improved problem in the PRA). Whether this can be livelihoods in this sector. The project • generalized pesticide applications sustained and whether the lessons learned adapted and built on farmers’ pest control Farmers tended to suggest botanical insec- can be applied more widely are questions knowledge. As a result, not only have CBB ticides as novel solutions, which they had currently being addressed. levels been reduced to less than 5% in many heard about from NGOs or other farmers. The results so far, however, are encour- areas, but in most cases farmers have been Cenicafé (the research branch of FNCC) aging. Although many ideas originated by able to reduce and even stop use of syn- included these in the research agenda, but participatory research do not work, failures thetic insecticides, which has beneficial they proved no more effective than water. are generally identified early on, and only a effects on both health and the environment. However, farmers were enthusiastic about few are taken through development to final It is also clear that significant progress has suggesting modifications to the scientists' product. This, however, is more efficient in been made with both confidence-building ideas, mostly to make them easier to imple- time and money than developing and pro- in farmers to manage CBB and facilitating ment and reduce cost. Their role was also moting a smaller number of scientist-origi- the involvement of women. fundamental in evaluating the suitability of nated technologies that may be, but more Listening to Colombian Farmers IPM technologies at an early stage. For often are not, ultimately adopted. example: In Colombia, collaboration between small- Natural Enemies: Many Hands holder farmers, extensionists and researchers 1. A novel sampling method (a Cenicafé from the coffee growers federation FNCC method coded 'EBEL') was rejected Collaboration between countries has been (Federacion Nacional de Cafeteros de as too time consuming. It was both the key to making advances in parasitoid Colombia) has produced a novel model of salutary and useful for scientists to get rearing and release, with the result that farmer-scientist interaction. such advance critique before more more than one million Phymastichus wasps time was spent in finalizing an ulti- have been released in Colombia, 300,000+ Researchers focused initially on getting to mately inappropriate technology. in Honduras, 200,000+ in Guatemala and know the areas the project was to work in 6000+ in Mexico. In Ecuador, first releases (spread through three departments) and 2. Farmers were initially enthusiastic were carried out in April 2001, after delays gaining the trust of the farmers. They about equipment designed for trap- due to flooding. Cultures have also now achieved this through visits with local ping CBB in coffee groves, and these been established in Jamaica, and releases extension agents over a 4-month period. were trialed by 39 farmers, who put 1- are expected to begin soon. They then made individual visits to 113 5 traps in each productive plot. But farmers to identify gaps in farming knowl- the traps turned out to be difficult to Joint work by the US Department of Agri- edge. Such visits were informal as the sci- service (the alcohol lure evaporated culture (USDA) laboratory at Starkville, entists met the household and walked over quickly, the water was smelly to Mississippi and staff from the Colombian the farm, but the outcome of each visit was change and counting trapped CBB project is leading to methods for rearing used to fill in a pre-designed form. was unpopular). CBB populations large numbers of both host and parasitoid were relatively low during the experi- with low labour costs. Whether the costs Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) diag- ment so few were caught and many are sufficiently low to make augmentative nostic sessions were held in each of nine farmers abandoned the traps. releases economically feasible will be communities to identify problems and solu- assessed before the end of the project. tions, and to 'brainstorm' CBB control ideas 3. Farmers adopted and continued to use to research. This also helped the researchers trap covers in coffee washing stations, USDA has been the key partner in devel- to assess farmer knowledge. Extension which prevented CBB escaping from oping automated, artificial diet-based agents subsequently provided farmer harvested berries and reinfesting rearing methods for CBB. A pilot facility training to fill in the identified gaps and this neighbouring groves. A group of 45 run by Dr Portilla (seconded from process was evaluated. Finally, agreement farmers was shown how to modify Colombia) now produces 30,000-50,000 was reached on what and how to