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Mediating the Nation: News, Audiences and Identities in Contemporary Greece

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Mediating the Nation: News, Audiences and Identities in Contemporary Greece University of London London School of Economics and Political Science Media@lse Mediating the Nation: News, Audiences and Identities in Contemporary Greece Maria - Mirca Madianou Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy London, August 2002 Abstract This thesis investigates the relationship between media and identities in contemporary Greece. Acknowledging the diversity of Greek society, the study follows the circulation of discourses about the nation and belonging and contrasts the articulation of identities at a local level with the discourses about the nation in the national media. Through a series of case studies I examine how people of Greek, Cypriot and Turkish origins living in Athens articulate their identities through everyday practices and media use. At the same time I investigate the television news discourse which is nationalized, largely projecting an essentialist representation of identity that does not reflect the complexity of the society it claims to describe. The study follows the shifts in peoples' discourses according to context and observes that it is in their encounters with the news media, compared to other contexts, that some of the informants express a more closed discourse about difference and belonging. This points to the power of the media, through a number of practices, to raise the boundaries for inclusion and exclusion in public life. Hence, while for the majority of the Greek speakers the news is a common point of reference, for the Turkish speakers it is often a reminder of their `second class citizenship' and exclusion from public life. Public discourse, much dominated by the media in the case of Greece, is a complex web of power relations, subject to constant negotiation. This is an interdisciplinary study that draws upon a number of theories and approaches by means' of a theoretical and methodological triangulation. The thesis aims to contribute primarily to two literatures, namely media and audience studies — particularly the developments towards a theory of mediation — and the literature that addresses the relationship between media and identity. In the light of the analysis of the empirical findings the study argues that neither of the hitherto dominant paradigms in theorising the relationship between media and identity (namely, strong media/weak identities and weak media/powerful identities) is adequate to describe what emerges as a multifaceted process. What is proposed is an approach that takes into account both a top-down and a bottom-up perspective. Media and identities should be understood in a dialectical fashion where neither is foregrounded from the start. The concepts of culture and the nation are understood through a historical perspective that recognises their constructedness and diversity. Identity is conceptualised as relational and performative rather than fixed and stable. 