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The Relationship Between Men's Early Maladaptive Schemas, Rape Myth

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The Relationship Between Men's Early Maladaptive Schemas, Rape Myth Journal of Psychology and Clinical Psychiatry The Relationship between Men’s Early Maladaptive Schemas, Rape Myth Acceptance and Self-Reported Likelihood of Using Force and Raping Abstract Research Article Global efforts to understand sexual violence against women (SVW) persistently Volume 6 Issue 6 - 2016 reinforce the magnitude and versatility of this multifaceted problem. Particularly, more thorough comprehension of the structures underlying SVW is warranted. The present study aims to examine the association between early maladaptive schemas (EMSs), rape myths acceptance (RMA) and self-reported proclivity Clinical Psychology, James Cook University Singapore, to rape (RP). It was hypothesized that higher RMA is correlated with elevated Singapore RP, and that participants will report an increased tendency to use force rather than raping. Moreover, participants with elevated RP are more likely to endorse *Corresponding author: Sanveen Kang, James Cook schemas from the disconnection/rejection domain, and that schema types University Singapore, Email: are unlikely to vary among participants with the tendency to use force rather than raping. In total, 150 male students, who were either citizens or residents Received: October 21, 2016 | Published: November 18, in Singapore, from an international university based in Singapore completed a 2016 series of self-reported measures assessing RMA, RP, EMSs and social desirability. The findings confirmed that higher RMA predicted increased RP, and participants reported the use of force rather than raping. Although, RMA did predict RP significantly, the predictive power of 4.3 percent was rather low. Elevated RP was predicted by the Unrelenting Standards/Hyper-criticalness, Punitiveness and Abandonment/Instability schemas. Furthermore, there were no differences in the schemas endorsed among participants with an increased tendency to rape. The present study has implications for clinical and forensic psychology and further research on SVW in Singapore, primarily due to the plausible influences of culture on the findings. Preliminary support is provided for more thorough research on the use of Schema Therapy in rehabilitating sexually aggressive behaviours. Keywords: Early Maladaptive Schemas; Rape Myths; Self-Reported Rape Proclivity; Singaporean Males Introduction of intimidation and persecution. The diversity of the acts that Rape of women has persistently been misunderstood. Women evidenced by the interchangeable use of various terminologies, are often seen as willing partners rather than preys [1]. Lifetime suchconstitute as sexual sexual aggression, aggression coercion, is reflected offence, inviolence the literature and assault as prevalence rates of violence against women (VAW) are reaching [7]. In fact, thismulti-faceted dimension of sexual aggression up to 50 percent in some countries [2]. Predisposition towards contributes to the lack of information about its frequency and participating in or being a victim of VAW is not differentiated consequence [8]. by socio-economic status, professional barrier, caste, age and geographical boundaries [3]. VAW conceptually varies across The Prevalence of Rape and Sexual Aggression There is no unanimous terminology for describing VAW [4]. The Rape statistics consistently demonstrate the pervasiveness internationalcultures in terms consensus of definition for VAW and is manifestations “any act of gender-based of the issue. and magnitude of this problem; with the rates being on the rise violence that results in or is likely to result in physical, sexual, globally [9]. The number of convicted rape cases in Singapore or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats has risen by 49.2 percent between January to June 2014 and of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether the same period in 2013 (SPF, 2014). These statistics are not occurring in public or private life” [5]. representative of martial rape; as marital rape is not recognized under the Singapore law. It can be assumed that some VAW in Sexual aggression has been most widely researched form of Singapore occurs within intimate relationships and, that the actual scope of this issue is unknown [10]. In the United States, beyond sexual assault, intimate partner violence, harassment, andVAW includes [6]. By definitionany sexualized the concept behaviour, of sexual resulting aggression in the extendsfeelings lives [11]. Similar trends have been observed globally. A United one in five women reported being raped at some point in their Submit Manuscript | http://medcraveonline.com J Psychol Clin Psychiatry 2016, 6(6): 00382 The Relationship between Men’s Early