Nr. 65 E-ISSN 0250-7072

COUNCIL OF CONSEIL DE I . * Naturopa No. 65-1990

Editorial M. Smet 3 Friess-Irrmann

Quality as well as quantity H. Hacourt 5 1

No-till agriculture G. de Ploey 7 Divergent interests M. Böschung 8 1 ------Editorial CENTRE Space and time G. P. Black - G. Gonggrijp 10 NATUROPA G eo-Trail H. Schönlaub 14

The Nigardsbreen glacier L. Erikstad 15

The kind of Europe we want c. Lalumière 16 early thirty years ago the Council of Belgium is delighted to have hosted in Brus­ De Zândkoele G. Gonggrijp 18 Europe became the first European in­ sels in October1990the European Ministerial N tergovernmental organisation to take Conference on the Environment at which this Irish peatlands D. Daly 20 an interest in environment issues. It is now us­ question was discussed. The Ministers con­ ing its experience in the service o f one o f the sidered the feasibility study and opted for Naturopa is published in English, French, major enivronment problems facing our soci­ what they regarded as the most appropriate German, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese Danish cliffs A . Nielsen 22 ety: soil protection. instrument for co-operation in soil protec­ by the Centre Naturopa o f the Council of tion. Europe, BP 431 R6, F-67006 Strasbourg The soil is the foundation o f all life on earth, The Dorset coast W. A. Wimbledon 24 Cedex. the very basis of our food production, the At the conference, the Ministers also con­ ground on which all human facilities are built sidered the text o f a European Conservation Editor responsible: Swiss moraines B. Stürm 26 and a key factor in the functioning of the Strategy, a declaration whose purpose is to Ing. Hayo H. Hoekstra earth's ecosystems, and conflicts between its enable governments to back an integrated en­ manifold functions and uses are inevitable. vironment protection policy and to establish Conception and editing: Christian MeyerFinnish eskers O.Kontturi 28 As it becomes increasingly polluted by heavy an overall framework for future Council of Production : Koelblindruck Baden-Baden metals, phytosanitary products and dis­ Europe work in this field. Protection o f the Articles may be freely reprinted but it A t the Council of Europe 30 charges, threatened by concrete and growing key constituents of Earth’s ecosystems, would be appreciated if reference is made to urbanisation, and impaired by overuse and namely Air, Water andSoil, is naturally a part the source and a copy sent to the Centre. inappropriate methods o f cultivation, its vital o f the strategy, which also covers, for exam­ The copyright of all photographs is re­ production and filtering functions are becom­ ple, the protection of biodiversity and the served. ing the subject o f increasing concern. The problems raised by development, transport soil, and the water it contains, must be man­ and recreational policies and genetic en­ The opinions expressed in this publication aged from the twin viewpoints o f quality and gineering. are those o f the authors and do not neces­ quantity. sarily reflect the views o f the Council of Eu­Basic element The Brussels Conference also gave the Minis­ rope. As early as 1972, the Committee o f Ministers ters the opportunity to discuss the achieve­ o f the Councilof Europe adopteda Soil Char­ ments o f the Convention on the Conservation ter setting out the basic principles fo r rational on European Wildlife and Natural Habitats y promulgating its European Soil it, we should take action to restore its regen­ use o f the valuable natural resource. (Berne Convention), which has to date been Charter, in 1972, the Council of Eu­ erative capacity in the same way as for air and ratified by 21 member states, Senegal, Burk­ rope demonstrated its concern at the water. A t the fifth Ministerial Conference on the En­ ina Faso and the EEC and is being viewed B vironment in Lisbon in June 1987, the Minis­ future of one of our basic natural resources. with increasing interest by Central European Like air and water, soil had previously been In October a ministerial conference was held ters unanimously requested the Council of in Brussels for the purpose of studying soil Countries. There can be no doubt that the im ­ considered a necessary, indeed fundamen­ Europe “to study the possibility o f drawing up portance o f its work makes the Brussels Con­ protection in both qualitative and quantita­ — revising and updating the European Soil Cover: R. Humler tal, element whose availability could always an appropriate draft convention on soil pro­ ference a milestone in the assertion o f the de­ tive terms. The results of the conference are Charter; be taken for granted. What a misconception ! tection”. A feasibility study was accordingly termination o f all European countries to co­ expected to prove significant. carried out on national and/or international The truth is that, although apparently infi­ — drawing up a specific Council of Europe operate in order to shape a Europe in which In this issue of Naturopa soil problems are measures to protect soil and underground wa­ nite, soil has limits that are often discovered work programme on soil protection; the quality o f life and respect o f democracy “earth-science conservation”, a new ap­ ter. remain fundamental values, those which Page 4: Original illustration all too late. Take for example, the sediment — preparing a recommendation to member proach which studies soil in its four dimen­ This study defines the concept and functions the Council of Europe has constantly for Naturopa, by F. Schwebel to be found in drinking water. Its presence is governments on the introduction of con­ sions: length, width, depth and time. o f the soil, gives a general description o f the defended. ■ (Strasbourg, France) a sign that the soil has been unable, or has not sistent soil protection policies; had sufficient time, to purify the water that Naturopa 66, which will be appearing in causes o f natural or man-induced deteriora­ M ietSm et tion and reviews the various protection instru­— drawing up a European convention on seeps down to underground aquifers. Good- spring 1991, will be concerned with fresh­ State Secretary for the Environment quality soil is essential not only to plants water fish and their biotope, providing an ments and measures which exist at national soil protection to give an international and Social Emancipation o f Belgium. which grow in it, but also to animals and hu­ and international level. It shows clearly that framework to co-operation. The conven­ Pages 16-17: Landscape, important accompaniment to the Naturopa man beings which depend on plants for their Centre’s campaign on the subject. ■ an international instrument taking systematic tion could be supplemented by protocols Hazel Mouse - Klein-Huber/Bios account o f all aspects o f soil conservation is as and whert required by changes in the Ibex, Bear, Tree Frog, food. Now that we have realised the value of soil and the scale of the dangers threatening H.H.H. sadly lacking. There are four ways ofremedy­ principal soil protection problems and Curlew - S. Cordi er ing this situation: technical and scientific progress. Quality as well as quantity

Europe; Hector Hacourt Charter

1. Soil is one of humanity’s most precious assets. It allows plants, animals and man to live on the earth’s surface. he 12 guiding principles of the Euro­ 2. Soil is a limited resource which is easily pean Soil Charter, which all those in destroyed. Tpositions of responsibility, at what­ ever level, must endeavour to apply in the tween the earth’s surface and the bed­ '3 . Industrial society uses land for agricul­ sphere of their activities, were adopted by rock. It is subdivided into successive All this has led to soil being regarded not sim­ ture as well as for industrial and other the Committee of Ministers in 1972. horizontal layers with specific physi­ ply from the standpoint of the protection of purposes. A regional planning policy cal, chemical and biological charac­ Described in a few strokes, the Charter can its properties (qualitative protection), but must be conceived in terms of the prop­ teristics. From the standpoint of the be said to cover the notion of soil as a limited also from the angle of its use (quantitative erties of the soil and the needs of today’s history of soil use, and from an eco­ resource, its appropriate use by farming, for­ protection). This approach is reflected in the and tomorrow’s society. logical and environmental point of estry, urban development and construction, resolutions adopted at the 1987 Lisbon < view, the concept of soil also em­ 4. Farmers and foresters must apply methods for its protection (inventory, scien­ meeting of the European Ministerial Con­ braces deep, porous, sedimentary methods that preserve the quality of the tific research, interdisciplinary co­ ference on the Environment and the 1988 rocks and other permeable materials, soil. operation, teaching and information) and Lausanne meeting of the European Confer­ together with their reserves of under­ the responsibility of governments and those ence of Ministers responsible for Regional 5. Soil must be protected against erosion. ground water”. in authority. Planning. It is also the approach behind the 6. Soil must be protected against pol­ Thus defined, the soil can reach consider­ Council of Europe’s programme of activities The European Soil Charter, now 18 years lution. able depths and therefore includes, in some in the field of spatial planning, which we will old, is still, unfortunately, a topical issue. It is contexts, the concept of land. return to later. 