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Proceedings of the First International History of Public Relations Conference July 8-9, 2010

Presentations by PowerPoint Presentations - 1

Günter Bentele, Leipzig University: PR-Historiography, a functional-integrative strata model and periods of German PR history Günter Bentele, Leipzig University: German PR History – Seven periods from the beginning of the 19th century to now Günter Bentele & Sandra Muhlberg, Leipzig University: Can and Public Relations coexist? 'Socialistic Public Relations' in the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) 1965-1989 David Berendt, Bournemouth University: Revealing historical evidence of public relations professionalization and commercialization: The early history of public relations at Bournemouth University - Structure, evolution, people and curricula Patricia A Curtin & Lisa Forster, University of Oregon: Creating counternarratives: Harvey and Native Americans: 1902-1936 Vincent Hazleton, Radford University (USA): ‘Theoretic Issues in Histories of Public Relations’. Robert L Heath, University of Houston: Evolution of Issues Management: John Hill, Tobacco Controversy, and the Battle of Scientists Thomas Hove & Richard T Cole, Michigan State University: , the United Fruit Company and the Ethical Complexities of the Public Relations Counsel

Presentations - 2

Jane Howard: The Evolution of UK PR Consultancies, 1985-2010 Owen Kulemeka, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign: All the old media were once : Public relations and new media technologies between 1950-1999 Conor McGrath: Charles Weller Kent: The UK's First 'Parliamentary Lobbyist' (1913- 1916)? David Remund, University of North Carolina - The World's Work: Arthur W. Page and the Movement towards Social Responsibility in Corporate in the United States, 1913-1927 Gyorgy Szondi, Leeds Metropolitan University: Public Relations in Communist Hungary - A Historical Perspective Peter Syszka, University of Vienna: Public Relations in Germany – own or common history? Empirical findings – theoretical foundation – methodological consequences Donald K. Wright: A Critical Analysis of the History and Development of Public Relations Education in the United States and Canada

Can there be a Co-Existence of Propaganda and Public Relations?

The Case of “Socialistic Public Relations” in the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) from 1965-1989

Prof. Dr. Günter Bentele; Sandra Mühlberg, M.A.

THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL HISTORY OF PUBLIC RELATIONS CONFERENCE; 8-9 July 2010; Bournemouth University Agenda

1. Public Relations in the GDR 2. Question of perspective: Definitions 3. Circumstances in the GDR 4. Propaganda – the dominating style 5. Public Relations as profession in the GDR 6. Example: Automotive 7. Conclusions Public Relations in the GDR Was it possible? Yes it was: • No “Black-out”: continuity from beginnings before WWII (Marius Lange) • Functional necessity: every organisation has to communicate • Evidences of existence: public relations was a proven profession in the GDR Public Relations in the GDR Literature review GDR Publications: • Five dissertations (1968-1974) deal with the professional field ’socialistic public relations‘ • First theoretical publication in 1979 on ’Theoretical Problems of Public Relations in the GDR‘ (by Herbert Wöltge, academic at the university of the GDR) Other Publications: • 1984: article in the PR-Magazine ’Public relations in the GDR. Explanations about the theory and practice of socialistic management‘ (by Wolfgang Swoboda) • 1997: congress for public relations in the GDR: ’Findings and positions of public relations and propaganda‘ • Comprehensive overviews of general aspects of public relations in the GDR by Günter Bentele Public Relations in the GDR Terminology The English term ’public relations‘ • originally introduced 1958 as a capitalistic phenomenon in an economical context in ’Neue Werbung‘ (by Alfred Klein, economist) • GDR wants to react to the phenomenon, using their own interpretation The German term ’Öffentlichkeitsarbeit ‘ • introduced 1964 in ’Neue Werbung‘ (by Alfred Klein) • as a clear difference to the capitalistic, anglo-saxon term ’public relations‘ The GDR term ’sozialistische Öffentlichkeitsarbeit‘ (socialistic public relations) • introduced 1968 to make a clear difference between ’capitalistic public relations‘ and ’socialistic public relations‘ (by Fred Merkwitschka in his dissertation ) Question of perspective: Definitions Propaganda in the GDR • Parent term for: ’systematic circulation and in-depth explanation of political; philosophical; historical ;economic; physiological and technical teachings and ideas‘ Kleines Politisches Wörterbuch (1988): Berlin: Dietz (7., vollst. überarb. Aufl.), p. 795 • Main aim of GDR propaganda: dissemination of socialist ideology at all levels and in all forms • Forms of propaganda: e.g. SED’s party schools; mass propaganda; communicative function of media; public relations Question of perspective: Definitions Public relations in the GDR • Understood as: ‘mass political activity by state and economic bodies; institutions and organisations. It is an indispensable component of general political and ideological engagement led by the party of the working class. Engaging in public relations [Öffentlichkeitsarbeit] is a principle of socialist administration in all areas and at all levels. ‘ Wörterbuch der Journalistik (1984) Sektion Journalistik der Karl Marx-Universität. Manuskriptdruck. Leipzig. p. 70 • Political-ideological function of all public relations in Socialism • like journalism; public relations in the GDR were a component of the SED’s political and ideological Agitation and Propaganda Circumstances in the GDR: The SED’s information monopoly • ’Top-down’ model: politics and public communication were organised unidirectional as power; control and information ’from above to below‘; political system dominated all spheres of society • Information monopoly: was the overriding principle of the East German Socialist Unity Party (SED) • ‘Major players’: – SED’s Central Committee (ZK) and the committee’s Politbüro – The Central Committee’s Secretary for Agitation – the principle officer of the SED’s Department of Agitation (and Propaganda) – played an important role in steering political communications Circumstances in the GDR Line of order in the media system General Secretary of the SED

The Central Committee’s Commission for Media of the SED and Secretary for Agitation Agitation at the SED‘s mass organisations Politbüro The Central Comitee‘s State comitees for Departement for and TV Agitation

ADN ( agency) The Press Office for the Minister-President

Press of the bloc parties and churches

Joachim Herrmann, The Central Committee’s Secretary for Agitation 1978-1989 Graphic by Gunter Holzweisig, own translation Circumstances in the GDR Media: ’the party’s sharpest weapon’ • Control: The Central Committee’s Secretary for Agitation (and Propaganda) was responsible for media ’guidance’ • ’Guidance’ of the media: issuing directives on topics or articles; use of language; listing ‘taboo’ topics; prescribing layout and timing; oral instructions at weekly briefings by the Central Committee – the so-called ‘Thursday conference’ • Direct or indirect editorship by the SED: 39 (the most important were Neues Deutschland and Junge Welt) • Monopoly of political information: The Press Office (executive members of the Council of Ministers) was the only of political information • monopoly: The German General News Agency (ADN) was the only news agency in the GDR and under the total control of the Secretary for Agitation Circumstances in the GDR Similarity of the GDR media Dominating communication style Propaganda: Propagandistic system Social structures at the macro-level (dominating political system): • Determined other systems ( media or economic system) • Influenced the organisational structures; scope; resources and regulations of communications of organisations at the meso-level • Forced the implementation of propagandistic directives • Is one of the prerequisites for a: . Propagandist style of communication in public communications . Propaganda as major (communicative) function of political PR Dominating communication style Propaganda: Propagandistic style • ‘Modern Propaganda (understood as an information and communication style of public communication) is defined here as an unidirectional; influential type of communication in which truthful information is subordinated or consciously bracketed out; generally uses simple means of communication (saturation; repetition; stereotypes; simplistic assessment; a mixture of news and opinion); often sentimental; mindful of distinct antagonists; and only deployed within the parameters of centralised; non-democratic social model; i.e. in systems in where the media are controlled by the state’. Bentele, Günter (1999): Propaganda als Typ systematisch verzerrter Kommunikation. Zum Verhältnis von Propaganda und Public Relations in unterschiedlichen politischen Systemen. In: Liebert, Tobias (Hrsg.) (1999): und Propaganda in der öffentlichen Kommunikation. Leipziger Skripten für Public Relations und Kommunikationsmanagement, Nr. 4 (1999), p. 95-109. Dominating communication style Propaganda: Propagandistic style • information and communication style in public communications refers to an empirically diagnosable model of communication that is composed of a deliberate selection of content and the use of certain forms of communication (cf. Bentele 1999b) • Particular language, such as the ’strong and unbreakable friendship‘ with the Soviet Union Public Relations as profession Political and planning regulations • PR in the GDR can empirically be defined • PR in the GDR was a profession with its own structures; functions; objectives • Practitioners worked in communications outlets (press offices) → For individual organisations and society in general, public relations was considered (in terms of its function) to be as necessary in the GDR as it was in Western Germany. But.. Political guidelines (propagandistic style of communication): • “Laws” for PR by the GDR (Ministerrat) in 1967; 1972 • State directives curtailed independent decision-making in PR State-organised planning regulations: • Structured working hours in time and content Public Relations as profession Political Public Relations • Official institution: The Press Office for the Minister-President of the government of the German Democratic Republic • 50 employees; (other 50 controlled press departments by political organisations) • Duties: licensing of all press subsidiaries; coordination of public relations across the various ministries; creation of the government’s official media service (); the monthly journal Presse der Sowjetunion (The Soviet Union Press); registration of Western newspapers and magazines; guidance and regulation of all bloc party and church newspapers in the GDR Public Relations as profession Political Public Relations

Kurt Blecha (middle) , Head of the Press Office for the Minister-President of the government of the German Democratic Republic 1958-1989 Public Relations as profession Industry and other areas • PR in all important areas of GDR society • according to insiders 3000 employees by the 1980s (like industrial production; mass organisations; sport; collages; culture) • State-directed planning regulations: Fundamental task of press offices for the state-owned plants • Different organisational integration: function was delegated to the Director for Procurement/ who in turn was subordinate to the General Director (e.g. VEB Leuna chemical works) or directly to the General Director (e.g. VEB chemical plant in Buna) • Instruments: e.g. Trade Fairs used the ’manifold press service‘ as its key instrument; sent to over 3500 editors across the globe, including PR agencies in Western countries (notably in Britain) Public Relations as a profession State-directed planning regulations

