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Concepts and Practices in Agricultural Extension in Developing Countries: a Source Book Concepts and practices in agricultural extension in developing countries: A source book Anandajayasekeram Ponniah, Ranjitha Puskur,* Sindu Workneh and Dirk Hoekstra Improving Productivity and Market Success (IPMS) of Ethiopian farmers project International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia * Corresponding author: [email protected] ILRI INTERNATIONAL LIVESTOCK RESEARCH INSTITUTE Authors’ affiliations Anandajayasekeram Ponniah, CaSt (Capacity Strengthening) Unit Manager, ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, formerly IFPRI/ISNAR (International Food Policy Research Institute), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Ranjitha Puskur, IPMS (Improving Productivity and Market Success (IPMS) of Ethiopian farmers project, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Sindu Workneh, IFPRI/ISNAR (International Food Policy Research Institute), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Dirk Hoekstra, IPMS Ethiopian farmers project, ILRI, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia © 2008 ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute) All rights reserved. Parts of this publication may be reproduced for non-commercial use provided that such reproduction shall be subject to acknowledgment of ILRI as holder of copyright. ISBN 92–9146–217–9 Correct citation: Anandajayasekeram P, Puskur R, Sindu Workneh and Hoekstra D. 2008. Concepts and practices in agricultural extension in developing countries: A source book. IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute), Washington, DC, USA, and ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya. 275 pp. Table of Contents Foreword v Preface vii 1 Agricultural research and development (R&D) systems: Challenges and changing paradigms 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 The reform agenda and emerging challenges 1 1.3 Paradigm shifts in agricultural R&D 3 References 26 2 The past, present and future of extension service 31 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Historical evolution of agricultural extension 32 2.3 Generic problems and approaches to address them 37 2.4 Factors of success in the knowledge/technology dissemination process 62 2.5 Factors affecting clients’ access to extension services 64 2.6 Changing paradigms in extension, and roles of extension agents 64 2.7 Emerging challenges and opportunities 72 2.8 The future of extension services 75 References 76 3 Extension approaches, models and methods 83 3.1 Introduction 83 3.2 Extension approaches 84 3.3 Extension models 93 3.4 Extension methods 102 3.5 From government owned R&E to innovation systems 106 References 107 4 Group formation and management for participatory research and extension 111 4.1 Introduction 111 4.2 Farmer groups 111 4.3 Farmer groups in extension 116 4.4 Groups and their dynamics 119 4.5 Group formation and development 128 4.6 Planning and implementing group activities 150 4.7 Indicators of cohesiveness 154 4.8 Monitoring and evaluating the role of FGs 163 References 166 5. Tools and approaches for participatory research and development 171 5.1 Introduction 171 5.2 Tool kits 173 5.3 Gender analysis 184 5.4 Stakeholder analysis 186 iii 5.5 Actor analysis 189 5.6 Participatory Assessment and Planning (PAP) 196 5.7 Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) 198 5.8 Participatory Farm Management methods (PFM) 202 5.9 Participatory Rural Communication Appraisal (PRCA) 208 5.10 Rapid Appraisal of Agricultural Knowledge Systems (RAAKS) 213 5.11 Participatory Extension Approach (PEA) process and tools 216 References 227 6. Progress and process monitoring, evaluation and impact assessment 229 6.1 Monitoring, evaluation and impact assessment 229 6.2 Participatory evaluation 242 6.3 Participatory Impact Monitoring (PIM) 254 6.4 Process monitoring 259 6.5 Outcome mapping 264 References 267 iv Foreword Agriculture has once again been identified as the lead sector for growth which will help meet the Millenium Development Goals. It is being advocated that it should get a more prominent place in the world’s development agenda. Even though rapid strides have been made in the last few decades in agricultural development, hunger still exists and rural populations are amongst the poorest. Africa, particularly, sub-Saharan Africa has not kept pace with the developments. The agricultural sector in developing countries is facing rapid changes and unprecedented challenges. The knowledge intensive nature of the sector is more evident now than ever before. The trends of urban markets, globalization, changing consumption patterns, land and water constraints, climate change, need for alternative sources of energy including biofuels, and emerging diseases are driving development in agriculture. Private sector is increasingly playing a role, as also the civil society. Innovation is the order of the day. Extension worldwide has been transforming in response to various challenges and developments. There is no gainsaying the crucial role of agricultural extension services in promoting agricultural innovation processes. They can play the boundary spanning role and help link farmers to various technical and non-technical services and markets. They are the major conduits for knowledge sharing. There is a large amount of literature that has been and is being generated in this field of inquiry. This source book, a joint effort of ILRI and IFPRI/ISNAR, compiles available and recent literature on developments in the agricultural extension approaches and practice, mainly focusing on developing countries. This will help both practitioners and students of extension to access knowledge regarding various changes in various parts of the world and help learning from these experiences. I congratulate the authors for their dedicated efforts in bringing out this volume and contributors whose work shaped this piece. We have no doubt it will be of immense use to policy analysts, policymakers, and the research and development community at large. Carlos Seré Aberra Deressa v Preface This source book is a product of joint activity between ILRI–IPMS project, CaSt and IFPRI–ISNAR. It was developed to address the felt needs of practitioners, students and researchers in the area of agricultural extension to have a compilation of available literature on developments in concepts and practice of agricultural extension in developing countries. Agricultural sector in the developing world is changing rapidly and is driven by a number of external and global factors. The challenges the sector is facing are ever increasing and becoming more complex. Consequently, the demands placed on extension services which have a crucial role to play in promoting agricultural innovation to keep pace with the changing context and improve livelihoods of the dependent poor, have also increased manifold. A number of innovative approaches and methods have been tried in various developing country contexts in agricultural extension, to transform the system and to capacitate them to respond to the demands and challenges. This source book brings together these various experiences and developments in thinking, to facilitate learning and use by practitioners and students. The first chapter outlines the emerging challenges faced by agricultural R&D sectors and how paradigms are evolving in response to these changes and challenges. The second chapter traces the evolution of agricultural extension thinking and practice. It highlights some generic problems faced at various stages of evolution and approaches to address them. It highlights the factors identified in literature as contributing to successful knowledge dissemination processes and creating higher access to clients to the services. While reflecting on the challenges and opportunities, the chapter also explores the possible future of extension services in developing countries. The third chapter gives an account of the various extension models, approaches and methods that have been tried out in developing countries and the experiences. The chapter concludes with the transition being made to agricultural innovation systems from Research & Extension systems and highlights the role of extension services in this context. Chapter four highlights the importance of farmer groups in providing effective extension services and promoting innovation. It explains in detail the processes, approaches and methods involved in group formation and development, management, performance assessment and, monitoring and evaluation. Chapter five lists and describes in detail the various tools and methods used in participatory research and development processes. Chapter six focuses on the very important issues of Monitoring and Evaluation as systems for learning and for facilitating reflective action cycles. The importance of participatory approaches in M&E, process monitoring and outcome mapping are highlighted. This book can be used by students and practitioners of extension, researchers and decision-makers. This is a collation of knowledge regarding the practice of extension and is not intended to be used as a recipe or blue print. Based on the context and the requirement, the approaches and tools should be selected, adapted and used. There is a built-in flexibility that would allow the user to employ his/her experience, creativity and imagination in adapting and using the approaches and tools described in this source book. The authors encourage the readers to provide feedback and constructive comments for further development of this source book. Your inputs are very much appreciated. Authors vi vii 1 Agricultural research and development (R&D) systems: Challenges
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