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For the Gambia, Our Homeland: the Diaspora, Development and Politics

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For the Gambia, Our Homeland: the Diaspora, Development and Politics FOR THE GAMBIA, OUR HOMELAND: THE DIASPORA, DEVELOPMENT AND POLITICS Sainabou Taal University College London (UCL) Department of Geography Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy December 2016 1 I, Sainabou Taal confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis. 2 Abstract This thesis aims to explore the potential of small diasporas to contribute to development and politics at ‘home’. Thereby informing inter-disciplinary thinking at the intersection of migration studies, development studies and politics. I argue that where there is a discussion of diaspora’s political engagement in the existing migration-development literature, it is either hidden behind the shield of ‘development’ or restricted to questions of violent conflict. The central claim of the thesis is that the migration-development nexus needs to address formal politics more explicitly. The Gambian diaspora are an interesting group to research because the country has not experienced violent conflict in recent years and the diaspora are making contributions to development at ‘home’. However, they are also simultaneously seeking to intervene in homeland politics, which they view as another form of development contribution. This research is a multi-sited study conducted in The Gambia, UK, and US. This thesis is based on 24 interviews with 52 participants undertaken in The Gambia with elites, students, government officials, politicians, and return migrants between February 2013 and December 2014. 49 interviews with members of the Gambian diaspora in the UK and US, and 10 interviews with heads of Gambian diaspora associations in the UK. The four research questions in this thesis address (1) development interventions, (2) political interventions, (3) the responses to these interventions from The Gambia, and (4) the relationship between development, migration and politics. The data used to address them came primarily from the interviews, participant observation, textual and visual materials acquired from newspapers, social media, archives, and secondary sources in the academic and grey literatures. Qualitative coding techniques were used for thematic data analysis. The thesis concludes that the political activities of some members of the UK and US Gambian diaspora are inhibiting the ability of the diaspora as a whole to have any ‘real’ impact on national development. This is perpetuating the distrust between the homeland government and those outside the territory. Subsequently, development contributions are mainly focused on the family scale. Whilst these political interventions have some effects at ‘home’ they are only one component in a broader set of interventions seeking to change Gambian politics (alongside diplomatic efforts, structural economic forces and human rights lobbies for example) and their impact is constrained by the limited resources and capacities of those in the diaspora. Conceptually the thesis concludes that whilst it is useful to 3 maintain the distinction between development and politics for the purpose of organizing the analysis, in practice the two are inseparable. The case that is being made in this thesis is that politics in The Gambia is an ‘anti-development machine’, as formal political engagement is a barrier to active development in the country. Thus, paradoxically it requires diasporans who are sincerely committed to the development of The Gambia to withdraw from politics, despite simultaneously arguing that improving the political process is a part of development. Two weeks before submitting this thesis, a Presidential election occurred in The Gambia, which dramatically changed the political context of the country and its diaspora. However, given the timing, it was impossible to re-write this thesis to take account of the election, though some comments have been added to the conclusion. 4 Table of Contents Abstract 3 Acknowledgements 9 Chapter 1: An Introduction to the Gambian Diaspora 10 1.1 Introduction 10 1.2 Research Rationale, Aims, Objectives and Specific Research Questions 17 1.3 Thesis Structure 20 Chapter 2: Theorizing the African Diaspora, Their Development and Political Activities 23 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 Defining the Terms 25 2.3 Migration and Development 34 2.4 Global Diasporas 42 2.5 Development and the African Diaspora 52 2.6 The Transnational Engagement of the African Diaspora in Politics at ‘Home’ 63 2.7 Conclusion 74 Chapter 3: Depicting The Gambia and its Diaspora 77 3.1 Introduction 77 3.2 The History of The Gambia 77 3.3 The Migratory History and features of The Gambian Diaspora and their Associations 93 3.4 Conclusion 98 Chapter 4: Embarking on a Research Journey 101 4.1 Introduction 101 4.2 The Journey to this