test. their processing equipment by cover- adult CBB per day and could produce more Farmers suggested some interventions, but ing parts of it with plastic covers if this becomes necessary. Cenicafé main- most were proposed by the scientists, smeared with axle grease, engine oil, tains a strong culture of Phymastichus in although farmers subsequently modified etc. These proved highly effective. Colombia and has supplied Ecuador, Hon- some of the techniques during testing. The They were easy to monitor and serv- duras, Guatemala and India with ship- results were presented by farmers in a ice, and trapped thousands of CBB. ments. Parasitism rates of 60% have been farmer-scientist workshop. Practical dem- Adoption of this measure rose to 80% achieved during rearing using a semi-artifi- onstration rather than 'talk and chalk' will of participating farmers in the next 18 cial diet including industrial agar as a sub- be used to train extension agents in the most months. strate for CBB hosts (compared to 70% in coffee beans). A successful method to auto- promising techniques. Farmers were demonstrably enthusiastic mate collection of CBB from artificial diet about the participatory approach to solving At the PRAs, the following were identified has also been developed. asmajorcausesofCBBproblems: CBB problems, and felt encouraged to con- tinue experimenting. They organized them- More than one million wasps have been • old and unproductive coffee trees selves into small groups (with often released in Colombia. Although parasitism • groves were reinfested from neigh- inspirational names) for this purpose. Sci- rates recorded so far are low (0-28%; mean bouring farms where control measures entists, on the other hand, gained knowl- 6.3%), so are CBB populations (3% falling have not been applied edge of farmer conditions. For example, to 2.5% post-release). But there is evidence 64N BiocontrolNews and Information 2001 Vol. 22 No. 3 that the wasps have established and are in at level (masl) with 40% shade cover and 16% evaluation of parasitic wasps has been cre- least the third post-release generation. infestation of CBB; 10,000 wasps were ated in the region. released at the central point of each plot. The Colombians have also provided ship- Samples taken at 15-day intervals indicated The project is due to finish at the end of ments of Phymastichus to other countries, rapid dispersal over the 10-ha plot in 90 2001, and a final workshop will be held in and training for their staff. As a result, cul- days. Further studies on adaptability indi- London in May 2002 to evaluate and dis- tures of Phymastichus have been estab- cated a relatively high level of parasitism, seminate the outputs. At this stage it seems lished in Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, with 46%, 15% and 23% recorded at 700, clear that most of the objectives of the Mexico, Jamaica and India. Encouraging 850 and 1040 masl; in robusta plantations project will be met. However, because of releases totalling more than half a million parasitism rates of 21-33% were recorded. the deep and continuing coffee crisis the wasps altogether have been made in Such high rates of adaptability and dis- sustainability of many of the project activi- Ecuador, Guatemala and Honduras. Jamaica persal are encouraging. ties is in doubt. During the remaining has made excellent progress on culturing months of the project, intensive efforts will and releasing Cephalonomia,asaresultof A possible new indigenous biocontrol be made to look for ways to build on the close collaboration between the Jamaican agent has been found in Honduras; a eulo- work of the project. Coffee Board and CARDI, and is pro- phid, Horismenus sp., was identified as an gressing with Phymastichus. In 2000, adult endoparasitoid. Contact: Peter Baker, releases of 50,000 Cephalonomia were CABI Bioscience UK Centre, made at three sites in the Blue Mountain Management of Phymastichus rearing and Bakeham Lane, Egham, region. experimentation by countries has been Surrey TW20 9TY, UK From Guatemala comes evidence that Phy- demonstrably extremely productive in Email: [email protected] mastichus is adapting to field conditions. Latin America. There is clear evidence that Fax: +44 1491 829100 Field studies were conducted on a 10-ha training has been effective and as a result an plot of arabica coffee at 700 m above sea enhanced capacity in culturing, release and

Announcements