7. Urban development must be planned so perhapsevenmoretopicaltodaythaninl972 that it causes as little damage as possible since environmental problems, particularly On the basis of this definition, six basic soil As a central element of all ecological interre­ to adjoining areas. those concerning natural resources are now, functions can be identified: lations, the soil is a vital resource. Further­ in 1990, even more acute on account of the more , it is an easily identifiable asset and has 8. In civil engineering projects, the effects dramatic growth of our industrial society. — biomass production ; an accepted legal status, unlike other natural on adjacent land must be assessed dur­ resources. However, it should be noted that ing planning, so that adequate protec­ — filtering, buffering and transforming ac­ tion; until recent years, legally speaking, soil was tive measures can be reckoned in the the poor relation since it was not regarded as cost. Forgotten element — biological habitat and gene reserve ; an essential element of the environment. 9. An inventory of soil resources is indis­ Much has been said about air, water and — physical medium ; The only exception to this rule was when soil pensable. open spaces, but very little about soil. Why is was regarded as a physical medium forpublic this? Because it is probably difficult to an­ — source of raw materials ; or private property (urban development, 10. Further research and interdisciplinary swer the question “What is soil”. To the lay­ — cultural heritage. spatial planning and so on). There are sev­ collaboration are required to ensure man, soil is a surface for cultivating, plant­ eral reasons for this situation : wise use and conservation of the soil. ing, building and digging. In short, the soil Until recently, the soil could be regarded as a — the complexity of the problem: it is diffi­ we walk on everyday is the base for human relatively balanced medium, requiring little 11. Soil conservation must be taught at all cult to pinpoint in legal terms all the fac­ levels and be kept to an ever-increasing activities. in the way of external energy forms and raw materials. tors involved ; extent in the public eye. For the experts, the notion of soil is much — the dangers that threaten soil are often more complicated since this resource is a 12. Governments and those in authority initially diffuse and become apparent very complex medium, continually under­ must purposefully plan and administer only in the long term, and are not gener­ going both natural and artificial transforma­ soil resources. ally spectacular in the way that the natu­ tions. There are various definitions of soil, Changes ral disasters of recent years have been ; which are often related to its functions. Some The last few decades have witnessed the ar­ of these definitions are better than others, rival of the consumer society, which has cre­ — most people, no doubt through igno­ but they rarely paint an accurate picture of ated greater demand for land for human rance , have the impression that soil is not this both complex and fragile natural re­ settlements and infrastructure and greater a dynamic medium and that it cannot source. demand for food, which in turn has necessi­ therefore suffer damage from pollution ; tated higher agricultural yields; hence the After numerous discussions, a group of ex­ — the impression also exists that soil is not, wider use of fertilisers and plant treatment perts on soil protection, working in the strictly speaking, a natural resource and substances. These rapid changes have inter­ framework of the Council of Europe’s pro­ that it is therefore an endless resource; gramme of activities, arrived at the following fered with the soil’s physical, chemical and definition: biological properties, consequently placing — unlike water and air, for which our needs a great strain on its capacity to fulfil its func­ are permanent (we drink every day and “Soil is one of the earth’s ecosystems tions, causing irreversible damage in some we breathe continuously), soil is not con­ and is situated at the interface be­ cases. sidered by individuals to be vital to them. Sectoral approach ters, first, to examine the possibility of pre­ ences soil quality. The Council of Europe is paring a draft convention on soil protection working along these lines with the aim of pro­ In most countries, soil protection does not and, secondly, to take account of certain tecting, creating or recreating natural land­ feature as such in legislation ; it is simply in­ principles for a rational land-use policy. Ur­ scapes, including rural landscapes, so as to corporated into legislation on environmen­ ban development must be better regulated preserve the European environment’s char­ tal protection in general which is itself very through national, regional and local devel­ acteristic diversity. often sectoral. Since the realisation that soil opment plans, promoting land use that is un- Evidently, this is a huge task and nowhere pollution was developing in some areas, ex­ wasteful and, in principle, reversible. acerbated no doubt by the spread of ground­ near completion. It is vital that this indis­ Soil erosion with gullying. During 5 to 6 months of Other activities undertaken at intergovern­ pensable natural resource be protected since the year topsoils are nearly bare and exposed to the water pollution by nitrates and phosphates, erosive agents there has in recent years been a widespread mental level have a direct effect on soil pro­ it is the base of our agricultural, forestry, tendency to set the problem of soil degrada­ tection. As part of its activities, the Commis­ tourist, social and economic activities. For­ tion apart from general environment policy. sion of the European Communities is asking tunately, the real value of the soil is now Thus some countries have incorporated soil its member states to reduce the area of farm­ known. Without good-quality soil capable of into their environment policy other than in­ land in order to try to reduce food stocks. In fulfilling its functions, mankind will be faced directly or passively. our opinion, any agricultural land that is set with disaster. Desertification in Africa, and No-till agriculture aside should always be reclaimable by agri­ principally the countries of the Sahel, should Many international organisations, both culture since it is impossible to predict the serve as a warning that must alert us to the ur­ governmental and non-governmental, are human population’s food requirements in gency of the real issues in our survival. ■ workingon soil protection issues. The Coun­ the medium and long term. cil of Europe has not failed in its duty : soil is a Ing. H. Hacourt priority field in its programme of activities. It Principal Administrative Officer should be noted that the Parliamentary As­ Natural landscapes Directorate of the Environment and Local Authorities sembly and the Standing Conference of Lo­ C ouncil o f E u ro p e The Council of Europe is endeavouring to Jan De Ploey be the preservation of the loess mantle for in in furrows opened in the stubble of the pre­ cal and Regional Authorities of Europe have define principles that could be applied in or­ some parcels farmers are already ploughing vious harvest by a chisel-type unit. The long been working in this field. These two into sands or clays. sowing-pipes are very close to the furrow bodies have produced a number of recom­ der to recover this set-aside farmland for na­ ture conservation purposes. The aim of the openers and seeds are injected under slight mendations proposing concrete measures to Erosion in general cannot be eliminated by operation is to restore the greatest possible air pressure so as to have maximum effi­ consider the soil as a natural resource in the simple interventions like contour-tillage, number of natural habitats, which is the prin­ ciency of no-till sowing. same way as air, water and habitats, and to strip cropping or ploughing the land in a cipal means of preserving plant and animal preserve the quality of its physical, chemical rough cloddy condition. Years of field re­ As expected, rill erosion is completely elim­ wildlife species. This in turn is the only way of and biological properties. search and discussions with farmers have led inated on the no-till parcels. During