Research Project 101 4.3 Data Acquisition 106 4.4 Sampling 110 4.5 Triangulation 112 4.6 Answering the Research Questions 113 4.7 Fieldwork 114 4.8 Data Analysis 118 4.9 Limitations of Research 120 4.10 Conclusion 126 5 Chapter 5: Developing The Gambia: The Contributions of the UK and US Gambian Diaspora 128 5.1 Introduction 129 5.2 Scales and Diaspora Development Issues in The Gambia 130 5.3 The Contributions of the Gambian Diaspora to the Development of the Sectors 144 5.4 Conclusion 154 Chapter 6: The Barriers to Developing The Gambia 157 6.1 Introduction 157 6.2 Family, Town and Village 159 6.3 The Government Scale 164 6.4 Institutions 175 6.5 Conclusion 180 Chapter 7: Getting Involved Politically: The Transnational Engagement of the Gambian Diaspora 183 7.1 Introduction 183 7.2 The Political Mobilization of the Gambian Diaspora in the UK and US 189 7.3 Triggers for Political Activity Among the Gambian Diaspora 207 7.4 Justification for Political Interventions from the Diaspora 212 7.5 Assessing the Impact of Intervention 218 7.6 Conclusion 227 Chapter 8: Relating Politics Development Migration to the Gambian Context 232 8.1 Introduction 232 8.2 Politics and Development in The Gambia 235 8.3 Politics and Migration in The Gambia 248 8.4 Conclusion 253 Chapter 9: Conclusion 256 9.1 Introduction 256 9.2 Summary of the Thesis 257 9.3 Weaknesses and Limitations 260 9.4 Contribution of the Thesis 261 9.5 Implications of the Thesis 263 9.6 Update and Final Thoughts 267 6 Bibliography 271 Appendix 1: Interviewees Information 292 Appendix 2: Information on UK Gambian diaspora associations 294 Figures Figure 1: Conflict phases and approaches to conflict management 65 Figure 2: Map of The Gambia 78 Figure 3: Population size and growth 79 Figure 4: 2013 Population densities by Local Government Area 80 Figure 5: Protest by Opposition Party for Electoral Reforms 89 Figure 6: The GDP Growth (annual %) of The Gambia 93 Figure 7: The distribution of Gambian emigrants by destination country, 2010 94 Figure 8: National Enrolment Rates in The Gambia 133 Figure 9: Migrant remittance inflows in The Gambia 135 Figure 10: Percentage of Gambians living under $1.25 Per Day 135 Figure 11: Emigration Rates of Gambians 136 Figure 12: Dongoro - Ba Health Centre 145 Figure 13: House owned by a member of the Gambian diaspora 151 Figure 14: House owned by resident Gambian 152 Figure 15: Social media post criticizing government development efforts or lack thereof 166 Figure 16: Dollar-Dalasi exchange rates 1990-2016 172 Figure 17: Civil Society Forum in New York 186 Figure 18: Gambian diaspora demonstrations in London 198 Figure 19: Gambian diaspora protesting outside the UK House of Parliament 199 Figure 20: Human rights symposium in London 200 Figure 21: Gambian women demonstrating in The Gambia 201 Figure 22: Comment about President Jammeh being monitored 206 Figure 23: Response to figure 22 206 Figure 24: President’s sheep in McCarty square in The Gambia 212 Figure 25: Soldier wearing APRC t-shirt 214 7 Figure 26: A pro- Jammeh supporter heading to the July 22nd celebrations 216 Figure 27: July 22nd celebrations at the stadium in Bakau 216 Figure 28: Man from LGBT community demonstrating against President Jammeh in the US 225 Figure 29: 6 way causal relationships between politics, development and migration 233 Figure 30: A poster of President Jammeh and APRC flag affixed to a lamppost 252 Figure 31: Facebook comment on members of the politically involved Gambian diaspora 269 Tables Table 1: Doctors emigrating from sub-Saharan countries to Canada, USA, UK, and Australia 36 Table 2: Diaspora incentives in some African countries 62 Table 3: Household size in The Gambia 80 Table 4: Gambian political parties 87 Table 5: Typologies of the Gambian diaspora in the UK and US 95 Table 6: Basic belief (metaphysics) of alternative research paradigms 103 Table 7: Answering the research questions 113 Table 8: Reasons for migrating out of The Gambia 119 Table 9: The Gambian diaspora civil society groups in the UK and UK 193 8 Acknowledgements The past four years would not have been possible without the support, encouragement, understanding, and patience of my supervisor Dr Ben Page. I cannot thank Ben enough for agreeing to supervise my research and for seeing me through it. I am also especially grateful to Dr Claire Dwyer for her support and encouragement. Additionally, I am grateful to all the participants for their valuable contributions. Thank you for giving up your time and for sharing your thoughts with me. I am indebted to my Uncle Saihou Taal, who played a magnanimous role in making my fieldwork in The Gambia a success. I am grateful for your time and for pointing me in the right direction. To Dr Edward Mogire, thank you for reading my thesis and giving be valuable feedback, despite receiving the first complete draft at the very last minute. And to my friend Sabrina Brooks, you are simply awesome.
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