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS 3 LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 7 1. INTRODUCTION 9 2. RETHINKING IDENTITIES IN A MEDIATED WORLD 19 2.1 DOMINANT PARADIGMS IN THEORISING IDENTITY AND THE NATION: 21 PRIMORDIALISM AND MODERNISM 21 2.1.1 Primordialist theories 22 2.1.2 Modernism 25 2.2 MEDIA AND IDENTITY: STRONG MEDIA/WEAK IDENTITIES 29 2.2.1 Nationalism theory and the media 29 2.2.2 Media studies: strong media/weak identities 32 2.3 WEAK MEDIA/STRONG IDENTHIES 37 2.4 GLOBAL - LOCAL DIALECTIC AND DIASPORIC MEDIA 39 2.5 FROM IDENTITIES TO IDENTITY DISCOURSES 43 2.6 CONCLUSIONS: MEDIATING IDENTITIES? 50 3. IDENTITIES AS PALIMPSESTS: GREECE AND ITS MINORITIES IN CONTEXT 51 3.1 THE OTTOMAN LEGACY, THE NEW STATE AND THE 'GREAT IDEA' 52 3.2 CONTESTED/CHANGING IDENTITIES I: ANATOLIAN REFUGEES 55 3.3 CONTESTED/CHANGING IDENTITIES II: THE TURKISH, POMAK AND ROMA MINORITIES - THE 'MUSLIM' MINORITY 58 3.4 CONTESTED/CHANGING IDENTITIES III: CYPRIOT IDENTITIES 65 3.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS 69 4. TEXTS, AUDIENCES, CONTEXTS:TOWARDS A THEORY OF MEDIATION 71 4.1 AUDIENCES AND MEDIA POWER 73 4.2 MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES AND EVERYDAY LIFE 79 4.2.1 Understanding viewing patterns: the how questions 81 4.3 TOWARDS A MEDIATIONAL APPROACH TO THE TELEVISION TEXT 83 4.3.1 Why television news? 85 4.3.2 News 86 4.3.3 Television news in Greece: the dominant information source 88 4.4 TOWARDS THEORETICAL TRIANGULATION? 93 5. FROM THEORETICAL TO METHODOLOGICAL TRIANGULATION: MEDIATION IN THE FIELD 96 5.1 METHODOLOGICAL TRIANGULATION 98 5.2 ETHNOGRAPHY IN MEDIA STUDIES 99 3 5.3 ACCESSING AUDIENCES/DOING PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION 107 5.4 INTERVIEWING 114 5.5 ANALYSING QUALITATIVE DATA : IN 1ERVIEW TRANSCRIPTS AND FIELDNOTES. 119 5.6 SAMPLING THE NEWS 120 5.7 NEWS ANALYSIS 121 5.7 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY 123 5.8 SUMMING UP 125 6. MEDIATED EVERYDAY LIVES: MEDIA CONSUMPTION AND IDENTITY EXPERIENCES 128 6.1 THEORETICAL PREMISES 129 6.2 MEDIATED EVERYDAY LIVES: GREEK AUDIENCES 131 6.2.1 A popular news culture 133 6.2.2 Direct experiences with the news media 137 6.2.3 'News programmes are no longer watchable': Viewing paradoxes 138 6.2.4 Alternative-to-national media/non-Greek media 141 6.2.5 Switching off 143 6.2.6 Differences between the 'airspace incident' and the Kosovo conflict 146 6.3 MEDIATED EVERYDAY LIVES: CYPRIOT AUDIENCES 146 6.3.1 Switching off 149 6.3.2 Personal experiences with the media 150 6.3.3 Differences between the 'airspace incident' and the `Kosovo conflict' 150 6.4 MEDIATED EVERYDAY LIVES: TURKISH AUDIENCES 151 6.4.1 Negative personal experiences with media and journalists 156 6.4.2 Objecting media 157 6.4.3 Differences between the 'airspace incident' and 'Kosovo' 159 6.5 IDENTITY DISCOURSES, BELONGING AND CITIZENSHIP 160 6.6 CONCLUSIONS 162 7-. NEWS AND THE PROJECTION OF A COMMON IDENTITY 165 7.1 NEWS AS TEXT 169 7.1.1 Interpretive analysis of the airspace incident 169 7.1.2 Thematic analysis of the reports on the Kosovo conflict 172 7.2 NEWS AS FORM 198 7.3 CELEBRATING THE NATION 204 7.4 CONCLUSIONS 207 8. NEGOTIATING THE NATION: CRITICAL VIEWERS, CULTURAL INTIMACY AND IDENTITY EXPERIENCES 210 8.1 AIRSPACE INCIDENT DECODINGS 214 8.1.1 Greek viewers: contesting banal nationalism 214 8.1.2 Cypriot viewers 224 8.1.3 Turkish informants 229 8.2 THE RETELLINGS OF THE Kosovo CRISIS 233 8.2.1 Greek informants 233 8.2.2. Cypriot viewers' interpretatations 240 8.2.3 Turkish viewers 243 8.3 CONCLUSIONS 246 9. CONCLUSIONS 256 9.1 THE ARGUMENT AND SUMMARY OF MAIN FINDINGS 256 4 9.2 IMPLICATIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE STUDY 262 9.3 RELEVANCE OF STUDY AND WAYS FORWARD 267 BIBLIOGRAPHY 270 APPENDIX I: DESCRIPTION OF INFORMANTS 293 APPENDIX II: TOPIC GUIDE FOR INTERVIEWS 298 APPENDIX III: CODING FRAMEWORK FOR THE ANALYSIS OF INTERVIEWS AND FIELDNOTES. 