heavy oil conservation is a necessity in the guaranteeing the preservation of the genetic to one convergent opinion. Under the hy­ rainstorms, runoff coefficients are still high loess areas of north-western Europe The two Ministerial Conferences mentioned heritage, which must remain as diversified as pothesis of crop rotations remaining essen­ but load concentrations are very low. earlier also dealt with soil problems. They possible. The protection of the traditional Sjust south of the Baltic plain. The loess tially the same in the near future, efficient addressed resolutions to the Council of rural landscape not only has aesthetic and belt stretches from south-east England, over erosion control can only result from the ap­ The specifications of the no-till campaign Europe requesting the Committee of Minis­ cultural implications, but also directly influ­ northern France and central Belgium, into plication of conservation tillage. The alter­ can be summarised as follows : North Rhine-Westfalia and Lower Saxony. native is a thorough restructuring of topsoils 1985-86: 1 farmer, 1 parcel of 1.4 ha, winter It covers about 8-10 million hectares of to reduce erodibility and increase infiltra­ barley which several million hectares of arable land tion rates. The latter solution is technically 1986-87: 3 farmers, 3 parcels totalling are estimated to be affected by unacceptable feasible but is seriously hampered by finan­ 2.6 ha, winter barley soil loss rates of the order of tens of tons per cial constraints. Even greater are the prob­ 1987-88: 5 farmers, 6 parcels totalling hectare per year. This traditional cereals- Wild tulips in Alsatian vineyards: soil protection lems with a strategy towards reforestation or 8.2ha, winter barley and 1 parcel sugar beet belt corresponds to an open field turning land into pastures. with winter wheat in a rolling hilly landscape with a relief of the 1988-89: 4 farmers, 4 parcels totalling order of 50-100m. Quaternary entrench­ In 1985 the Leuven Laboratory Experimen­ 4.2 ha, winter barley ment of valleys has created an erosion poten­ tal Geomorphology decided to test the no­ tial. Rill erosion is very likely to occur on till technique starting with winter barley. Yields of winter barley (5.6 to 7.2 tons/ha, G. Lacoumette slopes exceeding 4-5% for hydraulic rea­ The practice of no-tillage means that drilling but 1987 was a wet year) were equal or supe­ sons. Topsoil degradation, including heavy takes place directly into the stubble of the rior to the mean values obtained in the farm­ sealing and crusting, and high runoff coeffi­ previous crop, which protects the topsoil as a steads. Farmers manifestly appreciate the cients often characterise arable layers, with mulch. All no-till experiments since then effect of evident reduction of soil erosion and low consistency. A very critical period of the have been set up in collaboration with local also a certain saving of labour, energy and year for soil erosion is April-J une when most farmers, without preliminary tests on proper time. topsoils are still poorly covered and rainfall is experimental plots. most aggressive. The no-till experiments have promoted, as a Slopes very between 2 % and 20 %. On some spin-off, fundamental research on the differ­ In some catchments with mean slopes below parcels, rills formed under preceding con­ ential effects of compaction and mulching on 4-5% overland flow production still is high ventional tillage had to be filled up before di­ soil erosion. ■ and temporary creeks may entrench thal­ rect drilling. Planting of winter barley oc­ wegs . Therefore, a certain distinction can be curred at the beginning of October and Prof. J. De Ploey made between conservation measures on harvesting took place around the beginning President of the European Society of Soil Conservation Laboratorium voor Experimentele Geomorfologie slopes and thalweg protection. of August. The programme of application of Instituut voor Aardwetenschappen herbicides and pesticides was decided by the Redingenstraat 16 bis farmers and was identical to the one on con­ B-3000 Leuven In the Huldenberg area ventionally tilled parcels. Hitherto no spe­ cific weeds or diseases apeared but evidently Huldenberg is situated between Brussels the test period is much too short to expect any and Leuven, within the Belgian province of significant evolution. Information on details Brabant, which belongs to the central part of of the operation can be obtained in Leuven. the above-mentioned loess belt. The loess mantle there is often very thin, less than one The no-till planter used in 1987 is a second metre, overlying sterile sediments. The first prototype built in collaboration with a local long-term objective of erosion control has to factory. Seed is planted at a depth of 2-3 cm — Thus it is not surprising that, from time to ticipation of the public? Faced with these time, planning which is in keeping with questions and many others, there is however the Constitution and the law, and which one thing which we ought not to forget: there has been decided upon democratically will never be a universal answer, valid for all has to give way to behaviour which is mo­ time, which could be applied to the process tivated by individual interests. In other of regional planning. This process involves a words, a balance of interests can only be permanent interplay of political, economic, edge that we should be unwasteful in the way achieved in the regional planning field if cultural and ecological factors. Regional we use the land. But in the end what actions citizens are made clearly aware of the planning is a political responsibility which should we take in order to be able to pursue need to set aside a minimum area for a has to be shouldered since, in my opinion, and realise objectives which have been for­ particular use. The efforts which we have there is no other solution. ■ mulated in such a general way? This ques­ made hitherto to ensure that information M. Baschung tion is and will certainly remain highly con­ is supplied, as it should be, before any de­ troversial, not only because of the great cision is made, are woefully inadequate Former Director of the Federal Office differences of opinion between “fundamen­ for Regional Planning compared with the responsibility we ex­ E igerstrasse 65 talists” and “realists”, nor merely because of pect of the citizenin decisions concerning C H ,3003 B ern the belief that the different interests regulate the kind of balance there should be be­ themselves automatically, an illusion main­ tween different interests. tained for nostalgic reasons which never ceases to interfere with the debate, but quite Are we then to conclude that, because of all simply because the factors with which re­ these difficulties, regional planning is not a gional planning is daily confronted are con­ valid means of balancing the different inter­ stantly changing. Here I am thinking in par­ ests involved in varied land use ? Are the ex­ ticular about the needs of the population and penditure and effort not justified? Will webe of the economy, which are referred to ex­ forced to resort to solutions that encroach pressly in Article 1, paragraph 1 of the law on more and more upon landowners’ rights, regional planning. Added to this are the spe­ and solutions that leave no room for the par­ cific challenges which, in a way, are inherent in regional planning. Here are a few remarks Divergent interests on this subject: — One is almost constantly witnessing con- flictsof interest in matters concerning the regulation of land use. Swiss law stipu­ lates that this regulation—usually at mu­ nicipal level—must be based on demo­ cratic decision-making. But majority “Conflict of interests ” Marius Baschung decisions cannot replace the preserva­ tion of diversity in land use, which is of paramount importance. The balancing of interests is one thing, a majority deci­ K. A m ann sion is another. To carry out the task laid down in the Constitution also involves ning's primary or, one might say, ethical protecting interests which do not have function. Whence the obligation to guaran­ the support of the majority. tee a plurality of uses—for housing, profes­ sional activities, agriculture, leisure activi­ — Furthermore, the constitutional princi­ The regulation of land use, which is one of ties etc. Particular care must be taken in this ple requiring a balance of interests to be the main objectives of regional planning, is context to protect, as far as possible, all inter­ achieved within a framework of varied supposed to guarantee an economical ap­ ests, including those which have no lobby to land use, and with due regard to environ­ he following thoughts are based on the proach to it. In any case, that is how the con- defend them. Moreover, regional planning, mental concerns, is a principle that is not situation which may be observed in stituional provision is interpreted in Arti­ which has always been a powerful