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Geoinformation Technologies in Support of Environmental Hazards Monitoring Under Climate Change: an Extensive Review

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Geoinformation Technologies in Support of Environmental Hazards Monitoring Under Climate Change: an Extensive Review International Journal of Geo-Information Review Geoinformation Technologies in Support of Environmental Hazards Monitoring under Climate Change: An Extensive Review Andreas Tsatsaris 1,* , Kleomenis Kalogeropoulos 2 , Nikolaos Stathopoulos 3 , Panagiota Louka 4, Konstantinos Tsanakas 2 , Demetrios E. Tsesmelis 5,6 , Vassilios Krassanakis 1 , George P. Petropoulos 2 , Vasilis Pappas 7 and Christos Chalkias 2 1 Department of Surveying and Geoinformatics Engineering, University of West Attica, Ag. Spyridonos Str., Egaleo, 12243 Athens, Greece; [email protected] 2 Department of Geography, Harokopio University of Athens, El. Venizelou St., 70, Kallithea, 17671 Athens, Greece; [email protected] (K.K.); [email protected] (K.T.); [email protected] (G.P.P.); [email protected] (C.C.) 3 Institute for Space Applications and Remote Sensing, National Observatory of Athens, BEYOND Centre of EO Research & Satellite Remote Sensing, 15236 Athens, Greece; [email protected] 4 Laboratory Mineralogy-Geology, Department of Natural Resources Development and Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos, 11855 Athens, Greece; [email protected] 5 Laboratory of Agricultural Hydraulics, Division of Water Resources, Department of Natural Resources Development and Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos, 11855 Athens, Greece; [email protected] or [email protected] 6 Laboratory of Technology and Policy of Energy and Environment, School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Citation: Tsatsaris, A.; Open University Parodos Aristotelous 18, 26335 Patra, Greece Kalogeropoulos, K.; Stathopoulos, N.; 7 Department of Architecture, University of Patras, University Campus, Rio, 26500 Patra, Greece; Louka, P.; Tsanakas, K.; Tsesmelis, [email protected] D.E.; Krassanakis, V.; Petropoulos, * Correspondence: [email protected] or [email protected]; Tel.: +30-210-538-5388 G.P.; Pappas, V.; Chalkias, C. Geoinformation Technologies in Abstract: Human activities and climate change constitute the contemporary catalyst for natural pro- Support of Environmental Hazards cesses and their impacts, i.e., geo-environmental hazards. Globally, natural catastrophic phenomena Monitoring under Climate Change: and hazards, such as drought, soil erosion, quantitative and qualitative degradation of groundwater, An Extensive Review. ISPRS Int. J. frost, flooding, sea level rise, etc., are intensified by anthropogenic factors. Thus, they present rapid Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, 94. increase in intensity, frequency of occurrence, spatial density, and significant spread of the areas of https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi10020094 occurrence. The impact of these phenomena is devastating to human life and to global economies, private holdings, infrastructure, etc., while in a wider context it has a very negative effect on the Academic Editor: Wolfgang Kainz social, environmental, and economic status of the affected region. Geospatial technologies including Geographic Information Systems, Remote Sensing—Earth Observation as well as related spatial Received: 17 January 2021 Accepted: 16 February 2021 data analysis tools, models, databases, contribute nowadays significantly in predicting, preventing, Published: 21 February 2021 researching, addressing, rehabilitating, and managing these phenomena and their effects. This review attempts to mark the most devastating geo-hazards from the view of environmental monitoring, Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral covering the state of the art in the use of geospatial technologies in that respect. It also defines with regard to jurisdictional claims in the main challenge of this new era which is nothing more than the fictitious exploitation of the published maps and institutional affil- information produced by the environmental monitoring so that the necessary policies are taken iations. in the direction of a sustainable future. The review highlights the potential and increasing added value of geographic information as a means to support environmental monitoring in the face of climate change. The growth in geographic information seems to be rapidly accelerated due to the technological and scientific developments that will continue with exponential progress in the years to Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. come. Nonetheless, as it is also highlighted in this review continuous monitoring of the environment Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. is subject to an interdisciplinary approach and contains an amount of actions that cover both the This article is an open access article development of natural phenomena and their catastrophic effects mostly due to climate change. distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Keywords: environmental monitoring; climate change; geohazards; geoinformation; geographical Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// information systems; earth observation creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, 94. