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Living with Mosquitoes SCIENCE FOR SOUTH AFRICA ISSN 1729-830X VOLUME 12 | NUMBER 3 | 2016 Electricity from waste water Algae: driving the bioeconomy Living with mosquitoes Cracking the toughest bonds ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OF SOUTH AFRICA 12|3 2016 1 IDENTI TY I S IN T H E EYE OF THE BEHOLDER “Dare to be different, but at the same time, stay true to yourself.” GUGULETHU MABUZA-HOCQUET These are very appropriate words indeed from the woman who has committed her research to identity protection. The way Gugu sees it, your identity is all you really have – and the answer to protecting it, lies in iris biometrics. She is exploring the unique iris properties of the South African population that may just hold the key to a uniquely South African security encryption system. “Your iris does not only hold information such as your age, gender and race, it also says you are part of a demographic mix that is not found elsewhere in the world. Now imagine a future where those unique features in your eyes will protect the most valuble thing you have – your identity.” Gugu describes the way she ended up in science as a “beautiful accident”. It’s certainly one to be thankful for. BRIGHT YOUNG SCIENTISTS BEHIND IDEAS THAT WORK. www.csirideasthatwork.co.za 2 12|3 2016 ontents C VOLUME 12 | NUMBER 3 | 2016 Cover stories 5 Cracking chemistry’s toughest bonds By Bronwyn White 18 24 8 Making electricity from waste water By Jennifer Couperthwaite 12 Algae driving our bioeconomy By Sarah Jones 18 Living with mosquitoes: a necessary evil? By Rajesh Sharma Features 17 Finding galaxies Quest investigates 28 20 It’s not enough to test for HIV and treat it – social factors matter too By Deenan Pillay 22 How Africa is helping expand the global antimalarial drug pipeline By Kelly Chibale 24 How tiny black spots shed light on part of the Homo naledi mystery By Francis Thackeray 26 The NRF Awards Quest reports 36 Science for sustainable development By Jan Smit, Vincentia Mbaba and Lorenzo Raynard Regulars 30 8 News 32 Sex life of the world’s biggest bird 16 30 New book shows how watching dragonflies can help to monitor South Africa’s water 38 Zoning the ocean 34 Healing plants 28 Student’s year-long study on Marion Island reveals new penguin behaviour 35 Water and enviro consultancy wins top science award 40 Teacher’s corner 34 Books 39 Subscription 41 Back page science • Mathematics puzzle 12|3 2016 3 Images: Candice Mazzolini, Brian Choo, John Simaika, Sarah Jones Editor Dr Bridget Farham Editorial Board Roseanne Diab (EO: ASSAf) (Chair) John Butler-Adam (South African Journal of Science) Debra Meyer (University of Johannesburg) Neil Eddy (Wynberg Boys High School) Kevin Govender (SAAO) Engineering Himla Soodyall (University of Witwatersrand) Penny Vinjevold (Western Cape Education Department) Correspondence and enquiries The Editor PO Box 663, Noordhoek 7979 meets biology Tel.: (021) 789 2331 Fax: 0866 718022 he feature articles in this issue of Quest deal with bioprocess engineering – a e-mail: [email protected] specialisation of chemical engineering. Bioprocess engineering deals with (For more information visit www.questinteractive.co.za) the design and development of equipment and processes for the manufacture @QuestSa1 -Twitter Tof products needed for agriculture, food, animal feeds, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, Quest: Science For South Africa - Facebook polymers and paper from biological materials and treatment of waste water. Essentially, Advertising enquiries this is a highly sophisticated form of recycling and re-use. Barbara Spence The really exciting thing about bioprocess engineering is that it is made up of Avenue Advertising mathematics, biology and industrial design. The scope of the field is vast – designing PO Box 71308 bioreactors, studying fermentors and various biotechnological processes used in Bryanston 2021 industries for the large scale production of biological products to optimise yield and Tel.: (011) 463 7940 quality of the end product. Mechanical, electrical and industrial engineers get involved as Fax: (011) 463 7939 well, to apply the principles of their disciplines to processes based on using living cells or Cell: 082 881 3454 components of these cells. e-mail: [email protected] Subscription enquiries and back issues The important point about this branch of science is that it isn’t a single branch – it is made up of multiple branches. The divisions of life science and physical science at school Tsepo Majake level start to fall away as your go further in your education and career and indeed in the Tel.: (012) 349 6645 world around you. People involved in areas such as bioprocess engineering work with e-mail: [email protected] Copyright people across disciplines to foster a cross-disciplinary approach to research. As our world becomes more complex, it is becoming more and more important to realise that super- © 2013 Academy of Science of South Africa specialisation now plays a tiny part in science. You