Are you producing a newsletter, holding a European Whitefly Reports, this issue.] The network has also meeting, running an organization or rearing Studies Network recently announced its affiliation with the a natural enemy that you want other bio- Bemisia Newsletter, which will be pub- control workers to know about? Send us the The success and growth of the European lished in future as part of the EWSN news- details and we will announce it in BNI. Whitefly Studies Network (EWSN) during letter. its 2-year European Community (EC) The next meeting to review developments FAIR6ConcertedActionGrant(CT98- DBM Biocontrol in research and crop protection will be held 4303) has assured a future for the network. Symposium in Agadir, Morocco on 19-20 March 2002. The concerted action programme ended in An international workshop on improving March 2001 with a workshop and an inter- For more information about publications, biological control of diamondback moth national whitefly symposium. activities and membership contact: (Plutella xylostella, DBM) will be held in EWSN Research Facilitator, Montpellier, France in the autumn of 2002. Over the 2 years of the programme, EWSN John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Organized by CIRAD (Centre de steadily attracted additional support from Colney Lane, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK Coopération Internationale en Recherche organizations, industries and individuals Email: [email protected] Agronomique pour le Développement), concerned with whiteflies and their control. Website: http://www.jic.bbsrc.ac.uk/hosting EBCL (US Department of Agriculture – This enabled a rapid expansion of member- /eu/ewsn/ Agricultural Research Service European ship, activities and outputs, which raised Biological Control Laboratory) and CABI EWSN's profile worldwide. The network
in association with the International Organ- will now continue as an independent organ- ization for Biological Control (IOBC) ization, principally supported by Syngenta Pacific Entomology Plutella Working Group, it will look at the and Koppert Biological Systems, with the Conference status of DBM biological control around additional support from a number of other the world, the taxonomy and role of natural commercial associates. The 10th Pacific Entomology Conference, enemies, and the importance to biological sponsored by the Hawaiian Entomological control of variability of populations. EWSN comprises a highly motivated team Society will be held in Honolulu on 25-26 of whitefly researchers and industrialists, February 2002. To register for further information, contact: providing, collating and disseminating Secrétariat Entotrop, Contact: Thomas W. Culliney, information on all aspects of whiteflies and CIRAD-AMIS, Hawaii Department of Agriculture, associated crop problems. In the near TA 40/02, Avenue Agropolis, Division of Plant Industry, future, for example, a complete database of 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France 1428 South King Street, whitefly parasitoids will be compiled and Email: [email protected] Honolulu, HI 96814, USA made available through EWSN. The net- Fax:+33467617192 Email: [email protected] work has already created a Resource Pack, Website: http://www.dbm2002.cirad.fr Fax: +1 808 973 9533 distributes the EWSN newsletter and has
developed a website. [See also Conference
News 65N

Latin-American Weed 15,000 per participant from Kenya and US$ Technical developments such as mechan- Biocontrol Course 500 for those from elsewhere in East and ical harvesting and GM coffee are assessed. southern Africa. Fees will cover food, Coffee diseases and health implications for The ‘First Latin-American Short Course on accommodation, tuition and educational human consumers are outlined, together Biological Control of Weeds’ is being materials. with measures farmers/producers can take organized by the University of Florida and to minimize the contaminants. Of particular the Universidad Nacional Agraria de Nica- The course will include: an introduction to interest to BNI readers, there is a strong ragua. It will be held at the Hotel Barcelo in sustainable agriculture (principles and emphasis on the future prospects for coffee Montelimar, Nicaragua on 24-28 June practices); agriculture and natural resource smallholders. Economic problems and gaps 2002. management problems and opportunities in the region; the role of participatory commu- in knowledge are identified. The roles of a For more information and registration, nity development in agricultural develop- variety of measures from participatory contact the course coordinator: ment; sustainable soil fertility management; research to telecentres in plugging the gaps Dr Julio Medal, gender issues in agriculture and natural are examined. What is meant by 'sustain- University of Florida, resource management; working with com- able' is explained in the context of coffee POB 110620, munities to facilitate development; agricul- production, and illustrated by describing Gainesville, FL 32611, USA tural marketing and home-based processing some of the methods used for raising Email: [email protected] for rural development; researching with healthy coffee and managing pests and dis- Fax: +1 352 392 0190. farmers; using farmers as extensionists; eases. Coffee diseases are seen as a partic- Or visit the website: focusing on poverty in our work; and col- ular threat, and these are dealt with in detail. http://biocontrol.ifas.ufl.edu laboration, networking and team work. Some possible ways forward are consid-