300 APPENDIX IV: CODING FRAME FOR NEWS REPORTS IN THE KOSOVO CASE STUDY 301 APPENDIX V: MAP OF THE EXPANSION OF THE GREEK STATE (1932- 1947) AND CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 304 APPENDIX VI: CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS IN KOSOVO 305 APPENDIX VII: IMAGES FROM THE ANALYSIS OF NEWS REPORTS 308 5 LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES TABLE I .1 : SYNOPSIS OF THE THEORETICAL APPROACHES REGARDING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEDIA AND IDENTITY. 49 TABLE 5.1: GROUP IN hRVIEWS IN AIRSPACE INCIDENT CASE STUDY 126 TABLE 5.2: GROUP INTERVIEWS IN THE KOSOVO CASE STUDY 126 TABLE 5.2: INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEWS IN THE KOSOVO CASE STUDY 127 TABLE 7.1: PRESENTATION OF THE DIFFERENT GROUPS OF DATA AND TYPES OF ANALYSIS. 167 FIGURE 7.1: HIERARCHCHAL CLUSTER ANALYSIS FOR ALL CHANNELS 180 TABLE 7.2: CROSSTABULATION OF THEMATIC VARIABLES REFUGEES AND REGIONAL DESTABILISATION 180 TABLE 7.3: CROSSTABULATION OF THEMATIC VARIABLES NATO NEGATIVE AND SERBS 181 TABLE 7.4: CROSSTABULATION OF THEMATIC VARIABLES SERBS AND CHURCH 181 TABLE 7.5: CROSSTABULATION OF THE THEMES DIPLOMACY AND NATO NEUTRAL 182 FIGURE 7.2: HIERARCHICHAL CLUSTER ANALYSIS FOR ET-1 184 FIGURE 7.3: HIERARCHICAL CLUSTER ANALYSIS FOR MEGA AND ANTENNA 184 TABLE 7.6: CROSSTABULATION OF VARIABLES SERBS AND CHANNEL 185 TABLE 7.7: CROSSTABULATION OF VARIABLES NATO-NEGATIVE AND CHANNEL 185 TABLE 7.8: CROSSTABULATION OF VARIABLES DIPLOMACY AND CHANNEL 186 TABLE 7.9: CROSSTABULATION OF VARIABLES GREEK INITIATIVES AND 186 TABLE 7.10: DURATION OF LIVE AND RECORDED 111,MS IN THE KOSOVO CASE STUDY 201 TABLE 7.11: DURATION OF NEWS BROADCASTS FOR ALL CHANNELS FOR TI-IE KOSOVO CASE STUDY 203 TABLE 7.12: DURATION OF NEWS ITEMS DURING THE Kosovo CASE STUDY ..203 TABLE 7.13: DURATION OF NEWS ITEMS DURING THE AIRSPACE INCIDENT 203 6 Acknowledgements As the journey that this thesis has been comes to a close, I want to thank all those who shared it with me. My supervisor, Sonia Livingstone has been a source of inspiration with her enthusiasm, caring support and by asking challenging questions. I hope that this will be just the beginning for a continued exchange. I am also thankful to Roger Silverstone for initiating a thought provoking dialogue. Roger and Sonia have led what has been an inspiring PhD seminar that created a sense of community in which the arguments of this thesis' have been put to the test. I owe thanks to Richard Collins who supervised this thesis in its first months and whose encouragement was partly responsible for overcoming my ambivalence about embarking on this project. Maggie Scammell and Patrick Humphreys provided feedback at an early stage of the writing. Martin Bauer and Pat Sturgis provided valuable help in the news content analysis. I also want to thank Moira Bovill for long discussions and generous hospitality. I have benefited, at different times of the writing, from my discussions with Georgina Born, Nick Couldry, Peter Lunt, Danny Miller and Charles Stewart.
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