Maladaptive Schemas, Rape Myth Acceptance Copyright: 2/20 and Self-Reported Likelihood of Using Force and Raping ©2016 Kang et al. intimate consensual relationship) or inappropriately means either a completed or attempted rape in their lifetime [12]. Up to (i.e., through the use sexual aggression). Genetic factors may 58Nations percent survey of male revealed respondents that one inacknowledged five women have participating experienced in predispose one to purse an explicit need (i.e., sexual intercourse), some form of sexual assault, with 14 percent of them reporting however, environmental factors encourage the approaches used to committing a completed rape. Comparable rape perpetration rates have been found in the United Kingdom and Germany [13]. include aggressiveness and impulsiveness [30], physiological Despite these alarming consistently high rates, the true prevalence variationsmeet this need in sex [29]. drive, Genetic neurotransmitter influences related functions to sexual and offendinghormone of rape is yet to be understood. Researchers often advise that these levels [31,32], and the consumption of substances [33,34]. Existing rates ought to be interpreted with caution; primarily because of inquiries have also underlined the involvement of social factors in culturally validated measures of violence and systematic trend of and the legalization of prostitution [39]. The latter is associated under-reportingthe varied terminologies [14]. used to define rape, absence of cross- withinfluencing a reduction rape statistics, of rape suchincidences as viewing as prostitutespornography often [35-38] are victims of rape [40]; further complicating our understanding of Current rape statistics may misrepresent the problem’s the extent of the problem. However, this tumultuous relationship magnitude, as abuse is often not reported to law enforcement between pornography and sexual assault has been shown to be inconsistent [41]. Environmental stressors in the life of children greater than those reported [16]. The AWARE Convention on the Elimination[15]. Unreported of All Formscases canof Discrimination be estimated againstto be Womensignificantly [17] poor parental attachment bonds, low self-esteem, poor quality of with a high risk for sexual offending include empathy deficits, sexual violence against themselves [17]. Statistics may also only shadow report confirms that Singaporean women under-report childhoodrelationships, physical deficient and emotionalemotional abuse,coping parental strategies criminality and cognitive [44] be a small percentage of those reported [15,18]. Society appears deficits [42,43]. Sexual offenders often report a history of toreflect be preoccupied the proportion with of the convicted notion ofrape authentic cases; which rape. Realmay merelyrape is perpetrators also report cruelty to animals, exposure to violent perceived as only to happen when the rapist is a stranger, physical mediaand observing and insecure inter-parental and avoidant aggression attachment [45]. bonds. Specifically, Other factors rape force is used, injuries are sustained by the victim and the incident include adolescence being a developmentally crucial time frame, is promptly reported [19,20]. However, majority of sexual where the exhibition of antisocial behaviour is viewed as more assaults are often committed by acquaintances. Concomitant to age-normative [46]; presence of sexualized coping mechanisms enthrallment about the authenticity of the rape are the perceptions and deviant fantasies [42,47]; diminished capacity for empathy of blame and responsibility. Research revealed that victim blame is associated with the provocativeness, character and attractiveness styles both enable sexual aggression and offending and, serve as of the victim [21]. These beliefs (i.e., rape myths) are recognized post-offence[48]; insufficiencies strategies in in intimacy attempt toskills maintain [49]; self-esteemdistorted thinking [50,51]. to be entrenched in society and even appear to be relevant in ascertaining the gravity of an assault within the criminal justice Theories Related to Sexual Aggression and Offending system [22,23]. As a result, fear of victim blame appears to be central to the underreporting of rape [15]. Single factor, neuropsychological and multifactorial theories have been developed to explain sexual aggression. Researchers Research on Rape have repeatedly conveyed the need for a global theory that assimilates all the germane factors into one coherent theoretical Despite the increase in research on rape, there appears structure [52]. Systematically, researchers have attempted to to be limited reliable data. This is particularly in the areas of formulate theories attempting to explain the multiple factors which the true extent of the issue, its repercussions, risk factors and instigate sexual aggression and have
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