Contact: ered for those who hope to continue making Training & Extension Coordinator, a living from coffee, including speciality, African Sustainable SACRED AFRICA, organic and bio-diversity friendly produc- Agriculture Course PO Box 2275, Bungoma, Kenya tion. Finally, the role of smallholder coffee Email: [email protected] in biodiversity conservation is highlighted. The Sustainable Agriculture Centre for Fax: +254 337 20235 Research, Extension and Development in Websites: http://www.acts.or.ke/sacred *Baker, P.S. (ed) (2001) Coffee futures: a Africa (Sacred Africa) is an NGO that http://www.formatkenya.org sourcebook of some critical issues con- works with rural farmers to improve their
fronting the coffee industry. Cenicafé, lives through increased agricultural produc- Colombia/CAB International, UK; tion and income while protecting and The Commodities Press, 111 pp. Pbk. enhancing the environment. In collabora- Coffee Futures ISBN 958 33 2356 tion with partners, SACRED has organized This sourcebook*, which deals with some Available (price US$28) from: a Regional Course in Sustainable Agricul- of the critical issues confronting the coffee Julius Jackson, CABI Bioscience (UK), ture to be held in Western Kenya on 29 industry, was published to coincide with Bakeham Lane, Egham, October-2 November 2001. the 2001 World Coffee Conference in Surrey, TW20 9TY, UK The course, which will be facilitated in a London in May. The book was not intended Email: [email protected] participatory and lively way, targets project to provide a comprehensive treatment of Websites: http://www.cabi-bioscience.org managers, extensionists and researchers each topic, but rather to inform and stimu- http://www.cabi-commodities.org from East and southern Africa. It will be late discussion. It features 20 contributors limited to 30 participants and will cost Ksh from the full spectrum of the industry.

Conference Reports

Whitefly Meetings exchange news and views, and hear about A key function of EWSN is dissemination the most recent developments in research of information, and the success of this was The 1st European Whitefly Symposium on this key pest. highlighted. The EWSN Resource Pack was held at Ragusa in Sicily on 17 February holds detailed protocol sheets on all areas – 3 March 2001. The conference attracted The European Whitefly Studies Network of whitefly research and these are regularly some 200 delegates from around the world, (EWSN) held its final workshop as an and 113 papers on many aspects of European Community (EC)funded con- added to and updated. They have been whitefly-related research and control were certed action during the symposium, on 26 designed from information supplied by presented. Sessions covered systematics, February 2001. Some 70 members members and cover an extensive range of general biology, population dynamics, reviewed the network's activities since it techniques from the field collection of whitefly-virus interactions, natural enemies began in March 1999. Developments from specimens through to laboratory methods and biological control of whiteflies, and previous workshops were evaluated, and for identifying whitefly-transmitted whitefly control and integrated pest man- the coordinators of the three working group viruses. The EWSN newsletter and website agement. The meeting presented a good meetings summarized their achievements provide further avenues for promoting opportunity for whitefly workers to gather, and outputs. communication between whitefly workers. 66N BiocontrolNews and Information 2001 Vol. 22 No. 3

The newsletter is currently sent to almost Margareta Winberg, Renate Künast, Wil- regional plan for central and eastern 2000 locations worldwide. helm Molterer and Bjarne-Håkon Hansen, Europe. The process of Action Plan devel- Ministers for Agriculture of Sweden, Ger- opment was also outlined and the need for Presentations by the coordinators of the many, Austria and Norway, respectively. it to be integrated with other international five discipline groups (virology, epidemi- Speeches made by Friedrich-Wilhelm policy initiatives stressed. These outcomes ology, systematics, natural enemies and Graefe zu Baringdorf, Chairman of the will form the political, economic, social plant protection) reviewed research devel- Committee on