Examples of planing regulations at the electronic machinery VEB by Harald Müller, Chief of the Press Office 1971-1989 Example: The parameters of the survey The parameters: • Survey of 5th June 1971; a period of heightened interest in Public Relations in the GDR • Conducted by the general manager of group public relations at the car plant of the Association of Publicly-Owned (VVB) • Twenty-one participants (VEBs) took part • contained fourteen questions • The content: • status of public relations in relation to their target groups of society (colleagues; press relations; dialogue with the general public like customers; residents etc.) • status of public relations and its political-propagandistic awareness raising function and mobilising function Example: Automotive industry The main results of the survey 1/2 methods of fulfilling the awareness-raising and mobilising functions: work appraisals and works meetings; planning inspections; the System for Agitator Advice, works newspapers; works ; forums and the entire innovation body; production propaganda; wall-mounted newspapers; inter-factory exhibitions forms; methods and means of public relations: • spoken word (e.g. general meetings of union workplace representatives; conferences; public reports commissioned by directors; one-to-one ; discussion of best practice; round table discussions) • the written word (e.g. works newspapers; wall-mounted newspapers; visual agitation; information support points; flyers etc.) • pictorial representations (e.g. display cabinets and window displays; free- standing notice boards; ; placards; workshops; audio-accompanied slideshows; etc.) or events (e.g. plant festivals or ’Master Craftsmen Days) Example: Automotive industry forms; methods and means Example: Automotive industry: The main results of the survey 2/2 • Focus of public relations: rationalisation; efficiency; quota fulfilment; socialistic competition and models of behaviour; high-quality workmanship • Relationship with the media: generally regarded as positive • Intensity of media contact: ranged from detailed press briefs to ’informative pointers‘ • Methods: Press briefings; press discussions; press conferences; press packs; technical contributions to technical journals; press relations at trade fairs and providing expert advice for radio and • Status of public relations employees: usually a subordinate to the plant manager and in some cases to the office supervisor or the director of external and internal trade • : by summarising press reviews (Globus cuttings service) • long-term strategy or basic order for public relations: existed but was unknown Example: Automotive industry Conclusions from the survey • ’Top-down‘ model of public relations in car manufacturing did exist (planning regulations, ’index of tasks for the press and production propaganda‘) but little implemented in practice • In Practice: Profession of public relations developed as a need of organisational communication even without knowledge of provided political framework • Different functions but same tools: Differences between socialistic and democratic public relations can be found in their respective functions rather than in the specific tools of their implementation. Plant Newspapers Internal (socialistic) public relations • 667 plant newspapers with a total circulation of 2.21 million copies (in 1988) • No instruments of industrial public relations in a formal sense, because they were a direct responsibility of the SED • Content: internal affairs of the institution concerning the employees (prohibited to be distributed to the public outside the plants) • Very open discussion of problems and grievances Conclusion

• Same organisational functions and instruments as in Western societies: The functional commonalities at the organisational level (task of monitoring, informing, communicating with and persuading others in the interests of the various organisations) and the used instruments were comparable to democratic (western) public relations. • Political demand was different: The absolute, fundamental political- ideological function of socialistic public relations lead to a propagandistic style of communication. Public Relations was an integral and prominent part of the SED’s mass political engagement and its propagandistic practices. So it can be regarded as a powerful influence in GDR society. • Public Relations existed in the GDR: The profession “Public relations” verifiably existed in the GDR and was necessary for the communication management of organisations. Nevertheless, the system of public communications in the GDR meant that public relations understood as dialogue and ‘horizontal’ communication was impossible. Socialistic public relations was restricted to versions of ‘Propaganda/Publicity’ and a version of ‘Information’. Thank you for your attention! Any Questions?

Contact Prof. Dr. Günter Bentele Universität Leipzig Kommunikationsmanagement/PR Burgstraße 21; D-04109 Leipzig Tel.: +49 (0)341 97 35 730 Fax: +49 (0)341 97 39 748; [email protected]

Sandra Mühlberg Eschengraben 143 D-13189 Berlin Tel.: +49 (0)176 96 90 1824 [email protected] Prof. Dr. Günter Bentele University of Leipzig, Germany mail to: [email protected]

German PR History: Seven Periods from the beginning of the 19th century until now

THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL HISTORY OF PUBLIC RELATIONS CONFERENCE; 8-9 July 2010; Bournemouth University Agenda 1. 7 Periods of German PR History 2. Conclusions

1 Seven Periods of German PR History 2 Conclucion

2 1. 7 Periods of German PR History 2. Conclusions Seven Periods of German PR 1 History

3 G. Bentele: Five Strata and seven periods of German PR history

#7 period: growth of PR research and science, Source: Bentele (1997, 2009) , professionalization; globalization: 1995 -

#6 period: boom of the professional field and professionalization: 1985 to 1995 #5: Public Relations is developing as a Social System: #5period: consolidation of the professional field: 20th century 1958 to 1985

#4 period: new beginning and upturn: 1945 to 1958

#3 period: press relations and propaganda under the Nazi Regime: 1933 to 1945

#2 period: consolidation and growth: 1918 to1933

#4 19th century: emerging occupational field #1 period: emergence of the field: mid19th century to 1918 #3 Communication of Organisations: End of Middle Ages, Modern Age Pre-History of Public Relations

#2 Public Communicat.: Antiquity, Middle Ages

#1 stratum: Interpersonal Comm.: History of Mankind 4 Periods of Germany PR-History 1. 7 Periods of German PR History Pre-History 2. Conclusions Period 1: develpoment of the occupational field (mid19th century - 1918) Period 2: consolidation and growth (1918 - 1933) Period 3: under the Nazi Regime (1933 - 1945) Period 4: new beginning and upturn (1945 - 1958) Period 5: consolidation of the professional field (1958 - 1985) Period 6: boom of the professional field and professionalization (1985 - 1995) Period 7: growth of PR research and PR science, professio- nalization; globalization, Internet (1995 - now)

Source: Bentele (1997, 2010) 5 First Theses 1. 7 Periods of German PR History 2. Conclusions German Public Relations was not an American invention after WW II (as many practitioners still are thinking), it independently had developed since the beginning of the 19th century. Only from 1945 U.S. Public Relations started to influence the German field.

6 Pre-History 1. 7 Periods of German PR History High- and Late Middle Ages: 2. Conclusions • 11th and 12th century: religious propaganda of Crusades: cross as ; battle call: Kyrie eleyson (Lord, have mercy); itinerant preacher for dispersion • 13th century: Walther von der Vogelweide (1170-1230) political poetry on behalf of rulers and landgraves: anti-pontifical communication in public • 14th-16th century: self-expression of the Hanseatic League: social foundations, buildings, representatives and customs as a means of imagebuilding

7 Pre-History 1. 7 Periods of German PR • 15th century: emperor Maximilian I. as History „emperor with intuition for PR“. Woodcuts (inter alia by Albrecht Dürer), votive medals, 2. Conclusions heraldry as a means of public communication • 16th century: patronage (Fuggerei of Augsburg), architecture and fine arts as appendage for cultivating image of the Fugger • 16th century: flysheets, public disputations during reformation, Martin Luther used rhetorical principles and symbolical acts (The 95 Theses in Wittenberg) • 18th century: Justus Möser, consultant of the Prussian King Friedrich II., demanded the consideration of the as integral part of the governmental communication-politics 8 Pre-History 1. 7 Periods of German PR History 2. Conclusions

Editorial Office in 1631 9 Pre- History 1. 7 Periods of German PR • Frederick II (1712-1788) knew how to History journalistically support his foreign policy, to help disseminate favorable messages and 2. Conclusions prevent unfavorable ones • 1810 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe manufactures poems on behalf of the of Carlsbad Parliament, welcoming the Empress Maria Ludovica of Austria (early example of ) Johann W. von Goethe (1747-1832) • 1815 Prussian memorandum by Karl August Varnhagen van Ense (1785-1858). Already in 1914/15, he was "press officer" of the Prussian State Chancellor Prince von Hardenberg at the Congress of Vienna (reorganization of Europe after the fall of Napoleon, peoples battle in Leipzig) and wrote articles in terms of Prussia for various newspapers. In the memorandum, he pointed to the importance of public opinion, and suggested the creation of a newspaper in Karl A. Varnhagen von Ense (1785-1858) Berlin, that had the trust. 10 Period 1: Development of the occupational field (1814-1918) 1. 7 Periods of German PR History • 1841 founding of the Prussian "ministerial newspaper offices“ or “Literary Cabinet” from 1848 (mainly and correction 2. Conclusions functions, but also monitoring the media environment) • 1851 Krupp participates at the London World Exposition (2 tons weighty steel block as image-formative “event”) • 1866 Alfred Krupp urges the engagement of a "literati“ • 1871 establishment of the "Preßdezernat" at the Foreign Office • 1893 establishment of a press department () at Krupp, not until 1925 a promotional division adds • 1894 under the Marine policy: 1. World Exhibition, London establishment of visitor information 1851: „Crystal Palace“ competent officers at all major warships 11 Period 1: Development of the occupational field (1814-1918) 1. 7 Periods of German PR • 1898 establishment of a "literary offices" under Hans Dominik at History the "Union Electricity Company" (later AEG) 2. Conclusions • In 1901, there are 153 German Reich newspaper correspondences, including 48 political and parliamentary

• 1906 founding of the first municipal press office in Magdeburg (1909 Berlin, 1912 Nuremberg, etc.) development of press departments in politics and economy

• war press work and cultural propaganda in the 1st World War: 5.10.1914 adoption of the Reich Chancellor: Establishment of the Central Office for Foreign Service (ZfA); tasks: Observation of the hostile press, care of neutral foreign press; production and transmission of pamphlets and brochures for abroad

12 Period 1: Development of the occupational field (1814-1918)

1. 7 Periods of • Campaigns for the war bonds: 1914 German PR • 1st War bonds: 4.5 billion dollars; History • 2nd bond 9.1 billion, 2. Conclusions • 3rd Bond (Sept. 1915: 12.16 billion mark).

• of the campaign: German Reichsbank; end of 1916 establishment of a “news office for war bonds” (4 officers, 2 dozen assistants); Moreover: newspaper propaganda, advertising films in cinema, posters.