need to be able to integrate all you have learnt – in maths, physics, chemistry, IT and biology to truly play a part in science in the modern world. Published by the Academy of Science of South Africa (ASSAf) PO Box 72135, Lynnwood Ridge 0040, South Africa Permissions Fax: 0866 718022 e-mail: [email protected] Subscription rates (4 issues and postage) Bridget Farham (For other countries, see subscription form) Editor – QUEST: Science for South Africa Individuals/Institutions – R100.00 Students/schoolgoers – R50.00 Design and layout SUN MeDIA Bloemfontein Printing All material is strictly copyright and all rights are reserved. Reproduction without permission is forbidden. Paarl Media Every care is taken in compiling the contents of this publication, but we assume no responsibility for effects arising therefrom. The views expressed in this magazine are not necessarily those of the publisher. 4 12|3 2016 Cracking chemistry’s toughest bonds Bronwyn White explains how alkane activation is essential to the plastics (and many other products) in our lives. The unbreakable bond Petrochemical is the common word for any chemical made using crude oil, coal or natural gas as a raw hat do Tupperware, rain coats, and plastic shopping ingredient. bags have in common? Well, none of them would be possible without fossil fuels. In fact, it’s hard to find Wa modern product that doesn’t contain at least a small amount of petrochemicals. Turning fossil fuels into petrochemicals isn’t easy, because fossil fuels have a high alkane content. Alkanes are molecules made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms connected exclusively by single bonds, making them highly stable and unreactive. About the only thing you can easily do with an alkane, is to set it on fire! In order to produce petrochemicals, the alkanes must first be converted to more reactive alkenes through a process known as chemical cracking. Chemical cracking A petrochemical plant. Wikimedia Commons This involves mixing alkanes with oxygen at extreme temperatures and pressures. When the transformation does take place, it’s very difficult to control. Because the products are less stable than the starting materials, the high temperatures make these products react too, producing a mixture of hydrocarbons that have to be tediously separated. Finding a safer, cheaper, more precise method to upgrade fossil fuels would be a chemist’s dream come true. The bugs that eat petrol – upgrading fossil fuels Chemical structure of A species of bacteria that Mother Nature, who has to get by without industrial-strength methane, the simplest degrades alkanes. Wikimedia pressure vessels, might just have an answer for us. Although fossil alkane. Wikimedia Commons Commons fuels are tough nuts to crack, they’re very energy-rich. This means that an organism that can metabolise alkanes can carve out a comfy niche for itself. Hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria have evolved to live quite happily amidst concentrations of alkanes that would deter or even poison most other organisms. Using an enzyme called alkane hydroxylase, hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria are able to pull oxygen from the air and insert one of its two atoms into the hydrocarbon ‘backbone’, turning the alkane into an alcohol. This process is typically referred to as activation, because it ‘activates’ the alkane by creating a chemical structure (also known as a functional group) that is more likely to It takes teamwork to activate an alkane In steps 1 and 2, participate in reactions. The enzyme acts as a catalyst, grabbing helper proteins, in this case ferredoxin (Fdx) and ferredoxin a single alkane molecule in a specially-shaped pocket called a reductase (FdR), harvest electrons from cellular chemicals binding site, and twisting it so that a specific carbon-hydrogen called NAD(P)H and transfer them to the alkane hydroxylase bond is exposed and stressed. After the reaction has taken place, the (AH). In step 3, the alkane hydroxylase uses the energy from enzyme releases the product and is ready to start again. The alcohol the electons to grab an alkane and stretch one of the bonds continues through a chain of different enzymes, until it eventually between a carbon and a hydrogen atom, making it possible becomes a fatty acid, which cells can easily digest. for the bond to react with an oxygen molecule. Bronwyn White 12|3 2016 5 Greedy cells In naturally-occurring bacteria, the alkane hydroxylase (AH) is accomanied by other enzymes, such as alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and aldehyde dehydrogenase (AlDH), which continue modifying the alkane until it is turned into a fatty acid which the cell can digest. To save the products before they are eaten by the cell, scientists remove the genes responsible for making AH and insert them into a different species of bacteria that lacks ADH or AlDH. Alternatively, the genetic code of the ‘wild type’ bacteria can be modified so it no longer produces ADH and AlDH.
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