means of fully realisable. In fact, anyone who has cle 1, paragraph 1, of the Law of 22 June 1979 Switzerland. It is a country of some protecting the environment, must more than secured certain advantages in the debate T on regional planning. Hence it is the respon­ over the balance of interests is not 41,000 km2, of which 67.4% consists of ever contribute to preserving the ecological sibility of the Federal State, cantons and the mountains, rocks, ice and snow, lakes, for­ balance at municipal, regional and national obliged to give anything in return. Where municipalities to harmonise their activities ests, alpine pastures and low-yield grass­ level. land use is concerned, regulations intro­ and implement a settlement policy which fol­ lands. Human settlements-including in par­ duced under the la w on regional planning lows national guidelines. To achieve this, ticular housing, premises used for lay down rights but not obligations. The professional purposes, means of transport public activities must be co-ordinated ac­ Absence of consensus lucky landowner in a residential area can and public services - and areas used for sup­ cording to the amount of space available quite simply delay his decision on plies or relaxation and leisure activities take and, above all, balanced land use must be en­ Can ideas like these on regional planning, whether he intends to comply with the up the remaining 13,500 km2. The popula­ couraged according to the various needs— which clearly have their originsin the Consti­ community’s development strategy or not only public, but also, to a much greater tution and the law, ultimately be put into tion lives largely in these areas. 90% of the not. This attitude is not disadvantageous inhabitants live at an altitude of 800 metres extent, private. No matter where this situ­ practice? It is not easy to answer this ques­ to him, or if it is a disadvantage, then it is or more and occupy 18% of the country’s ation arises, the Federal State, cantons and tion since there is no general consensus on considerably outweighed by the advan­ municipalities must be mindful of the facts surface area. This makes the population what action should be taken in the field of re­ tages. If he complies with the communi­ density equal to about 780 inhabitants per concerning the natural environment as well gional planning. Differencesofopinionarise ty’s wishes and, for example, agrees to km2. as of the needs of the population and the as soon as one starts to interpret the obj ective construction work going ahead on his economy. The law expressly states that in the expressed in Article 22 (d) of the Constitu­ land in order to ensure a sufficient supply A decisive element in the way land use is or­ regulation of land use—one need only think tion : “judicious and rational land use”. Peo­ of housing, thus abandoning the idea of ganised is the principle, laid down in the Fed­ of municipal town planning schemes—the ple more or less agree today that it is neces­ “hoarding” the land in question, it is not eral Constitution, which recommends “judi­ different interests at stake must always be sary to combat the dispersal of housing. certain that he will continue to hold the cious and rational land use”. carefully balanced : that is regional plan­ Similarly, more and more people acknowl- same views as a citizen. Space and time are effective and not without beauty, they lack the appeal —and the scientific 1. Nigardsbreen (N) interest—of the meandering rivers they re­ 2. Eskers (SF) place ! 3. Irish peatlands (IRL) A new approach sediments where they meet the sea. Rain Along much of the coast, projects designed 4. Dorset (GB) washes soil into the rivers or, where condi­ to prevent marine erosion have had a 5. Lonstrup Klint(DK) tions are suitable, will percolate into the marked effect through preventing the oper­ 6. H anklit(DK) ground to reappear at a distance as springs. ation of the natural processes of marine ero­ 7. Bovbjerg(DK) Where vegetation is sparse or absent, loose sion and deposition and, in particular, 8. Stevn’sK lint(D K ) material is swept away by the wind to be de­ through preventing rock exposures being George P. Black 9. Morts Klint (DK) posited elsewhere. In cold conditions, where naturally maintained by the sea. Likewise, Gerard Gonggrijp 10. Bornholm (DK) snow falls and accumulates, glaciers are the stabilisation of coastal and inland dune 11. Heetveld (NL) formed and, near their source, gouge away systems brings to an abrupt end the oper­ 12. Zug(CH) the rocks to form fiords and lakes. The ma­ ation of natural processes. terial removed is later deposited at or near The extraction of minerals such as clay, sand, the ice margins where it is frequently re­ worked by water from the melting ice. The gravel, peat and chalk exposes the outer lay­ sea plays a varied role—in places it acts as a ers of the Earth’s crust, most frequently L - v where no such exposures existed before. To he Earth, as a planet, was born some potent agent of erosion, wearing away the this extent, mineral extraction is beneficial 4,600million years ago. Since its birth, cliffs and beaches along its margin, but else­ to the Earth sciences. In the past, most min­ it has been repeatedly altered through where it is a passive recipient of the sediment T supplied by rivers, glaciers and wind trans­ eral excavations were widely scattered and the interplay of a wide range of natural pro­ on a small scale and, until recently, except in cesses and the landscapes we see today are port. areas of peat working, they did not greatly in­ just the latest and transient expression of conservation can be justified on other Finally, there are extra-terrestrial agencies fluence morphology. However, as minerals their ceaseless operation. When sometime grounds. which affect the Earth. The significance of have become progressively easier to trans­ early in Earth’s history, Life began, it took some of these is still a m atter of debate, but port , so mineral extraction has tended to be­ advantage of the environments it found and, there can be no argument that the Earth con­ come concentrated in those small areas in doing so. made its own contribution to the Selection of sites tinues to receive material—in the shape of where it is particularly profitable. As a re­ Earth-moulding processes. Today is no dif­ shooting stars and meteorites—from Space sult, mineral excavations have become Our natural environment can be put to many ferent from any other day in Earth’s long his­ and some would argue that some significant much fewer in number while each has be­ different uses, of which the provision of in­ tory, for the physical processes still continue events in our history, such as the extinction come much larger in size. The reduction in formation regarding geological processes and Life in all its forms still exploits their ing in Germany and, on a smaller scale, in the entists. One by one, geomorphological fea­ of the dinosaurs, are to be attributed to their number and the increasing localisation and their results, is only one. In formulating products. loss of a number of the type-sections—the ir­ tures have disappeared partly, or even extra-terrestrial causes. of their distribution have reduced the bene­ an overall policy for land-use, all the other replaceable rational and international stan­ completely, so that the landscape has fits they yield to Earth science whereas the potential and competing uses have to be re­ The task set for the Earth scientist is the study dards upon which the Earth sciences changed little by little. Sections in pits, quar­ growth in size of individual workings has spected and a balance struck—for Earth sci­ of the Earth in space and in time. First, it is depend—such as the original type-section ries and cuttings, used by geologists for ref­ The impact of man greatly increased their impact on geomor- ence conservation, compromises have to be necessary to determine the planet’s present for theTiglian. erence, or valued as examples, have van­ constitution and then, with this as a starting phological features, even those on quite a made, especially where the possible alterna­ The arrival of Man has changed the balance ished through being filled up and grassed point, its history can be unravelled through large scale. In short, the rapid growth of population and tive uses (e.g. mineral extraction and the between the various natural, Earth shaping over. All these activities are hostile to the an understanding of the processes responsi­ of technical development has produced a conservation of geomorphology) are clearly forces. At first his impact was small but it has In most cases, the creation of exposures primary aim of Earth science conservation, ble. In this quest, the Present is the key to the correspondingly rapid growth in the impacts incompatible. It is therefore necessary to be grown steadily with time until in recent years showing the internal structure and composi­ which seeks