• 1917 first evidence for the use of the term „Öffentlichkeitsarbeit“ by Ernst Hinderer in the context of a discussion of „Evangelische Preßverbände“

13 Period 1: Development of the occupational field (1814-1918) 1. Introduction 2. Strata Models Summary: 3. 7 Periods of German PR • Development of the profession, specialized departments, History differentiation 4. Conclusions • Take over of instruments and media, adaptation on PR and development of new instruments

• Development of organizational PR-basic-functions (monitoring, information, communication, persuasion)

14 Period 2: Consolidation and growth (1918 -1933) 1. 7 Periods of German PR History • 01.10.1919: united press department of the 2. Conclusions government and the State Department of Foreign Affairs: more than 200 employees

• Strong recovery of municipal public under the new democratic omens: In 1927, 65 of 91 surveyed with more than 50,000 inhabitants hold separate press departments or central offices for communications

15 Period 2: Consolidation and growth (1918 -1933) 1. 7 Periods of German PR History 2. Conclusions Govermental Press Department (founded 1919) Dr. Walter Zechlin, Head of Department („Reichpressechef“) Period 2: Consolidation and growth (1918 -1933) 1. 7 Periods of German PR • 1920 founding of the “German Reich Central Office for History transport advertising “ to give the public a understanding of 2. Conclusions the services of the Reichsbahn

• 1925 foundation of a press office at IG Farben (Director: Hans Brettner)

• political information through press offices

17 Period 2: Consolidation and growth (1918 -1933) 1. 7 Periods of German PR Organization: History Director, conductor, including domestic and foreign speakers, 2. Conclusions lecturers. Major coordination function: I-Unit (examines whether messages are "politically correct“)

Main tasks: to inform the government about contents in domestic and foreign press; to inform the press about government policy (one-voice policy)

Instruments: - (from war press office; founded in August 1914) created in World War 1st - Press-tee since 1924 every Friday to improve the relations with the foreign press, foreign politicians and speakers

most important news channel: Wolffsches Telegraph Bureau (WTB) 18 Period 2: Consolidation and growth (1918 -1933) 1. 7 Periods of German PR History 2. Conclusions

Source: Deutschland, 1929, 42 19 Period 2: Consolidation and growth (1918 -1933) 1. 7 Periods of German PR History 2. Conclusions

Source: Deutschland, 1929, 43 20 Period 2: Consolidation and growth (1918 -1933) 1. 7 Periods of German PR History • Criticism on “Pressarbeit”: Local press offices as “offices for preventing messages" 2. Conclusions • Criticism on the war press work ( "Central Lies" Hellmuth von Gerlach, 1925) or the state press work of the postwar period by Kurt Tucholsky (1920)

• First advertising agencies in the 20th and the first examples of integrated corporate communications (e.g. Lingner-Werke, Dresden; "Odol") • On the background of the first German Republic, i.e. with a parliamentary democracy and a comparatively independent media system

21 Period 2: Consolidation and growth (1918 -1933) 1. 7 Periods of German PR • At the same time the political culture of the Weimar Republic History was highly polarized: the newspapers were political party 2. Conclusions oriented, not impartial, neutral • propagandistic style in public communication (journalism, party-PR, governmental information) • Generally: excessive growth of the number of press departments in most areas of society: , politics, municipal administration, culture, etc. development and differentiation of the instruments of press work

22 Period 3: Political Propaganda under the Nazi Regime (1933-1945) 1. 7 Periods of German PR History • Party ideological dominated press rela- 2. Conclusions tions within a frame of political propa- ganda targets and under conditions of a centralized, dictatorial drafted, state- controlled and organized media system • control of journalism and press work through state and (national socialist) party • State PR at home and abroad becomes propaganda • Propaganda: formal and substantive unidirectional, persuasive communication in the political field, for which accurate information is subordinate or deliberately negated 23 Period 3: Political Propaganda under the Nazi Regime (1933-1945) 1. 7 Periods of German PR History • Typical communication tools of propaganda: strong 2. Conclusions penetration, repetition, simple stereotypes, clear , no separation (amalgamation) of information and opinion, often emotionalized and (important!) working with concepts /images of the enemy (the jews) • Propaganda is - because of societal structures - in a position to select relevant issues unilaterally, to taboo, and so to manage and distort social reality (but this has limits) • Apart from other reasons, Nazi propaganda was successful, because it was connected to real violence (initially by the party SA and SS on the street, and later by the state and the Gestapo)

24 Period 3: Political Propaganda under the Nazi Regime (1933-1945) 1. 7 Periods of German PR • Besides, there is also PR in today's sense, for example in the History context of , in the area of press 2. Conclusions relations of cultural and economic organizations

• large-scale campaign for the German coal planned by Hanns W. Brose and his agency under the name “Werbewerk Glückauf“ (180 information and text ads); but due to the war no longer implemented. Hanns W. Brose in his autobiography: "Plan an initial public relations campaign in Germany (area of institutional advertising)" (Brose 1958, 88)

25 Period 4: New beginning and upturn (1945-1958) 1. 7 Periods of German PR History • Economic upturn and orien- 2. Conclusions tation to the American models from the early 50s • Development of a new occupational self-under- standing within a frame of democratic public structures (dissociation from PR, pro- paganda and advertising) • The first book about PR after WW II in 1951 (Carl Hundhausen: advertising for public trust - Public Relations) • rapid development of the occupational field, especially in the economy, but also in other social sectors • the first PR agency 1952: Contact Service Ltd. - First Society for the of Public Relations (Director: Walter H. Seiter)

26 Period 5: Consolidation of the professional field (1958-1985) 1. 7 Periods of German PR History • Development of a professional self-consciousness: existence of local and regional groups 2. Conclusions • 8. December 1958 founding of the German Public Relations association (DPRG); First Chairman: Prof. Dr. Carl Hundhausen. Growth and differentiation, education, occupational image, etc. (now about 3.000 members) • First post-war campaigns (e.g. “Die Waage” (The balance) 1962 • 8. May 1973 founding of the German Association of PR Firms (GPRA) in Düsseldorf • Consolidation and beginning of differentiation of the professional field • start of education and further education (non-academic area) • At the same time, development of a SED-dominated "socialist Öffentlichkeitsarbeit (PR)" in the GDR

27 Period 6: Boom and professionalization (1985 - 1995) 1. 7 Periods of German PR History • Strong development of the PR agency sector 2. Conclusions • Academization and professionalization of the occupational field • Improved training structures in practice and various training institutions • immense development of the practitioner literature and the scientific literature since the beginning of the 90s • Scientification and professionalization of the instruments • Development of a PR science since 1990 (communication science) • 1994 First Department of Public Relations / PR at the University of Leipzig; Academic PR training since the mid-nineties: Leipzig, Berlin, etc. • 2003 Founding of the Bundesverbandes der Pressesprecher (BDP)

28 Period 6: Boom and professionalization (1985 - 1995) 1. 7 Periods of German PR History • increase of the field: number of practitioners and 2. Conclusions agencies (differentiation)

• first continious academic education programmes (e.g. Bamberg, Berlin, Münster)

• first scientific books and publications about PR theory and practise (e.g. Ronneberger/Rühl)

• start of a continious PR research

• parallel: boost of publications by practitioners

29 Period 7: Communication Society & Globalization (1995-today) 1. 7 Periods of German PR History 2. Conclusions • 1984: start of Germany`s dual system (private expanding)

• ongoing process of academic education: first chair in Public Relations founded in 1994 in Leipzig by Günter Bentele

• Internationalisation of communication

• scientification of the field and its instruments since 1990: Campaigning, Issues Management, etc.

30 Period 7: Communication Society & Globalization (1995-today) 1. Introduction • Professional field: Internet/Online-Communication has quick 2. Strata Models and strong effects on the way organizations communicate 3. 7 Periods of • Internationalization of corporate communications, German PR History communication education and -research • Boom of the agency sector 4. Conclusions • The professional field becomes more academic • Reseach and Education: First professorship for PR at the University of Leipzig; Academic PR-education since the mid- 1990„s: Leipzig, Berlin  further improvement and differentiation since ~ 2005 • Development of a PR-Science (since 1990) and Communication Mangegement which is based on academic insights; • Professionalization and scientification of the PR-instruments; Campaigning, Issues Management, etc.

31 1. 7 Periods of German PR History 2. Conclusions

2 Conclusion

32 Conclusion 1. 7 Periods of German PR History • The Development of PR in Germany can be divided 2. Conclusions into a pre-historic period and seven periods

• In the middle of the 19th century, the PR- developed and fulfilled first functions in the organizations of the time; development of new methods and instruments

• 1917: As the first time, the term „Öffentlichkeits- arbeit“ (working publicly for the public) is used by Ernst Hinderer

33 Conclusion 1. 7 Periods of German PR History • In the NS-time Public Relations is becoming 2. Conclusions propaganda because the strict party-political requirements, dictatory of the state in general and journalism and press relations in particular

• After 1945 renewal of the professional self- conception due to new democratic structures of the public; continuous growth and consolidation of the professional field

• Since the 1980„s: Improvement of the educational structures, professionalization, development of a PR-science

34 Conclusion 1. Introduction 2. Strata Models 3. 7 Periods of German PR • PR research is existing now for 20 years and it is History developing fast 4. Conclusions • there is a lot of literature about propaganda (WWI, WWII, The Nazi time) and there is also some literature about certain periods of German PR history, the history of PR of certain companies (Krupp, Siemens, AEG, etc.) and also imortant persons (Carl Hundhausen, Albert Oeckl, etc. ) • but there are only some scientists who are doing continuously research about PR history

35 Thank you. Do have any questions?

UNIVERSITÄT LEIPZIG Chair in Public Relations / Communication management

Burgstraße 21, 04109 Leipzig Tel. +49341 973 57 33 Fax +49341 973 57 48 Prof. Dr. Günter Bentele University of Leipzig, Germany mail to: [email protected]

PR Historiography - A Functional-integrative Strata Model For Germany‘s Communication and Public Relations History

THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL HISTORY OF PUBLIC RELATIONS CONFERENCE; 8-9 July 2010; Bournemouth University Agenda 1. Introduction 2. Strata Models 3. Conclusions 1 Introduction 2 Strata (Layer) Models 3 Conclucion

2 1. Introduction 2. Strata Models 3. Conclusions

1 Introduction

3 Where to start? 1. Introduction 2. Strata Models 3. Conclusions • When, under what conditions did Public Relations begin and emerge?

• Is the line between prehistory and history of Public Relations (Broom 2009) defined precisely enough?

• Which criteria can be given to distinguish different historical persiods of PR history? Should they be understood locally or globally?

--> perspective & methodology

4 Where to start? 1. Introduction 2. Strata Models 3. Conclusions • It doesn‘t make sense to argue, that PR would be as old as mankind. Why not even older? No “-PR“ • but: existence of comparable phenomena (which are used since 2000 years) • need and importance of certain criteria to describe or define Public Relations  e.g. industrialization in the 18/19th century, appearance and growth of (industrial and political) organisations, the need of communica-tion, disperse , alphabetisa- tion, development of and media systems, etc.) 5 Types of PR historiography 1. Introduction 2. Strata Models • fact- and event-oriented type (FEOT) 3. Conclusions _social explanations _gathering data _no conceptional and social theoretical foundation

• model-and theory-oriented type (MTOT) _reflects the conceptual basis _uses models and/or theory _social explanations

6 1. Introduction approach / fact- and event- model- and theory- Criteria oriented approach oriented approach 2. Strata Models methods a) Collecting facts a) Systematic 3. Conclusions and datas; histori- concept of terms; cal categorisation theory based b) Distinguishing collecting of facts periods b) structured scientific goals description description and explanation theory basis no theoretical basis terms, typology, theories functions exploring the field; scientific functions; ideal: scientific basics increase of professionalism examples e.g. Bernays, Cutlip, e.g. Grunig/Hunt; Oeckl Grunig, Bentele

7 1. Introduction 2. Strata Models 3. Conclusions

2 Strata (Layer) Models

8 A new type of communication (and PR) historiography 1. Introduction 2. Strata Models Strata (Layer) Models: 3. Conclusions

• used to describe different developemental (historical) processes

• well known in philosophy, biology, psychology, and the theory of knowledge

• in context of PR history: used to describe the evolution of communicative structures, means, and procedures