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi10020094 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijgi ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, 94 2 of 32 Keywords: environmental monitoring; climate change; geohazards; geoinformation; geographical information systems; earth observation ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, 94 2 of 33 1. Introduction 1. IntroductionSignificant social, economic, and environmental changes, as well as rapid advances in technologySignificant mark social, theeconomic, 21st century. and A environmental characteristic landmark changes, as ofwell this ascentury rapid is advances climate changein technology and its markeffects, the a global 21st century. phenomenon A characteristic that directly landmark and indirectly of this centuryaffects human is climate life andchange the andenvironment. its effects, The a global most phenomenon important effe thatcts directly of the phenomenon and indirectly are affects climate human change life inand many the environment.areas, the rising The average most important global temperature, effects of the rising phenomenon sea levels are locally, climate melting change ice, in etc.,many and areas, the theeffects rising of averagethese changes, global temperature,such as the steadily rising sea increasing levels locally, incidence melting of ice,natural etc., hazardsand the effectsand disasters of these (Figure changes, 1), such changes as the in steadily biodiversity increasing of areas, incidence changes of naturalin natural hazards pro- cesses,and disasters etc. (Figure1), changes in biodiversity of areas, changes in natural processes, etc. AnAn important important contributor contributor to to the the proper proper management management and and response response to tothis this reality reality is theis the modern modern and and highly highly effective effective tools tools that that have have been been created, created, developed, developed, tested, tested, and andim- plementedimplemented in inrecent recent years years through through the the technological technological and and scientific scientific explosion explosion that that has takentaken place place alongside alongside climate climate change. change. Figure 1. Worldwide DisasterDisaster RatesRates byby TypeType (1995–2015) (1995–2015) (Source: (Source: https://www.weforum.org/ https://www.weforum.org/,, (accessed(accessed date:date: 2012/20/2020), December modified2020), modified figure figureby the byauthors the authors of this ofwork, this work,photo: photo: Vasilis Vasilis Pappas). Pappas). Research,Research, management, and response to natural disasters and processes has been the centercenter of of interest interest and engagement engagement of the scientific scientific community and decision makers for the past decade. The The current current environmental, environmental, soci socialal and economic challenge (Figure2 2),), among othersothers due due to climate change, is is the prediction of natural disasters, and the protection of vulnerable areas, against immi imminentnent natural natural hazards hazards and and ever ever-increasing-increasing natural processes with negative impacts. A striking example of this is the the European European Union Directive 2007/60, which aims to update and upgrade floodflood prevention,prevention, management and rehabilitation methodsmethods in the MemberMember States.States. MoreMore generally, generally this, this directive directive seeks seeks to setto set environmental environmental ob- objectivesjectives for for Member Member States’ States’ water water management manageme policies,nt policies, with with an emphasis an emphasis on groundwater, on ground- which is also threatened by natural factors, in combination with human over-exploitation, with deterioration in their quantitative and qualitative characteristics. Corresponding initiatives have been taken worldwide with very significant results. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, 94 3 of 32 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10, 94 water, which is also threatened by natural factors, in combination with human over-ex-3 of 33 ploitation, with deterioration in their quantitative and qualitative characteristics. Corre- sponding initiatives have been taken worldwide with very significant results. Figure 2.2. WorldwideWorldwide DisasterDisaster Rates Rates (1995–2015) (1995–2015) (Source: (Source: https://www.weforum.org/ https://www.weforum.org/,, (accessed date:date: 2012/20/2020), December modi- 2020), modifiedfied figure figure by the by authors the authors of this of work). this work). Modern requirements requirements in in the the research, research, desi designgn and and management
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