to secure the retention of all Past, so that Earth scientists must spend suffered by the geological landscape which, able to select those features which merit con­ it has become a factor of considerable po­ tion of landforms through mineral extrac­ landforms and exposures needed for re­ much time and effort in gaining a full under­ in many places, has undergone irreversible servation ; it is equally necessary to be able to tency. tion is only small compensation for the even­ search, training and education. standing of all currently active natural pro­ change. Many geological features were justify this selection through an ability to tual destruction of the landform itself. cesses before the work of interpretation can Over vast areas, in a few thousands of years, formed many thousands, or millions, of There are of course further reasons why demonstrate that it has been based on the Furthermore, such exposures, even where begin. Some processes operate inside the Man has replaced much of the natural vege­ years ago and are, in effect, “fossil” rather Earth science sites should be conserved. For proper application of a series of rational cri­ they display geological and pedological phe­ Earth and work on its crust from below. In tation by cultivated plants. In some particu­ than still actively developing—once de­ example, untouched, or virtually un­ teria which have been devised to accord with nomena of great interest, tend to be only the short term, they make their existence larly vulnerable areas, this has favoured the stroyed , such features are lost for ever. Even touched, areas which retain their original nature conservation policy. temporary for, like all exposures, whether known from time to time through phenom­ process of denudation and erosion, causing in the case of the phenomena associated with soils and vegetation are very important for natural or artificial, they are liable to become The criteria used in the selection of import­ ena such as earthquakes and volcanic erup­ ar expansion of some types of landscape such the recent Ice Age—phenomena which con­ studies in ecological development. Even if obscured by natural processes or, in case of ant Earth-science sites are more or less the tions ; in the longterm, however, their cumu­ as the badlands of the M editerranean coun­ stitute a very significant proportion of the the vegetation is not original, but has been many disused and neglected pits and quar­ same in most countries and include rarity, lative effects are even more dramatic. The tries. As farming methods have become geological landscape of Europe—there is no replaced, areas whose soil remains largely ries, by “restoration” involving infilling and present condition, représentât!vity, diver­ movement of the Earth’s fluid interior has prospect that, once destroyed or damaged, intact can still be of potential value to ecol­ more intensive, they have increasingly de­ revegetation. sity, and scientific and/or educational im­ they can be replaced or repaired. Even al­ split and reunited the continents through manded the removal of small-scale land- ogy. portance. In addition, other aspects such as though another Ice Age is only to be ex­ geological time—the process originally forms and have destroyed, through deep The impact of urbanisation is also unfavour­ Some would also add ethical considerations. size, clarity, accessibility and vulnerability pected, it will take a long time before the termed Continental Drift, but now, fashion­ ploughing, soil profiles which have devel­ able in that it denies access to the strata which Should we, for instance, everywhere trans­ are seen as important. The possibility of re­ Scandinavian ice sheet read vances over Rus­ ably, re titled Plate Tectonics—and in doing oped over hundreds, or thousands, of years. lie below the surface and masks, or even de­ form the natural geological landscape, creating a site is less often of relevance, for it sia, Poland, Germany and the Netherlands so has raised great chains of mountains such Drainage has led to the lowering of ground­ stroys, entire landforms. formed in the course of thousands, or even must always be remembered that most as the Alps and the Himalayas. Meanwhile, to make good the damage we do to the land­ water levels, and this can cause a serious loss millions, of years, into an artificial one? Earth-science sites are irreplaceable. After Human impacts on this wide scale can lead to scape produced by its predecessor ! heat generated within the Earth has led to of geological data relating to the recent past, Considerations of this sort supplement the sites have been assessed through the applica­ the volcanic activity which built Iceland and especially where this has been preserved in the partial or total destruction of complete geological sections and geomorphological largely objective arguments for conserva­ tion of the various criteria, they often have to most other oceanic islands. the anaerobic conditions associated with or­ tion based purely on the needs of Earth be categorised in some way, for example, ganic sediments such as peat. features and soils. Notorious examples are The need for earth science conservation On the surface, change is continual, all land­ to be found in large parts of the Salpausselkä science—and also those based on ecology— into those of international, national, re­ scapes being modified by the action of water, Measures taken to regulate rivers interfere moraines in Finland, and in the building of a Over the past few decades, the continuing andlead to the more subjective perceptionof gional, and local significance. In this cate­ wind and ice. The effects of these external with the naturalness of stream systems. This city quarter upon a unique “fossil” braided degradation of the geological landscape, landscape as an amenity. It is only natural for gorisation, the Earth sciences have a great processes are more obvious and therefore process is most advanced in the Netherlands river system in the Netherlands. Further through which increasing numbers of both Earth scientists to give priority to their own advantage in that a worldwide system which more familiar. In the mountains, rivers cut where almost all river and brook systems losses have occurred in the decline of areas of traditional and new study areas have been particular motives for conservation, but identifies standard sections of international deep valleys, breaking up the rock and re­ have been embanked and regulated to a peat across North-Western Europe, in the adversely affected by all kinds of human ac­ they, like the biologists and the experts in and national status has already been estab­ moving it downstream to be deposited as greater or a lesser extent. Although canals expansion of the areas of brown-coal work­ tivities, has increasingly alarmed Earth sci­ landscape amenity, should not forget that lished for many years. Black/Gonggrijp

In Sweden, at a wide-ranging discussion on the protection of eskers, the opinion emerged that the Earth-scientific impor­ tance of some eskers well merited special consideration. This led to the acknowledge­ ment of Earth science conservation in the N ature Conservation Act of 1952 and to a number of initiatives being taken. Several projects focused on Earth science conserva­ tion were begun in the 1960s and 1970s and these still continue, an example being the Geomorphological Inventory of North Swe­ should be included in the first Norwegian den. Nature Conservation Act; this Act became In connection with the establishment of the law in 1910, and was one of the first of its kind Norwegian Ministry of Environment, the in Europe. In 1905, at a meeting of the Geo­ preparation of plans on a county-by-county The canyon o f the River Verdon ( France), a monumental example o f fluvial erosion logical Society of Stockholm, De Geer drew basis to show areas and sites of conservation attention to the need for the conservation of value, including those of value to the Earth natural monuments. This led to the prepara­ sciences, was commenced and this pro­ tion of the first official inventory of Earth- gramme is still in progress. Earth-science conservation in Europe science sites in Sweden. ries have mostly been taken at a provincial servation, although there were legal provi­ A third project, the identification of Eu­ Preparation of nation-wide inventories of level. sions which made Earth-science conserva­ rope’s most important sites, is to commence At the end of the 19th century, increasing hu­ These examples of the early initiatives in the the eskers of Finland began in 1972, These tion possible. There was general confidence in the near future. This project, of course, man impacts on the landscape led to the rise development of the Earth-science conserva­ are prepared to supply a factual basis for de­ In Austria, the lead has been taken by that this situation would be improved if an will require the formulation and develop­ of nature conservation