9 A new type of PR historiography 1. Introduction 2. Strata Models Strata (Layer) Models: 3. Conclusions

• “functional“: PR history developed in a context of superordinated societal subsystems (e.g. politics, economy, society etc)

• “integrative“: PR history developed in a context of neighbouring fields of public communication (e.g. journalism, advertising, )

10 A new type of PR historiography 1. Introduction 2. Strata Models Strata (Layer) Models – Use & Origins: 3. Conclusions

• Philosophy (Nicolai Hartmann) • Literature Theory (Strata Poetics) • Biology and Geology • Theory of Knowlegde/Theory of Science • (Developmental) Psychology • Information Science • Communication and Media Science

11 1. Introduction 2. Strata Models 3. Conclusions

12 1. Introduction 2. Strata Models 3. Conclusions

13 1. Introduction 2. Strata Models 3. Conclusions

14 1. Introduction 2. Strata Models 3. Conclusions

15 1. Introduction 2. Strata Models 3. Conclusions primary and secondary perception decades of evolution

more recent layers of information process of updating

(much) older layers of information collective /common memory

16 The Law of Complementarity 1. Introduction 2. Strata Models It is a basic law of the development of (human) 3. Conclusions communication and media evolution, “that the most simple media (means), forms and methods – if once become established and proven useful – are never entirely displaced or fall into disuse again, not even by the most perfect and most developed ones, but get preserved beside them and are only forced to look for different tasks and fields of use.“

(RIEPL 1913)

17 Günter Bentele: Five Strata of German Communication and 1. Introduction PR history (1997) 2. Strata Models 3. Conclusions Public Relations as a Social System 20th century

Public Relations as an occupation and as an professional field 19th century

Communication of Organizations (functional PR, PR- instruments) End of Middle Ages, Modern Age

Public Communication Antiquity, Middle Ages

Interpersonal Communication (different functions of communications) History of Mankind

18 G. Bentele: Five Strata and seven periods of German PR history 1. Introduction #7 period: growth of PR research and science, 2. Strata Models Source: Bentele (1997, 2009) Internet, professionalization; globalization: 1995 -

3. Conclusions #6 period: boom of the professional field and professionalization: 1985 to 1995 #5: Public Relations is developing as a Social System: #5period: consolidation of the professional field: 20th century 1958 to 1985

#4 period: new beginning and upturn: 1945 to 1958

#3 period: press relations and propaganda under the Nazi Regime: 1933 to 1945

#2 period: consolidation and growth: 1918 to1933

#4 19th century: emerging occupational field #1 period: emergence of the field: mid19th century to 1918 #3 Communication of Organisations: End of Middle Ages, Modern Age Pre-History of Public Relations

#2 Public Communicat.: Antiquity, Middle Ages

#1 stratum: Interpersonal Comm.: History of Mankind 19 1. Introduction 2. Strata Models 3. Conclusions

3 Conclusions: Some theses

20 1. Introduction 1. The question when (which historical period) PR 2. Strata Models began, is a theoretical and methodolocical challenge 3. Conclusions 2. There is no „big bang“ of Public Relations 3. Public Relations emerged from public communication processes and these processes themselves emerged from (interpersonal) human communication processes 4. PR history has to be embedded in a and history of public communication (including journalism, advertising, propaganda, etc.)

21 1. Introduction 5. A strata model (as it is used in other disciplines, which 2. Strata Models deal with evolutionary problems) which distinguishes 3. Conclusions different strata, building up one stra-tum on each other, seems to be a good solution, solving several theoretical problems for PR history 6. The proposed strata model should be discussed in the light of an evolution of human communication and also PR history 7. On this basis, different national PR history models (distinguishing different periods) can be developed 8. If we would have several approaches of national PR histories, comparative research could begin

22 Some References:

Bentele, Günter (1987): Evolution der Kommunikation. Überlegungen zu einer kommunikationstheoretischen Schichtenkonzeption. In: Manfred Bobrowsky; Wolfgang R. Langenbucher (Hrsg.): Wege zur Kommunikationsgeschichte. München: Ölschläger, S. 79-94. Bentele, Günter (1997): PR-Historiographie und funktional-integrative Schichtung. Überlegungen zur PR-Geschichtsschreibung. In: Peter Szyszka, Auf der Suche nach Identität. PR-Geschichte als Theoriebaustein. Berlin: Vistas, S. 137-169. Bentele, Günter (1999): Propaganda als Typ systematisch verzerrter Kommunikation. Zum Verhältnis von Propaganda und Public Relations in unterschiedlichen politischen Systemen. In: Liebert, Tobias (Hrsg.) (1999): Persuasion und Propaganda in der öffentlichen Kommunikation. Leipziger Skripten für Public Relations und Kommunikationsmanagement, Nr. 4, S. 95-109. Bentele, Günter (2008): Sozialistische Öffentlichkeitsarbeit in der DDR. In: Günter Bentele; Romy Fröhlich; Peter Szyszka (Hrsg.)(22008): Handbuch Public Relations. Wissenschaftliche Grundlagen und berufliches Handeln. Mit Lexikon. Wiesbaden: Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, S. 413-429. Thank you. Any questions?

UNIVERSITÄT LEIPZIG Chair of Public Relations / Communication Management

Burgstraße 21, 04109 Leipzig Tel. +49341 973 57 33 Fax +49341 973 57 48 THE ORGANIZATIONAL HISTORY OF PUBLIC RELATIONS EDUCATION AT BOURNEMOUTH UNIVERSITY Summary  Objectives  Methodology  The beginnings of the course  Development of PR since its inception at BU  Postgraduate developments  Linking education and industry  The future of PR at Bournemouth University

Objectives of the paper  An account of the history of PR at Bournemouth University  To explain the development of the PR programme at BU  Using the study of BU to help understand the link between PR as an industry and as an academic discipline Methodology  9 semi-structured

 Prof Tom Watson, Deputy Dean  Dr Kevin Moloney, Principal Lecturer, Communication  Dr Dan Jackson, Senior Lecturer, Media and Communications (BAPR Course Leader)  Dr Darren Lilleker, Senior Lecturer  Hilary Stepien, Lecturer (MAPR Course Leader)  Dr Carrie Hodges, Senior Lecturer  Stephen Jukes, Dean of the Media School  Mathew McKenna, Ex BU Student: PR Practitioner – Co- Founder of McKenna Townsend PR  Charlotte Bullock, Ex BU Student: PR Practitioner Methodology  Researching University documentation  programme specifications  unit directories  applicant figures 1989 - Beginnings  Introduction of BAPR  Key people

 Why 1989? External Influences  Thatcherism had driven a market-orientated society  Desire to become a recognised profession  Lacking in academic theory  Fashionable but not trustworthy? 1989 - Beginnings  Why 1989? Internal influences  Need to grow in status and  Desire to attract funding to expand the theoretical knowledge base  Eclectic mix of skills and backgrounds created interesting fusion of ideas 1990 to 1992 - Growth

 Learning to walk  Consolidation of the curriculum  Research programmes  Generated great interest for the course and for BU

1990 to 1992 - Recognition

 From DIHE to BU  Evidence of the impact of PR on the institutional growth Developments of the course 1992 - 2002

 Content change  Progression from vocational focus to professional  Module alterations  Module shifts  Reflecting industry needs Developments of the course 1992 - 2002

 Growth  Recognition of BU as a research hub enhanced its reputation  This leads to higher student numbers  Infrastructure grows thanks to increased funding Postgraduate developments 2002 to date

 Corporate communications 2002 – 2005  Professional course short-lived but gave greater insight into evolving market needs

 MAPR 2004 – present  Student course rather than professional  Name change MAPRP to MAPR in 2007  Refocus of course structure and curriculum Education and Industry  Commercialisation of education  Development of market economy behaviour  Marketing of the courses  Consolidation of modules across disciplines Education and Industry  Impact of PR industry on education  Sets the tone and pace of change to keep the courses relevant  Strong ties allow broader perspective for Bournemouth students

 Impact of educational institutions on the PR industry  Provides conceptual framework and theory behind the practise  Makes the industry more tangible to the wider world The future of PR at BU  The rates of growth and development of the PR industry and its academic twin are running in parallel  This will continue and evolve and Bournemouth and similar institutions will need to keep up with industry needs  Politics   Journalism

Thanks  Interviewees

 Additional thanks:  Elaine McAllister  Colin Merrett  Justin Reeson  Lucy Pike

Patricia A. Curtin

and

Lisa Forster

University of Oregon, USA

“In commodifying the Indian Southwest as a tourist or secular pilgrimage center, Santa Fe/Harvey corporate image makers transformed it into a mythological holyland of grand natural wonders, inspirational primitive arts, and domesticated, artistic natives.”

“The practice of tourism reflects, shapes, manipulates, and transforms culture and identity in complex and multiple ways structured by power.”

Rodriguez (2003) Theoretic Issues in Histories of Public Relations • Indeed there are clearly two factions within the social disciplines. One of them exuberantly embraces the scientific ideal; the other exalts its own intuitive understanding as being superior in logic and in principle to scientific explanations of the ways of man. Insofar as the division falls between those who count and measure what is not worth counting or measuring and those who speak shrewdly through imprecisely about more interesting matters, the issue is one of strategy rather than one of logic or principle. Whatever is accessible to insight and intuitive understanding is also in principle, accessible to scientific explanation. (M. Brodbeck, 1968, p.2)

Historical inquiry like other forms of research should contribute to theory • Historical inquiry may be useful in testing theory • Historical inquiry may be useful in identifying and developing constructs-building theory • However theory building requires rigorous logic and careful attention to the use of language

All research involves two processes

• The process of gathering information • The process of making sense of the information that has been gathered

In PR Theory we identified two fundamental theoretical issues • The first issue is what counts as data • The second issue is what does data count as. • These issues are equally important all scholars

Two different approaches to the study of PR • PR is the study of relationships between organizations and publics • PR is the study of the role of professional communicators in influencing relationships between organizations and publics • The sustainability of historical inquiry as a legitimate and healthy area of specialization for public relations scholars is dependent upon the availability of an adequate body of historical artifacts. • Although as scholars we are willing to embrace the embarrassment those whom we study and their employers or clients are not.