Agriculture and Rural and scientific justifications for the Action opments and intra- and inter-discipline Development of the European Parliament, Plan. The Plan will be completed within 2 collaborations and outputs. Finally, repre- Corrado Pirzio-Biroli, Head of Cabinet, sentatives from Syngenta and Koppert years, and its proposals will form the basis DG Agriculture, European Commission, Biological Systems discussed the benefits for CAP reforms to be negotiated from Elliot Morley, UK Parliamentary Secretary that their companies had gained from 2004. Judging from this conference, the for Agriculture, Evangelos Argyris and involvement with EWSN. degree of political support for the Action Tomás Zidek, Vice-Ministers of Agricul- Plan bodes well for it to be influential. Although the EC Concerted Action Project ture of Greece and the Czech Republic, has now ended, EWSN is set to continue as respectively, and comments by Branko Twelve European countries (Austria, Den- an independent organization. Bosnjakovic, Regional Advisor for the mark, Estonia, Germany, Greece, Ireland, [See Announcements section, this issue]. Environment at the UN Economic Com- Lithuania, Norway, Switzerland, Sweden, mission for Europe indicated their strong
the Netherlands, and the UK) together with support. the Committee of Agricultural Organiza- Also attending the conference were experts tions in the EU (COPA), the European European Organic in all aspects of organic policy, production Community of Consumer Cooperatives Farming and research, including Gunnar Rundgren (Euro Coop), the European Environmental Bureau (EEB) and IFOAM endorsed the A landmark conference has pushed organic (IFOAM, International Federation of conclusions of the conference, which were agriculture towards the top of the European Organic Agriculture Movements) and Peter political agenda. 'Organic Food and Goemelke (Danish Agricultural Council) encapsulated in the Copenhagen Declara- Farming: Towards Partnership and Action who presented papers. Nine themes were tion. This highlights the importance of in Europe' was held in Copenhagen, Den- discussed in depth: organic agriculture as a organic farming for solving many problems mark on 10-11 May 2001. It was arranged part of the Common Agriculture Policy; relating to food production, the environ- and organized on the initiative of the trading organic products; organic stand- ment, animal welfare and the rural develop- Danish Minister of Food, Agriculture and ards, certification and legislation; organic ment. It notes that organic farming provides Fisheries, Ritt Bjerregard, who gave the farming and multifunctional contributions major opportunities for farmers and pro- opening address. to the environment; processing and mar- ducers, and calls for its further develop- keting of organic products; organic food ment in Europe. It lays out activities to be The meeting aimed to make substantial and farming in the new market economies undertaken under the Action Plan over the progress in the development of an Action of the central and eastern European coun- next 2 years: to analyse barriers to and Plan for organic farming in Europe. The tries; the European Action Plan: process opportunities in the sector; to develop a Plan will feed into proposals to make fun- and content; communicating with con- consensus- and market-based strategy damental reforms of the European Union sumers; and research as a tool for develop- involving all stakeholders in Europe; to (EU) Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). ment in the organic sector. consider all aspects of organic food produc- The proposals hope to change the current Key issues for European organic farming tion; and to look at opportunities for policy, which is based on farm subsidies, to were identified relating to: making organic organic development in the context of CAP a policy based on payments dependent on farming a key element of CAP reform; jus- and other international agreements. participation in land stewardship and con- tifying organic farming in terms of benefi- servation schemes. cial environmental impact; encouraging More information and the conference The conference was attended by a long list fair processing and marketing develop- papers are on the CABI organic- of European ministers and other leading ment; strengthening consumer trust and research.com website at: political figures who gave clear support to understanding; removing barriers to trade; http://www.organic-research.com/ the proposed Action Plan. This was the developing standards and regulation; dis- research/papers/offconf.htm message of addresses given by Poul Ras- seminating research findings and informa- mussen, Prime Minister of Denmark, and tion to farmers/producers; and developing a