movements all over tion movement in Europe were promising, cisions in physical planning, such as alloca­ Vorarlberg; in co-operation with the Uni­ active working group were set up to operate ment of a standard set of criteria against the world ; in this movement, biologists took but in practice it took many years before tion for gravel extraction, recreational use versity of Amsterdam, an inventory of on a national and international level. Great which candidate sites can be judged in a the leading role. Earth scientists, many of Earth-science conservation could obtain a and conservation. A national inventory of Earth-science sites is in preparation. In importance was attached to informing na­ European context. The success of these ini­ whom were involved in the exploitation of standing equal to that of biological and ar­ other types of Earth-science site is now in Sankt Gallen in Switzerland, a start hasbeen tional Earth-science organisations and au­ tiatives depends in large measure on the full natural resources, were, in general, not fired chaeological conservation. Meanwhile, de­ preparation. made in compiling inventories at a municipal thorities, and international bodies such as support of a wide range of organisations and with the same enthusiasm. Moreover, at that spite good official intentions, it was mostly level. In the several states of the Federal Re­ the Council of Europe, EEC, IUCN, and individuals from all European countries The compilation of a National Heritage In­ time, mineral exploitation was not extensive individual action which led to the protection public of Germany, the Geological Surveys Unesco and, of course, the international sci­ working in the field of Earth sciences, and ventory in Ireland began in the early seven­ by present-day standards, was little regu­ of sites and, although in some countries and Geological Institutes are active in the entific organisations, about the need for will also require financial backing. ties and the results were published in 1981. lated, and the damaging “restoration” of small-scale site inventories were prepared, same field. Earth-science conservation. Recognition This publication includes Earth-science The papers which follow are designed to give disused workings was not commonly prac­ such initiatives did not result in the adoption was also given to the need to enlighten the sites, but such localities are not covered by The above short review is far from complete, an impression of the various kind of sites and tised. Nevertheless, individual Earth scien­ of effective national policies for Earth- general public on the role Earth-science the Wildlife Act (Nature Conservation and data are lacking from many countries. It the problems Earth-science conservation­ tists and members of nature conservation so­ science conservation. plays in so many human activities and to Act). Earth science sites have been left to de­ will serve, however, to give some impression ists have to deal with in a number of coun­ cieties gradually became more and more make them more Earth-science minded. In 1949, the British Parliament passed the pend for their protection on planning control of current activities in the field of Earth- tries. They also show that, although the first involved in Earth-science conservation. National Parks and Access to the Country­ by the local authorities, a system which, in science conservation across Europe. This first meeting led to the establishment of steps in European Earth-science conserva­ Ice-carried erratic blocks were an early fea­ side Act which defined the conservation pol­ practice, does not function satisfactorily. the European Working Group on Earth Sci­ tion have been taken, there is still a long way ture to impress and challenge Earth scien­ icy of Great Britain for more than 30 years. ence Conservation with the following aims : to go. ■ The Dutch working group “Gea” com­ tists and it is no surprise that such blocks were This Act recognised Earth science conserva­ Dr. G. P. Black among the earliest features to receive pro­ tion as an equal partner with biological con­ menced the preparation of a comprehensive International co-operation — to facilitate the exchange of information servation and, when shortly thereafter the inventory on a national scale in 1969 and DrsG. Gonggrijp tection. In 1867 the Geological Commission Until 1988, over most of the field of Earth- — to provide mutual support in the conser­ Nature Conservancy (now the Nature Con­ completed this task in 1988. As a result of Earth Science Conservation of the Swiss Nature Research Society (Geo­ science conservation, there were only inci­ vation of threatened sites servancy Council) was established as the na­ these activities, Earth-science conservation Rijksinstituut voor Natuurbeheer logische Kommission der Schweizerischen dental, bilateral, international contacts, al­ P ostbus 46 tional official conservation body, its struc­ was acknowledged in 1982 in a Structural — to promote Earth-science conservation Naturforschenden Gesellschaft) proposed though there had been for some time NL-3956 Z R L eersum ture made provision for a separate Geology Scheme for Nature and Landscape Conser­ to protect erratic blocks and, shortly after, conservation-oriented discussions at an in­ — to identify and execute common the Swiss State bought the most important. Section responsible for the conservation of vation. Although this scheme was not di­ Earth-science sites, then a unique event in rectly translated into a concrete conserva­ ternational level within a number of special­ projects, i.e. projects of benefit to more At about the same time, the City of Edin­ ised disciplines. than one country. burgh protected the famous “ Agassiz Rock ” Earth-science conservation in Europe. The tion policy, it had implications for the future. on Blackford Hill, a striated rock face where, Section and its successors prepared many in­ In the Nature Policy Plan, published in 1989, Inquiries made among Earth-science con­ The first common project was the prepara­ in 1840, the Swiss geologist, Agassiz, had ventories and carried out a wide range of Earth-science conservation is specified as servationists by the second author in 1987, tion of an information paper on interna­ recognised evidence for the former exist­ other projects but it soon became apparent one of the four conservation objectives and revealed that there was a great need for, and tional Earth-science conservation to be illus­ ence of glaciers in Scotland. that being recognised as an equal did not nec­ proposals for further projects in Earth- desire for, an enhanced level of international trated by examples from the different essarily mean being treated as an equal—the science conservation have recently been for­ contact. Based on the results of these inquir­ countries and this appears in this edition of Voluntary conservation societies often had Earth sciences consistently received much mulated. ies, a first international workshop was orga­ Naturopa. great influence on the policy of govern­ less than their fair share of the available re­ nised in 1988 and met at Leersum in the In 1984, the Ministry of Environment in At the succeeding meeting, held in June 1989 ments. The first Dutch nature conservation sources. Netherlands. At this meeting, the 12 partic­ Denmark published a list of 197 sites of na­ in Bregenz in Austria, it was decided to pub­ society was established in 1905, and recogn­ ipants from Austria, Denmark, Finland, tional Earth-scientific interest, as a base for lish a manual on the practice of Earth- ised the importance of Earth science conser­ Great Britain, Ireland, Norway and the conservation. Further inventories on a science conservation across Europe. This vation; not long afterwards, in 1907, the Belated awareness Netherlands discussed subjects which in­ county level have also been completed. will be concerned with the relevant legisla­ State established its first nature reserves, cluded legislation ; conservation policy; In most European countries, the adoption of tion, policies and procedures, and will out­ among which was an inland dune area show­ The Spanish Geological Survey is currently classification, listing and selection of sites ; a more active policy for Earth-science con­ line the constraints on field studies to be ing active aeolian processes. editing several well-produced guides to site management and education. servation dates from somewhat later, often Earth-science sites as a basis for conserva­ found in the various countries. The work is In 1909, the Norwegian Geographical Soci­ from theendofthe 1960s and early 1970s, the tion and education. During the meeting, it became clear that, in intended as a first move towards standardis­ ety recommended that provisions for the timing being influenced by a general revival the participating countries, Earth-science ation, and as a stimulus for countries where, protections of scientifically and historically then experienced by the nature conservation In those countries with a federal structure, conservation has been treated more or less as as yet, Earth science conservation is not important geological and mineralogical sites movement as a whole. the initiatives for the preparation of invent o- a step-child in comparison to biological con­ practised. The start of Naßfeld Geo-Trail The Nigardsbreen Glacier