Moving beyond media artifacts as primary sources • Personal and institutional artifacts • Contemporary History- Scholars as creators of artifacts Hazleton’s of history

• Democracy • PR is Goal Directed Communication • Interactants are dependent upon the support of others for goal acheivement • PR practitioners like other communicators try to adapt messages to situations and audiences • Diversity creates gaps of understanding Two eras in PR history

Fragmentation of the mass Emergence of the mass audience • Economies of scale in • Globalization communication • Increase in the availability • Industrial revolution- of communication channels urbanization, emergence of • Change from passive to the middle class, separation active audiences of ownership & • Economies of scale in management communication • Emergence of the public school system, land grant university Evolution of Issues Management: John Hill, Tobacco Controversy, and the Battle of Scientists

Robert L. Heath Professor Emeritus University of Houston Houston, Texas USA Objectives

This paper allows us to use historical analysis to examine the nature and role of fronts versus trade associations and to consider the debate of facts as rationale for issues management. In this way, we can further understand the origins of issues management as an ethical practice that can make society more fully functioning. Key Themes

• Pollay Hypothesis: Public relations, as occurred during the tobacco controversy of the 1950s and 1960s, can be used to confuse consumers to the advantage of companies. • The created a front. • This front dominated media coverage of the health effects of tobacco to the disadvantage of public health. Historical Context

• 1953 and 1954 saw mounting scientific allegation of the health effects of tobacco. • Hill & Knowlton became agency of record for the industry and helped form and make operational the Tobacco Industry Research Committee. • The TIRC funded research and spoke out on the controversy starting in January 1954. • In 1964, the Surgeon General’s report concluded that tobacco has adverse health effects and should be regulated as such. Pollay Hypothesis

• He argued that John W. Hill’s philosophy, like Edward Bernays’, championed the ability to “engineer consent.” The TIRC was designed to deceive the public on this issue, as a conspiracy. • “All of the many tools of public relations were employed: Advocacy organizations and advertisements, media monitoring, personal contacts with media managers, ghost , media placement, and pamphlet production, coordinated political action, scores of press releases, and the redistribution of favorable items in large quantity.” Response to Pollay Hypothesis

• Hill’s philosophy of public relations was quite different than what is implied by consent. • “In a public relations battle in a free country it is important that there be no lies. Different interpretation of the facts is possible, and each side is entitled to present its views, leaving it to public opinion to decide which to accept.” • “The purpose of public relations in its best sense is to inform and to keep minds open. The purpose of ‘propaganda’ in the bad sense is to misinform and to keep minds closed.”

Cutlip Charge that TIRC was a front

• “The TIRC in fact became a public relations front as Hill and Knowlton continued to present the industry’s side in the smoking debate as evidence of the damaging effects of tobacco on a person’s health mounted” (p. 458). Hill Position on Fronts

• He was the champion of trade associations. • “In presenting to the nation the facts about the work of its industry, an association must at all times be bound by exactly the same rules and principles that apply in the public relations of any corporation: The integrity of the facts must be beyond question, and the of the facts must be established and clarified beyond the reach of any reasonable challenge.”

Front Versus Trade Association

• A front conceals the identity of the sponsors and thereby the purpose and character of the advocacy agent. • Historically, fronts do not reveal their sponsorship because that would weaken the credibility and authority to speak in the public interest. TIRC a Front?

• "Because of the anti-trust background, the companies do not favor the incorporation of a formal association. Instead, they prefer strongly the organization of an informal committee which will be specifically charged with the public relations function and readily identified as such." Note in historical document What’s in a name?

• Hill wanted “cigarettes” in the name of the association. • Hill and Goss wanted a name that would avoid the organization’s appearing as a front and would establish the purpose and credibility of the organization. "For example, Mr. Hahn (convener and president of American Tobacco) reported that one name they had considered was the ‘Tobacco Industry Committee for Public Information.’ John Hill suggested that he felt the word 'research' should appear along with 'information' in the title of the committee." Quotation from historical document No “smoke screen”

• First Question: "Will the cigarette companies organize themselves into an association publicly announced, which will openly sponsor their public relations activities?" Answer: "The companies replied that they had no desire to set up a smoke screen or 'front' type of organization. They are perfectly willing to sponsor any statements that may be issued or any institutional advertising that may be recommended and approved.” Document

Was the public health issue debated?

• Formative research: As a foundational principle for the campaign, the industry emphasized “that the National Cancer Institute of the U. S. Public Health Administration, which is a government agency and supported by Congressional appropriations, has officially refuted the tie-up between cigarette smoking and cancer.” Pollay: Front and Distortion

• Pollay charged that the TIRC was created to dominate the media with statements criticizing the anti-tobacco scientists and featuring positive statements about the industry in ways that created a smoke screen depriving consumers of information that could lead them to avoid smoking and thereby its severe health consequences. His argument featured public relations tools. Critics’ Voices

• Critics such as Ernst Wynder and Alton Ochsner were able to get media attention for their research. Research was of two kinds: Hard science and statistical probability, epidemiology. Challengers 1

• Dr. Charles Cameron (1954), lead researcher for the American Cancer Society, for instance, pointed out that 59% of Wynder’s control group mice developed cancer even though they did not have cigarette tar applied to their skin. Cameron explained to readers that this incidence was likely “because a strain genetically susceptible was used” (p. 8). Of the 91% of the experimental group that developed cancer, it was “not of the type involved in the striking increase in human cancer” (p. 8). Challengers 2

• The San Francisco Examiner (11/15/1954) noted that “Doctors at the National Cancer Institute said today there is not enough evidence available to prove that smoking causes lung cancer.” • On 6/17/1954, the Examiner offered this headline: “Doctor Group refuses to Blame Cigarets for Cancer.” This story developed the theme presented in the opening sentence: “Directors of the American College of Chest Physicians last night refused to endorse the theory that lung cancer is caused by cigaret smoking.” Challengers 3

• On June 17, 1954, Dr. Charles S. Cameron, Medical and Scientific Director, of the American Cancer Society issued a statement asking for caution in accepting the statistical conclusions of Hammond and Horn. “Personally I am not convinced that the Hammond- Horn theory of cause and effect relationship between heavy cigarette smoking and increased susceptibility to death from cancer in general is as yet entirely proved. One cannot at this time exclude the possibility that heavy cigarette smoking and the tendency to cancer are both expressions of a more fundamental cause of a constitutional or hormonal nature” Public Opinion: Opinions of Publics

• St. Louis Post Dispatch headline (July 1954): “Smoking Habits Affect Opinions on Cigarettes’ Link to Cancer.” On the question, “do you think cigarette smoking is one of the causes of lung cancer, or not” more of the public answered yes (41%) than no (29%), and undecided (30%). A higher percentage of women (43%) answered yes than men (39%). Those who had given up smoking and those who had never smoked were more likely to answer yes. Older smokers who had smoked for many years were more likely to doubt the connection, whereas their counterparts were exactly the opposite. Poll Results

• Early in 1954, Gallup found that most respondents had heard or read recently that cigarette smoking may be a cause of cancer of the lung (yes, 82.5%; no 17.48%). Gallup Poll data generated in 1949 indicate that 59.77% of the public believed that smoking was harmful as opposed to 34.4% that answered no. By 1954, that percentage had dropped 18 percentage points. By 1957, 52.98% believed that the danger was sufficient to warrant government requirement of a health warning (34.88% no, 12% no opinion). By 1960. 50.41% answered yes that cigarette smoking is one of the causes of lung cancer (28.1% no, 21.49% don’t know).

Voice of TIRC

• Created a committee of experts to oversee funding of research. • Became a voice on the topic. Hill employed fact-based analysis, credible medical researchers’ testimony, scientific methodological analysis, and other arguments designed to press medical research for a firm scientific indictment of the product. • In this sense, Hill’s efforts for the industry established a contest of fact as the rationale for issue debate; herein lies some of the strategies of crisis response and risk communication which became explicitly important to the public relations industry later in the 20th Century. Results of Content Analysis

Summary of Newspaper Coding Newspaper # Biz Pos Neg N/Mix TR Ratio • NY Times 590 14.6% 15.1% 57.5% 25.8% 20.0% 3.81 • Chicago Trib 73 34.3% 13.7% 43.8% 20.6% 13.7% 3.20 • St. Louis P-D 49 28.6% 12.4% 38.8% 34.7% 30.6% 3.13 • Wash. Post 49 30.6% 18.4% 38.8% 26.5% 32.7% 2.11 • At. Const. 41 24.4% 24.4% 43.9% 19.5% 31.8% 1.80 • H. Chronicle 36 19.4% 08.3% 55.6% 33.3% 25.0% 6.70 • D. M. News 20 20.0% 10.0% 40.0% 40.0% 35.0% 4.00 • NYHT 55 14.6% 14.6% 29.1% 45.5% 43.6% 1.99 • LA Times 68 27.9% 11.8% 48.5% 29.4% 27.9% 4.11 • SF Examiner 65 16.9% 13.9% 50.8% 23.1% 18.5% 3.66

Analysis of NY Times

# Biz Pos Neg N/Mix TR Ratio • 1954 27 11.1% 33.3% 18.5% 40.7% 66.7% 1.80+ • 1955 12 08.3% 33.3% 41.7% 25.0% 58.3% 1.25 • 1956 20 0.00% 25.0% 50.0% 25.0% 25.0% 2.00 • 1957 24 12.5% 08.3% 45.8% 54.2% 45.8% 5.52 • 1958 32 12.5% 12.5% 59.4% 28.1% 21.9% 4.75 • 1959 25 08.0% 16.0% 56.0% 20.0% 36.0% 3.50 • 1960 27 18.5% 33.3% 37.0% 22.2% 25.9% 1.11 • 1961 20 10.0% 20.0% 50.0% 25.0% 35.0% 2.50 • 1962 57 07.0% 05.3% 61.4% 33.3% 19.3% 11.59 • 1963 73 12.3% 12.3% 63.0% 27.4% 20.5% 5.12 • 1964 250 17.2% 14.8% 64.4% 18.8% 06.0% 4.35

Press Releases

• Press releases were used to present (1) facts about the TIRC (such as the announcement of Clarence Little as chair or about grants for research), (2) third-party commentary on statements by anti-tobacco critics, and (3) research claims by critics of that research. For instance, a third-party expert might comment on the methodology, the limits of the research conclusions, or counter evidence/conclusions based on other research—often the critic’s. Media Coverage

• Typically key press releases were issued in response to scientists critical of tobacco. • Coverage tended to feature the work of the critics, with a slight reference to the counter argument. • A typical news story might devote 9 of 11 paragraphs to the critics, and two—middle ones—to the industry voice. Conclusions: Dominance or Debate

• Cutlip (1994) spotlighted “John W. Hill’s 10-year campaign to deny and obfuscate the damage to a person’s health that is caused by smoking cigarettes” (pp. ix-x). Cutlip’s standard is this: “A democratic nation’s public information system consists of all those elements and channels of communication through which a citizen obtains the information he or she needs to make daily economic, political, social, cultural, and philanthropic decisions” (p. xii). Conclusion: Issue Rationale

• Without doubt the fostering of enlightened choice is a, perhaps the, major standard by which public relations discourse is judged. “The social justification for public relations in a free society is to ethically and effectively plead the cause of a client or organization in the free-wheeling forum of public debate” (Cutlip, 1994, p. xii). Conclusion: distortion vs democracy

• “It is a basic democratic right that every idea, individual, and institution shall have a full and fair hearing in the public forum—that the merit ultimately must be determined by their ability to be accepted in the marketplace. To obtain such a hearing, the idea, individual, or institution needs the expertise of the skilled advocate (Cutlip, 1994, p. xii).”

Issue Communication

• Does the “public” make enlightened, fact- based choices on health matters? That issue aside, it is important to realize that principles espoused by Cutlip are laudable and in the case of Hill applied in contradictory ways. Decisions often are complex, even when best practices are used ethically and in the public interest—a theme with which Hill was obsessed. Edward Bernays, the United Fruit Company, and the ethical complexities of the public relations counsel

Thomas Hove, Ph.D. Richard T. Cole, Ph.D. Department of Advertising, Public Relations, & Retailing Michigan State University

Introduction: Two Professional Roles

• Publicist

• Public relations counsel Ethical Ambiguity of Propaganda

• “The only way to combat such unethical methods is for the ethical members of the industry to use the weapon propaganda in order to bring out the basic truths of the situation” Propaganda (1928) PR Strategies for Guatemala

• Improve worker relations

• Corporate social responsibility

• Collaboration with in pursuit of political truths Guatemala, U.S. foreign policy, and the political climate of the early cold war Guatemala, U.S. foreign policy, and the political climate of the early cold war

• Uncertainty about Soviet influence

• Need for objective study

• Hire foreign correspondents to work for United Fruit Three Schools of Thought

• Realists • Revisionists • Postrevisionists Bernays and Guatemala

• Promote understanding of “Middle America”

• Cold War fears of Soviet influence Bernays and Guatemala

• Promote understanding of “Middle America”

• Cold War fears of Soviet influence Bernays and Guatemala Bernays and Guatemala

• Cooperation with journalists to discover truth about Guatemala’s political situation • Transparency, accuracy, disinterestedness • Moral complexity of propaganda concept Interpreting Bernays’s Role

• Tye: propaganda warrior

• Corporate social responsibility strategy

• Middle America Information Bureau – Not a “front group”

• Shaping public opinion through accurate reporting of facts Interpreting Bernays’s Role Embedding Journalists in Middle America

New York Times: Arthur H. Sulzberger, Jr. Will Lissner Embedding Journalists in Middle America

• No “special pleading” with press

• Influencing journalists by telling the truth Embedding Journalists in Middle America Embedding Journalists in Middle America

• Tye: “Here, in what may have been his boldest bid ever to orchestrate press coverage, he managed to win over the reporters while convincing them he was merely an honest broker of facts” (p. 172). The More Accurate View

Symmetric consultative relationship between Bernays and reporters Was Bernays actually effective?

• Advice about worker relations and potential for revolution frequently ignored

• Open and forthright techniques

• Sincere desire for truth and accuracy Ethical Complexities

• Corporate imperialism?

• Manipulation?

• Is persuasion manipulative by definition? Implications for Future Research

1. Motives and uses of propaganda 2. Ethics of PR work: providing objective information and advocating for client 3. Cold War context 4. Moral dimensions of propaganda concept 5. Distinction between publicist and PR counsel Thank you A paper for the IHPRC, July 2010 Jane Howard, FPRCA, FCIPR

 Original research on a thriving and dynamic sector of economic and cultural importance

 Development of consultancy from providing advice on tactical media relations to becoming strategic reputation managers

 Sources include: PRCA, CIPR, Kingston Smith W1, MID, Marketing Society, Advertising Association, plus many interviews economic context

the future evolution

consultancy education operations IMF reports that UK GDP has grown from: 1985 UK consultancy 1984 = £239.913 bn income = £25 m 2009 = £1,442.92 bn

= 600% increase 2009 UK consultancy income = £342 m

ONS says household Bellwether Report shows disposable income UK annual PR turnover = has increased 400% £2,430 to £2,835 bn

“ Consultancies do not reflect economic PR is used to influence consumer trends, they follow them choice

•‘85-’89 = source of editorial expertise •‘90 –’99 = joins the •‘00 –’10 = goes beyond “marketing support”  PRCA Yearbook 1985 describes media relations as key specialism, the “backbone” ◦ Others include: marketing, financial, employee, community, government, international

 “narrow-casting” emerges – to target specific groups

 Communications tend to be one-way

 Media environment stable

 Early stage technology, work unsystematic, but appreciated  1991 WKS include PR in “Financial Performance of Marketing Services Companies” ◦ Big idea, big issue, multi-audience accounts ◦ Value and number of PR accounts increases – c 90% growth in turnover of leading consultancies during this decade

 Greater professionalism, technologies and systems in project planning, execution and evaluation: ◦ CRM, TQM, ISO 9000 suite ◦ CMS introduced in 1999

 Pluralist communications for complex business environment ◦ , ◦ Rise of the profitable specialist

 Print media static, broadcast media booms  2007 FTSE hits all-time high: business is interesting and examined ◦ Campaign demand continues to grow in line with consumer spending, increased share ownership and greater corporate scrutiny ◦ Need to interpret complex external environments ◦ Higgs Review, Cadbury, Greenbury, FOI ◦ COI emerges as major service buyer – responsibility to communicate

 Growth of in-house expertise challenges consultancy pre-eminence in media expertise ◦ Data and service suppliers available to all ◦ Systemisation of media relations removes its mystique ◦ “media democratisation”  open/anarchic communications

 Seismic media change continues

• key ratios • ownership and sector shape • consultancy business types

Business context • Since 2000 operating costs have tended to fall, from 35% to 24.4% in 2008 • Employment costs have tended to rise from around 54% in 2000 to nearly 60% in 2008 • Profit is what’s left. It has grown from 10% in 2000 to over 16% in 2008 UK consultancy sector is classic 80:20

Top 20 revenue = £446 m Next 130 revenue = £412m

Number of consultancies is constant, but number of clients and employees has doubled

The shape of the UK PR consultancy sector Change is endemic and although no single set of organisational characteristics guarantee success, diversification by geography and specialist offering tend to make consultancy groups endure. Of the 113 members of the PRCA in 1985 only four exist today. Entrepreneur/founder Layered organisation Controls and directs Process (not output) focus Absence of formality Risk averse, “safe” Part of “family” Bureaucratic

4 organisational styles

Existential – individuals bigger than brand Consultancy model Organisation (back office) exists to support Results/task orientated stars Senior partners with “micro-practices” Individuals tend to work alone Flexible – greater good of whole

(Professor Charles Handy and David Welling, Orchard Consulting)

These models have widely different operating characteristics and apply to all PR consultancies, as they migrate from one type to another. 2010: UKAS offers 230 under or post- 1993: extension graduate of university courses entitled status brings “Public rapid expansion Relations” of “Public 1985: no formal Relations” IHPR UK training for courses Conference public relations • content creators, media specialists? • sources of integrated solutions? • reputation managers • evaluation?

All the old media were once new media: Public relations and new media technologies between 1950-1999. Owen Kulemeka, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign July 8, 2010; Speaker 9B; 15:45 to 16:15

To show my presentation, simply: A1. Open any internet browser A2. Go to this web link: http://bit.ly/bM1wiC A3. If the above link is giving you problems, try this link: http://www.vcasmo.com/video/uiuc10/8837

If steps A1 through A3 are not working, please use the links below:

Alternative link 1 http://blip.tv/file/3835565

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CONOR McGRATH Independent Scholar [email protected] BRITAIN’S FIRST ‘LOBBYIST’  I’m making a very specific claim here – lobbying (and thus lobbyists) have existed throughout history  Who, though, was the first modern, professional lobbyist?  Of the few academics to consider this, all claim that title for Lt Commander Christopher Powell, who set up Watney & Powell in 1928  In fact, Charles Weller Kent was appointed as ‘Parliamentary Lobbyist’ by the NFU on 30 July 1913

KENT’S APPOINTMENT  NFU established in 1908  By 1913, Union had some political success but needed to develop in a more strategic manner

 Parliamentary Committee, 10 July 1913, recommended Kent  Executive Committee, 30 July 1913, formally made the appointment

KENT’S ROLE AS LOBBYIST  NFU archive details his involvement in advising the Parliamentary Committee and Executive Committee  Also gives some indication of his efforts to lobby MPs and peers around legislation – eg, Sir Luke White’s Agricultural Holdings Bill in 1914  NFU’s Parliamentary Programme – the measures it was lobbying for  Kent as a channel – or ‘whip’ – between the NFU and the ‘pledged MPs’ who supported its programme

MARK LANE EXPRESS COLUMN  Kent wrote weekly column in Mark Lane Express  Used it very effectively to inform NFU members of what the Union was doing in Westminster  Highlights his access to legislators  Emphasis on importance of – both to help set the lobbying strategy, and to communicate directly with their MPs on key issues

 Curiously, also notes examples of when he didn’t lobby on relevant issues KENT’S RESIGNATION  Files don’t tell us precisely when or why Kent resigned as NFU lobbyist  Last meeting which minutes record him as attending was 21 June 1916  By 7 November 1916 minutes list C.W. Atkins as Parliamentary Lobbyist

 In fact, Atkins only attended 3 meetings, and post was left vacant until August 1918 KENT’S IMPACT  Difficult to discern from files what impact Kent had on the NFU, but certainly he didn’t produce a dramatic transformation on its engagement with government  BUT – one year into Kent’s appointment, the outbreak of WWI utterly changed British politics  Issues on which he would have lobbied were necessarily put off until conclusion of war  Following the war, NFU quickly became much more active in domestic politics and policymaking KENT’S HISTORICAL LEGACY  Had Kent been NFU’s Parliamentary Lobbyist after, rather than during, WWI he would certainly have left more of a mark on the Union’s official records, and would not be wholly forgotten today  As it is, while others may have better information, I know of no-one with a job title of ‘Parliamentary Lobbyist’ prior to Kent’s appointment in July 1913  If true, we can date the beginnings of modern professional lobbyists in UK precisely – AND mark the centenary of that profession in July 2013 The World’s Work: Arthur W. Page and the Movement Toward Social Responsibility in Corporate Communications, 1913-1927

David Remund Roy H. Park Fellow

International History of Public Relations Conference Bournemouth University, U.K.

July 8, 2010

This study made possible, in part, by a grant from the Arthur W. Page Center for Integrity in Public Communication.

Professional Career of Arthur W. Page

Joined Named Joined Wrote Retired Doubleday editor of AT&T Hiroshima from AT&T Page The World’s 1927 news 1947 1905 Work release 1913 1945

Professional Career of Arthur W. Page

Joined Named Joined Wrote Retired Doubleday editor of AT&T Hiroshima from AT&T Page The World’s 1927 news 1947 1905 Work release 1913 1945

“Like Gifford, Arthur Page believed business had to perform in a socially acceptable manner to survive.” – page 91, comparing Page to Walter Gifford, named AT&T president in 1925

Research Questions:

•How might Arthur W. Page’s years with The World’s Work have informed his view of a corporation’s responsibilities to society?