ened by gravel extraction. Also, some years ago, Nigardsbreen was threatened on a Lars Erikstad now lies about 4.5 km behind its 1748 posi­ much wider scale through its being included resistant hard lacquer. Each plaque gives in­ tion. Numerous moraine ridges lie in the in a projected hydroelectric development. formation about the scenery, the geology, outer part of the area from which the ice has Since the proposals called for water to be the stratigraphy, fossils, tectonics etc. in disappeared and these reflect a relatively taken from beneath the glacier and diverted non-sophisticated language. At scenic slow retreat of the ice front, broken by sev­ to a neighbouring valley, as well as the instal­ points even larger plaques, 150 x 70cm in eral halts and small advances, up to the lation of sediment interceptors and the £ £ "W"ts colour is sky blue and it is as hard 1930s. Between this moraine landscape and building of further roads, they posed a grave size, are mounted to present additional in­ I as the hardest stone ever could be formation which includes the whole pan­ the present end of the glacier, there is almost threat to the status of the glacier and its envi­ with big crevasses and deep hollows no morainic cover and most of the valley rons for glaciofluvial reference and re­ oramic view which, in some places, takes in a and gaps all over and right down to the bot­ great part of the Eastern Alps ! floor is occupied by a lake. The snout of the search. tom . Nobody can tell its depth although they glacier now lies a few hundred metres further have tried to measure it. When at times it upstream. Fortunately, during the planning process, pushes forward a great sound is heard, like Nigardsbreen was excluded from the project To inform that of an organ and it pushes in front of it un­ and, later, the area was established as a na­ Special plaques of even larger size are lo­ measurable masses of soil, grit and rocks big­ Point of reference ture reserve. The Norwegian Parliament cated at the starting point of each Geo-Trail. ger than any house could be, which it then also decided that those other parts of Josted­ These inform visitors about the length and crushes small like sand. In summer there is Nigardsbreen is one of the best studied gla­ alsbreen which were not affected by hydro­ other details of the trail, including a sketch an awful cold wind blowing off it. The snow ciers in Norway and the known history of its electric development should be declared a and other general information. which falls on it in winter vanishes in summer advances and retreats has proved of great National Park. In this way, the valley of Ni­ but the ice glacier grows bigger and bigger. ” value as a standard against which the ad­ gardsbreen has been secured both for the en­ In addition to this information available vances and retreats of other glaciers can be joyment of visitors and for scientific use as an along the trails, small displays of fossils and This vivid description of an advance of the compared. Its retreat from the 1748 limits is area important for reference and education. rocks have been set up in mountain huts and Nigardsbreen Glacier dates from 1744 and is well-documented for, in the 19th century, Geo-Trail still an excellent illustration of the impor­ However, the authorities responsible for the in local museums. A book with 167 pages, the glacier was observed by scientists on sev­ summarising all field and additional data, tance of glaciers in the Norwegian mountain eral occasions and it was chosen as a subject management of nature still face a difficult can be purchased for a very moderate price landscape. Glaciers deserve attention, not by a number of artists. In the present century task in establishing a management policy and even stickers, a T-shirt and a badge can only for their aesthetic value and, as de­ the area has been the subject of intensive re­ which can reconcile the scientific objectives of the nature reserve and the, often conflict­ be obtained on request. Since the summer of scribed above, for their destructive poten­ search and, over recent decades, the glacier ing, demands of the tourist industry. For in­ Hans Schönlaub were experts in the Earth sciences. With this 1990, a booklet which includes all the infor­ tial , but also as phenomena of importance to front, the mass balance, and the runoff and stance , when plans which had been drawn up in mind, proposals were drawn up for a Geo- mation about the Geo-Trail in an abstract the earth sciences. The opportunities they sediment transport of the glacier stream for an information centre were shown to Trail which would present some of the most form, and which briefly characterises each give to experience and study active glacial have been regularly measured. These stud­ tourists visiting the glacier, and their reac­ excitinggeologicalphenomenaof the Garnie stop, has been available free of charge. processes provide the basis for understand­ ies show that, over this period, the glacier’s tions were sought, it was found that a major­ Alps of Austria to the interested public, both ing the processes which operated in the past mass has increased and that the retreat of the Two years of operation have proved the ity thought the buildings proposed were too visitors from abroad and the local popula­ duringice ages and, in addition, the response ice front has now stopped. tion. From its concept, it was intended that whole programme to be very successful. Ho­ of glaciers to present climatic change makes large and dominating, and would adversely the Trail would provide a further attraction tel owners and private landlords have started it possible to trace climatic changes in the Scenically, the valley, in which the Nigards­ affect the natural character of the valley. ■ for the local tourist programme. to organise tours for their visitors and guests, past. Such studies naturally take into ac­ breen Glacier lies, is most spectacular and while other guided tours are organised by the count what historical records exist, but also has long been attractive to tourists ; accord­ L. Erikstad Early in 1985, the Geological Survey re­ local tourist offices. Many visitors, however, ingly, a tourist road has been built through rely greatly on data derived from glacioflu- Norwegian Institute for Nature Research ceived approval for the proposal from the choose their own programme which can in­ the morainic landscape and the moraine n Carinthia, the southernmost province vial sediments and from glacial deposits such PO Box 1037, Blindem communities involved, from the province, volve strenuous mountaineering or hiking ridges nearest to the road have been threat­ N-0315Oslo3 of Austria which borders on Italy, the as moraine ridge systems. Since glacial areas and from the tourist authorities of Carinthia through the Garnie Alps from west to east for Gail Valley and the surrounding Garnie are popular with tourists, they have great po­ I and the Austrian government. The project a distance of more than 150 kilometres. tential for public education, for the promo- Alps are known to geologists worldwide as was completed by the summer of 1988 and one of the most interesting Earth science » tion of the Earth science and for the further­ since then, has been open to, and much used Despite the publicity given to the Geo-Trail sites in Europe. This distinction arises from ance of Earth science conservation. by the public. By the close of 1989, costs had through TV news, newspaper articles and their being the only place in the Alps where totalled almost 1.5 Million Austrian Schil­ other PR activities, and despite its popular­ there is a continuous fossiliferous record of S. Smith-Meyer lings. ity, there has been neither exploitation of the Earth’s history—without any breaks— fossil localities nor any serious damage to the European largest icecap from the Middle Ordovician to the Triassic. The Geo-Trail covers an area of approxi­ information plaques. The future mainte­ Jostedalsbreen (487 km2)—the largest ice­ Asmight be expected, since the middle of the mately 350 square kilometres and consists of nance of the Trail has been guaranteed by the cap on the European mainland—is situated 19th century, there have been numerous five geological trails, each between 3 and local communities. ■ in the western part of South Norway, and is a publications which describe the various fos­ 6 kilometres in length. These can be con­ Dr. H. Schönlaub long and narrow plateau glacier from which sil groups and rocks in great detail, docu­ nected to form a super-trail with a length of numerous valley glaciers flow. Of these, the ment the geology on successive revised edi­ more than 100 km at altitudes from 700 to Geologische Bundesanstalt R asum ofskygasse 23 Nigardsbreen Glacier (48 km2), on the east­ tions of geological maps, give accounts of 2200m. Each trail comprises up to thirteen A-1031 Vienna ern side of the main plateau, is one of the newly collected fossils, and update synoptic stops, each marked by a plaque measuring best-known. This glacier is not a relict from studies of rock facies and tectonic evolution. 