•What themes, if any, regarding business and social responsibility emerged in The World’s Work during Arthur W. Page’s tenure?

Editorials, 1913-1927 (n=156 issues)

Other Primary Sources

•Personal correspondence •AT&T transcripts, 1927-1928 •Oral autobiography, 1956

The World’s Work and Scholarly Research on CSR

The Circulation Magazine CSR World’s peaked folded defined Work 1917-18 1932 1953 began 1900

1913-1927: A Time of Change in America •World War I •Industrialization •Urbanization •Income disparity •Social issues

Themes of Social Responsibility for Businesses in America (evident in TWW) • Environmental protection • Labor rights • Consumer protection/education • Child welfare • Corporate transparency

Future Research •Themes from TWW, 1900-1913 •Themes in other media, 1913-1927 •Themes in AT&T public relations, 1927+ •Themes in American media, 1913-1953

“Idealism is to find out the place where our interest and the public interests coincide.” – Arthur W. Page April 28, 1927

Public Relations in Communist Hungary

Gyorgy Szondi Senior Lecturer Leeds Interest in the history of PR

 ICA: Communication History Interest Group, 2007  ECREA: Communication History section 2009  History of Organizational Communication/  Historical research in marketing 1930s  Competition among countries: who can boast a longer history of “PR”?

Points of departure

 “There was no public relations in Eastern Europe before 1989 because the concept was not acceptable for socialism” (Grunig, Grunig and Vercic, 2004, 137)  1989-91: The birth of PR in Eastern Europe/Slovenia ??  History of PR conference  PR during socialism remains under researched and undervalued – forgotten history

Should PR in Eastern Europe follows the US path

Excellence Symmetry Historical evolution Professionalisation

The Grunigian paradigm

„distanced PR from propaganda, and made public relations intellectually respectable, and legitimately teachable […] in the ideological and geopolitical circumstances of the 1980s” (Moloney, 2006, p.3)  It also de-ideologised PR We (the West) do public relations they (the East) do propaganda.

Are we only trouble-makers?

 “The role of public relations in lesser- developed countries or countries with different political structures and economic conditions forms a contentious area that clouds the development of integrated international public relations theory”. (Gaither and Curtin, 2008, 284) Research questions

When, how and why did the term ‘public relations’ emerged in Hungary? What kinds of activities did it cover? Who were the key figures in the process? Methodology

Narrative research (sense making) Oral history Archive research Journal articles Artefacts (certificates, correspondences, memos, photos, etc) “Museum of PR”

1st stage: 1958-1967

 Articles on PR in Foreign Trade Propaganda (Chamber of Commerce)  Whole issue is devoted to PR in 1966  Doctorate in Public Relations in 1966 (the role of economic and societal relations in the market)  Focus on foreign trade and promoting Hungary and Hungarian products/services abroad (trade fairs, exhibitions)  1963: Launch of the Propagandist course at secondary and higher level (compulsory to work as a propagandist)  1966 Sam Black’s visit - ‘Public Relations in Support of British Foreign Trade’ 2nd stage 1968 – 1975 (Golden Age)

 January 1968 New Economic Mechanism  First book devoted to PR in CEE 1968  1970: The ‘Public Relations Committee’ of the Management and Leadership Scientific Society was established  PR intensive courses from 1970  PR clubs and seminars (1972: Hungarian version for PR)  Articles in daily and weekly publications about PR

 1967: National Institute  1968: Marketing and Market Research journal (UK and Ge articles)  1969 Marketing in Hungary (in English)  Surveys on companies PR activities  1970: Propaganda, Reklam  1971 International Market Research Conference  1972 First PR Congress (Hundhausen and Marston)  1973: four participants at the PR World Congress in Geneva  Candidature in 1975 (Endre Maronovich)  1975 Advertising Association (Advertising journal since 1928)  Mid 1970s: PR for libraries

3rd stage: 1978 - 1985

Image and reputation of companies Domestic and foreign tourism promotion Marketing is taking over, did not manage to preserve independence Definitions

 “Public relations is a more extensive and clearly separate activity from advertising and propaganda. Public relations is a company’s or organization’s efforts to inform and get informed, alter its actions and coordinate behavior according to its interests - but at the same time in accordance with facts and truth - through two-way relations established with its publics; ultimately to create and maintain understanding and trust. Public relations work is a continuous, planned, purposeful and complex activity that uses all available means in a complementary way and - under ideal circumstances - starts simultaneously with the establishment of a company or organization until its winding up” (Lipót, 1968: 3).

PR concept

 Ideological justification needed: Socialist PR  “PR is one of the manifestations of capitalist ideology” which artificially creates markets and needs to increase profit for the capitalists rather then for the benefit of society  PR is broader than propaganda  Advertising was conceptualized as part of public relations  Department of Advertising and Propaganda  PR is not suited for political purposes  Alfred Klein 1965/66 (Marta Nemeth), Oeckl  Human Relations as part of PR  Work of Sam Black Publicity

 ‘any communication or information suitable to attract attention aimed at increasing the saleability of a product or the use of some service, or which popularises the activity of an enterprise’  Advertising is making public some facts or circumstance in the interest of the advertiser (Ministry of Internal Trade decree) Propaganda in Communist Hungary

DOMESTIC PROPAGANDA

POLITICAL CULTURAL COMMERCIAL

AGITATION IDEOLOGICAL FUNDRAISING VOLKBILDUNG ADVERTISING PR

LIBRARY

THEATRE Public Relations

FOREIGN PROPAGANDA

FOREIGN TRADE TOURISM COUNTRY IMAGE Endre Maronovich Candidature (1975)

 Conceptualised PR as a management function (1972 Conference CEOs)  Developed a system theory and approach  Internal and external information systems  Internal communication to strengthen the (socialist) community feeling

CONCLUSIONS

 Ideological context is vital  Goal oriented and planned  Institutionalisation of PR  Eastern European PR defines itself in relation to the West  Public relations is much older in the region than presented in Western discourse  History as well as practice in East Europe is diversified

„Public Relations in Germany: Own or common History?“

Prof. Dr. Peter Szyszka University of Vienna Department of Communication

THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL HISTORY OF PUBLIC RELATIONS CONFERENCE Bournemouth, July 9, 2010 Problem

• Without using the English term “public relations”, the history of German PR dates back to the last quarter of the nineteenth century • Companies and industrial associations needed an organizational function to act in/with public communication • We find many examples of typical PR activities’ (in a narrower and broader sense) • We have no basis for biographical or institutional studies • There are only references in contemporary literature Steps of presentation

• Research questions • Empirical findings of PR key-function • Historical and theoretical framework – to mark the difference between previous and early PR history and – to draft a model of the functional development of PR activities • Historical findings • Conclusions – Phases of early PR development in Germany – Own or common (European) history? – Methodological impact for further research Research questions

• RQ 1: Are we able to operate with a central feature or key-function of public relations activity to observe and describe it in the present, which we also can use in the past? • RQ 2: How can a theoretical framework be constructed to locate findings and to describe the functional development of public relations activity in a different way? • RQ 3: What in this emerging draft is typical for Germany (own history)? Can we make similar assumptions for other western European countries (common history)? • RQ 4: What would be the methodological impact for future historical research projects? Empirical findings

• Central finding of studies about public relations practice in Switzerland (2003) and Germany (2009): – Press and media relations are the dominating activity in the field of public relations – Germany: 92,7 % “very often” or “often” • Support by the European Communication Monitor 2009: – Press and media relations have high importance (80,2 %) – Online relations are also an important kind of public communication and central part of PR management • Conclusion and approach – The management of public communication is a central feature like a key-function of PR management – Historical references of organizational activities to manage public communication may be use as a “KEY” for historical PR research – We must lock for and find it in the past – back into 19th century Historical framework

• European history – French Revolution, Napoleonic Wars and Vienna Congress 1814/15 as turning point (end of absolutism) – The states and borders in Europe were redefined – German Confederation was founded – Press freedom was placed in its constitution • Social history – The “society of organizations” started – Different self-organized types of organizations, firstly companies and civil associations (sports, music, students) and later parties and associations of economic interest – Common problem: to find ways to handle its communication relationships and to influence public communication/opinion in the sense of its own interests Theoretical framework

• PR-research can use three levels of analysis – Social level: public relations as (public) relationships between an organization and its reference groups, especially media relations in public communication – Organizational level: public relations as management-function differentiated and functionalized to handle communication problems in the fields of relationships – Operational level: public relations operations or activities as a special type of organizational operations to realize the requisition of the function • Public relations and propaganda (situativ approach) – Public relations operations as operations in a competitive situation between opinions of different players in public communication – Propaganda operations as operations to achieve a monopolize situation without any competition or establish this situation with one accepted opinion in public communication (in this context we can also find propagandistic situations) Historical findings (1)

• Prussian State (1816 to 1870) – “Literary Bureau”, “Ministerial Press Bureau”, “Central Press Bureau” – Press observation and press analysis (commented clippings) – Press influence/open: distribution of counterstatements, directives to print articles or not to print others, warning to dissenters – Press influence/undercover: positioning of dependent ‘’ onside the press – Below the line: operations in a propagandistic modus • Industrialisation/Companies (beginning to 1870) – Copying political behaviour: “corruptibility of the periodical press exploited by bank- and stoke market-capital” (Groth 1948: 218) – First companies discovered public communication as an option to optimize its performance Historic reference Wuttke, Heinrich. “The German periodicals and the development of public opinion”. 1866; 1875 Groth, Otto. “The history of German press science”. 1948 Historical findings (2)

• German Empery (1871 to 1914) – Bismarck Era: first time of conditions for an open competition of interests in society – Independence of press became important – Companies and their new industrial associations now need the press to gain influence in politics and public communication/opinion – Early forms of strategic communication management to deal with public communication in a competitive situation • Intermediate result: companies – In early phase of industrialization public communication was neither a risk nor a chance for companies, so we don’t find press offices – The development of public relations started gradually and can be explicitly observed here around the turn of the twentieth century – In this sense the nineteenth century didn’t ‘end’ until World War II Historic reference Groth, Otto. “The history of German press science”. 1948 Historical findings (3)

• Industrial Associations (1918 to 1933) – Example: Imperial Federation of German Industry – First description of a chief press officer as head of PR • Differentiated understanding about the strategic function • Interpretation and appraise of political consequences of public information about positions of interest in decision-making • Modern understanding of press and media relationships • Double qualification in economics and press/media knowledge • Management counsel as proposal, not lived reality at the time • International orientation (1929 to 1934) – Example: German chemical-concern I.G.-Farben – Cooperation with the American PR counsel Ivy Lee Historic reference Brettner, Hans. “Organization of industrial interests in German”. 1924 Historical findings (4)

• End of Weimar Republic – Existence of press offices by many organizations, but advices of different evaluations about its operation modus and influence – News-giving of state and communes was stimulated in a way that critics could parry by answering questions before they are asked – Remains of propagandistic ideas, but the tolerance for it was limited – On side of corporations, companies and their associations press offices operated factual, to make it possible for journalists to reconstruct issues without deformations – They operated in their own interests but in a public relations modus • Result – The term “public relations” hadn’t been used in Germany but term, problems and methods had bee known especially in concerns and central economic associations Historic reference Documentation. “Proceedings of the 7th German Sociologists day 1930”. 1931 Conclusion 1: Phases of development • Previous PR history (to the end of absolutism) • Early PR history (1816 to 1933/36) – Phase of press politic (1816 to 1870): communication management operations in a propagandistic modus operandi by the political administration, in case of need companies copied the modus, but also sporadic with specific operations in public relations modus – Phase of beginning press work (1871 to 1914): communication management by first companies, associations and communes, operating in the direction of public relations modus and in opposition to political administration methods – Phase of World War I (1914 to 1918): here untried – Phase of expansion of press work (1919 to 1933/36): communication management by many organizations in manner of public relations modus, methods on the border of propagandistic and public relations modus by the political administration – Phase of Third Reich and World War II (1933/36 to 1945): here untried • Modern PR history (beginning 1945? But: new research question) Conclusion 2: Own or common history? • Communication is bound with culture, so we can assume every country has its own PR history • So on the one hand the draft development of German PR history is a personal German PR history. • But on the other hand we achieved findings which can be used for comparative analysis especially with neighbor countries with similar political history developments – From a theoretical point of view we could expect that there always exists a relationship between the opening of public communication and the organizational requirement to use a specific organizational functions to manage these processes – In the western European countries the political conditions for it develop in a similar way, but not in the same way: every country has its own history – Primary comparative analysis on the basis of national analysis can show us which are the common parts of national PR history and which are country-specific Conclusion 3: Methodological impact • Institutional and biographical case studies can be only first steps in historical PR research • Methods like researching for functional equivalents are helpful but they need a theoretical foundation • As a methodological consequence we need the basis of theoretical foundation operating with common or similar theories and models to analyze different national histories in a common and systematic way • If we assume on the basis of empirical findings that PR management is an organizational management function firstly to handle processes of public communication and opinion it may be a first step in this direction A Critical Analysis of the History & Development of Public Relations Education in the US & Canada

Donald K. Wright, Ph.D. Professor of Public Relations College of Communication Boston University Boston, Massachusetts, USA

Introduction and Overview

• This paper begins by quoting Cutlip and Bateman from 1973 criticizing “the unsatisfactory and disparate state of PR education in United States colleges and universities.” • It points out that, for several centuries, scholars have said that a major characteristic distinguishing professions from occupations is the intellectual base of the former. • It notes that Sriramesh and Taylor have produced global evidence suggesting that effective PR practice requires knowledge, skill and intellect. • The paper notes many (Kruckeberg VanSlyke Turk, Wakefield & Cottonde and Wright) believe that PR education is based on a solid body of knowledge that continues to develop and expand.

Development of PR Education in Canada & USA

• Growth and development of PR education in both countries is dramatically different from what happened within the traditional professions of medicine, law and the clergy. • Differences continue to this day. • Although education in most of the other professions in the two countries is at the post-graduate level (master’s and doctoral degrees) most of the PR education is at the undergraduate (bachelor’s degree) level. • Major educational programs in law, medicine and divinity also tend to exist at the leading universities in both countries. • However, much of the recent development of PR education has been as smaller, regionally-focused institutions in the US as well as at colleges (and not universities) in Canada.

History of US PR Education • The first PR course in the USA was taught by Joseph P. Wright at the University of Illinois in 1920. • The first course to actually have the words “public relations” in its title was taught by Edward L. Bernays in both 1923 and 1924 within the Department of Journalism at New York University. Bernays became a strong advocate for PR education.

• Major development after WW II with establishing of PR educational programs at Wisconsin (Scott Cutlip), Ohio State (Walt Siefert), Georgia (Frazier Moore), Texas (Alan Scott), Boston U. (Otto Lerbinger) and Syracuse (Bill Ehling). Later developments with Ray Simon at (Ithaca College) and Albert Walker (Northern Illinois). • First degree in PR was offered by Boston University in 1947-48. BU’s Master of Science in Public Relations is now in its 62nd year. • PR courses now taught at more than 700 US colleges and universities. To this day, US PR programs are known more by the people doing the teaching and research than by the universities themselves.

History of PR Education in Canada • The first PR course in Canada was taught by Leonard Knott at McGill University in 1948. • First degrees in PR in French-speaking Canada were offered by Université Laval in Quebec city and at the Université de Québec á Montréal. • First degree in PR in English-speaking Canada was offered by Mount Saint Vincent University in 1977. • The Canadian Public Relations Society (CPRS) has played a major role in the development of public relations education throughout Canada. • According to CPRS reports, PR courses and programs are currently offered at 19 Canadian universities as well as at about 25 “colleges,” some of which are in the process of becoming universities.

The Stark Reality About PR Education

• In spite of large numbers of programs and even larger numbers of students studying public relations at colleges and universities throughout North America, neither a course in PR nor a PR degree is a prerequisite for employment in either Canada or the United States. • David Ferguson, the former chief public relations officer for US Steel and a huge supporter of public relations education once said: – “Public relations will never reach the status of a profession as long as people can get into the field and prosper without having completed a fairly rigorous course of study in the field.” • As noted US PR educator Doug Newsom has stated: – “It is not surprising that a discipline that cannot even agree on its definition is confused about career preparation.” Issues With PR Education in North America

• Many US-based university programs are located within journalism schools, a model that might have been okay 60 years ago but now is seriously flawed and doesn’t work anymore. • Many Canadian programs – and some recently developed ones in the US (NYU, GWU, etc.) – are located within schools of continuing education and are not part of the academic . • With some programs in journalism/mass comm, others in speech- communication, others in business, and still others in continuing education, PR research and development has been impacted since some relates to AEJMC, others to NCA, etc. • Much of the recent development of US programs has been at smaller or regional colleges and universities. • Most of the recent development of Canadian programs has taken place at “colleges” and not at “universities.” • There are many differences between colleges and universities in Canada. Issues With PR Education in North America

• Opportunities for PR educators in both Canada and the US to interact with practitioners are rare. • Most of the large academic conferences (AEJMC, NCA, ICA) treat PR as a small division in spite of the reality that membership in these PR units is huge compared to other interest groups. • Although several large professional societies (PRSA, CPRS, IABC, IPRA) offer programs for educators at their annual conferences, rarely, if ever, does this include significant opportunities for dialogue between those who teach and those who practice. • The annual IPRRC conference in Miami is a delightful exception to this as is the annual BledCom conference held in Bled, Slovenia. • PR educators continue to struggle with faculty credentials. – How important is professional experience? – How important is research productivity and a Ph.D. degree? Issues With PR Education in North America

• “The insistence by many American universities that all of their PR faculty members have doctoral degrees coupled with the huge growth and development of PR education within smaller and less- elite academic institutions has created a shortage of excellence in PR teaching and research.” • It’s a sensitive topic, but too many US universities are teaching PR without adequate facilities and faculty. – Some institutions put less than 15% of revenue generated by PR education into support and development of PR programs. – Lack of resources results in lower faculty salaries which often results in less qualified faculty. – This becomes a compounding problem when less qualified faculty are hired and then start hiring others, etc. – These less-than-highly-qualified faculty also become elected to office in academic and professional societies, etc. Issues With PR Education in North America

• Too many institutions now teaching public relations have not upgraded their curriculum to deal with the reality that PR is in the midst of a revolution that involves new audiences, new channels, new kinds of content and new measurements. • A variety of commissions on PR education have tried to fix some of these problems and have advanced dialogue and discussion about PR education between faculty and practitioners. – The paper details the work and membership of a half dozen of these commissions. • Research expectations and productivity in PR education often differ from what happens in the other professional schools and colleges. – PR educators have been criticized for producing research that “doesn’t really matter” to PR practice. – Many practitioners with PR educators would produce more research that provides “news you can use.” Academic Accreditation

• Serious issues exist with accreditation/certification of PR education in the US. • Unfortunately, accreditation of PR education is the province of ACEJMC – the Accrediting Council for Education in Journalism and . • ACEJMC is dominated by journalists and journalism educators. • There is serious professional discrimination against PR. • ACEJMC also uses a “Unit Accreditation” process which lets programs strong in some areas but not in PR become accredited. • This makes no sense in 2010. • As a result, some universities scoff at the concept of having a journalism organization accredit PR education in much the same way many senior-level practitioners ignore PRSA’s attempts to accredit them. Final Thoughts & Conclusions

• Most PR education in the US and Canada is at the undergraduate level (baccalaureate degrees). • Most education in other professions – medicine, law, the clergy, etc. – is at the graduate level (master’s and doctoral degrees). • Support for PR education is woefully bad, at best. This includes: – Lack of appropriate budgets for PR education and research at many universities that make huge financial profits teaching the subject. – And, a lack of financial and moral support from many who practice PR. – Although there are exceptions to this, the reality is most universities don’t support PR education in a manner similar to other popular majors and most American PR practitioners couldn’t care less about PR education and research. – Practitioner support for PR education appears to be stronger in Canada, especially in Quebec where having some form of academic credential in PR is now required by many hiring organizations. Final Thoughts & Conclusions

• In both Canada and the US it is not uncommon to find graduates of liberal arts, business and other academic disciplines favored for entry-level PR positions instead of graduates of PR degree programs. • This leads one to suggest that if PR education was excellent, if the faculty were highly qualified in both theory and practice and if the curriculum contained the kind of up-to-date, cutting-edge, state-of- the-art knowledge found in disciplines such as business, law, medicine, etc., employers with entry-level positions would fight over PR graduates in a manner similar to what happens in other fields, and it would be the exception rather than the rule to have graduates from other academic disciplines hired for entry-level positions in PR. • As mentioned in my previous work, in the US there is a rather large disconnect between PR educators and practitioners in terms of the value and importance of what is taught and more needs to be done to facilitate future dialogue between educators and practitioners. Final Thoughts & Conclusions

• The “Elephant-the-Room” for PR education in both the US and Canada is the reality that it is not uncommon to find graduates of liberal arts, business and other academic disciplines favored for entry-level PR positions instead of graduates of PR degree programs. • If PR education was excellent, if the faculty were highly qualified in both theory and practice and if the curriculum contained the kind of up-to-date, cutting-edge, state-of-the-art knowledge found in disciplines such as business, law, medicine, etc., employers with entry-level positions would fight over PR graduates in a manner similar to other occupations. • And it would be the exception rather than the rule to have graduates from other academic disciplines hired for entry-level positions in public relations. A Critical Analysis of the History & Development of Public Relations Education in the US & Canada

Donald K. Wright, Ph.D. Professor of Public Relations College of Communication Boston University Boston, Massachusetts, USA [email protected]