50 X 40cms and mounted on a wooden the Ice Age but dates probably from about frame. Additional stops, which connect the 2,500 years ago and, like all the other Scan­ individual trails are located at interesting dinavian glaciers, grew strongly in the “Lit­ To make people realise geological or palaeontological sites. tle Ice Age” of the 17th and 18th centuries. However, most, if not all, of the currently The plaques consist of resistant 3 mm thick This advance culminated in 1748 when the available knowledge has been accessible to, aluminium plates to which a UV-resistant glacier reached a position marked today by a and—what is even more important—has printed foil is glued ; for additional protec­ large moraine ridge. Since reaching this po­ been comprehensible to, only those who tion this foil has been covered with a layer of sition, the glacier has shrunk and its snout s the end of the century approaches, The kind of Europe we want Europe finds itself facing a number A of major challenges, and it is now more vital than ever that we should think about our own future and the kind of Europe we want. We at the Council of Europe want a Europe based on human rights, pluralist democracy and the rule of law, a Europe based on soli­ darity, and counting social and economic rights and the right to a healthy environment among its main concerns. The environment itself is one essential as­ pect of those basic rights. Thus, long before the political develop­ ments which are now bearing out the aims which we ourselves have pursued for so long, the Council of Europe drew up, in 1979, an international environmental instrument, covering the whole of Europe and open to non-member states: the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats. This Convention, which is known as the Bern Convention, embodies a full-scale strategy for the management of natural environ­ ments. It lays down general principles to be followed in any activity potentially contrib­ uting to the conservation of wildlife habitats. In accordance with the wishes expressed by the European Environment Ministers at the Conference organised by the Council of Europe last October, I want this Convention to become the central instrument of inter­ governmental co-operation on nautre con­ servation at European level. Similarly, in the matter of soil, our Organi­ sation introduced the Soil Charter as long ago as 1972. Very recently, in Brussels, the Council of Europe has started looking at the various initiatives needed nationally and in­ ternationally for soil conservation, pending the conclusion of a convention on the ques­ tion. On 18 and 19 December 1990, the Council of Europe will be hosting a major pan- European conference on the protection of forests in Europe. Specifically, the Euro­ pean Ministers responsible for forest man­ agement will be working out a European pol­ icy for the conservation of forest genetic resources. Information is an essential aspect of modern democracy, and our Organisation’s Centre Naturopa has been set up and given the re­ sources to provide information in all these fields. Obviously, the review N aturopa will also continue to provide a maximum of infor­ mation on protection of the environment throughout Europe.

Catherine Lalumière Secretary General of the Council of Europe RECENT

Late glacial cover sand containing a fossil podzol

Management

Sand-filled frost crack Earth science sites, similar to “De Zând­ koele”, can often be established through representations at a local level, especially if there is little potential for alternative and After these features of interest had been conflicting land usage. Close co-operation with local residents and the local authority is Boulder clay demonstrated to the mayor and councillors of the local community, proposals for the essential in the establishment of such sites management of the pit in the interests of con­ and adoption by a local geological society or conservation body is a good guarantee for fu­ FORMER servation were prepared and were imple­ mented in 1984. To make the site more infor­ ture management. In both cases, the more mative to the general public, an outline map the geological monument arouses feelings of recent times, as the climate approached its of Scandinavia, measuring 30 m by 30 m, was local pride, the safer is its future. ■ present condition, the hills were denuded of marked out on the pit floor using small boul­ Drs. G. Gonggrijp their natural woodland vegetation in the in­ ders. On this were placed the larger ice- De Research Institute for Nature Management terests of agriculture. On the exhaustion of carried boulders found in several parts of the PO B ox 46 their rather poor soils, farmers applied ferti- Netherlands, each at the location on the map N L-3956 Z R Leersum liserintheformof amixtureof stable manure representing its original source, so that visi­ Zândkoele above sea-level, to form the highest land in and sods. In places this has given rise to tors can appreciate the distance each trav­ the Netherlands, outside the Province of rather deep, blackish, humic soils. elled when carried by the ice sheet. For con­ Limburg. venience, a viewing mound was provided and there are two interpretative displays re­ After this ice sheet had melted, the hills it had Geological monument lated to the map and to the exposures to be formed were subj ected to the normal process seen in the pit faces (photo below). The lo­ of erosion and, when the climate had recov­ In 1981, the author examined a sandpit used cality now forms one component in a nature ered to something resembling the present, as a communal storage yard which had been trail designed for use by cyclists. became covered and stabilised by dense veg­ excavated in one of the glacically moulded etation. The Earth, however, does not stand hills known as the “High Land of Vollen- still and the warm inter-glacial climate was hove" after a small town lying a short dis­ not to last; it was succeeded by the glacial tance to the west. Although the face of the pit Gerard Gonggrijp Development of the landscape conditions of the most recent Ice Age. wasbadly exposed, enough could be seen for Heetveld is built on a isolated complex of low a geological section representative of the lo­ During this later glaciation, the ice sheet did hills formed of material pushed up by an ice cality to be discerned. This showed the boul- not reach the Netherlands, but the country sheet flowing from Scandinavia ; some derclay formed in the penultimate glaciation was nevertheless affected by a return of a 150,000 years ago, this ice sheet covered the overlain by the Coversand formed during Public attraction cold Arctic climate. In summer, the upper Netherlands during the glacial period which the last glaciation; the succession was not layers of the soil which covered the hills preceded the most recent Ice Age. At a time very special, but was geldom seen and there­ melted and slid down their slopes while, dur­ n comparison to many other European when the ice sheet was expanding, its ad­ fore of high educational value. ing dry periods, the strong Arctic winds countries, with their mountains, deep vancing front acted as a bulldozer and, when picked up and transported sand from nearby When the owners of the site were contacted valleys and cliffed coasts, the Nether­ it encountered some river sediments, which G. G onggrijp I valleys, to deposit it in sheltered areas, either and informed of its scientific value, it was dis­ lands is a country of low relief and, accord­ had originally been laid down as horizontal as flat layers (as around Heetveld) or as low covered that they had already agreed to its ingly, with few natural geological exposures. beds, it tilted and deformed these tobuild the dunes up to a few metres in height. These use for cycle-cross racing. However, the In consequence, the Earth scientists and the hills. Later, it seems that the ice overrode the wind-blown sand deposits are known as the physical properties of boulder clay proved interested laymen who want to examine hills for they now have a streamlined form as “Coversand”. unsuited to the needs of this sport and con­ what lies beneath our land surface have to if sculptedby ice movement. Still later, as the servation was given another chance. Even rely very largely on artificial exposures, such glacial period ended, the ice melted and, in Over the course of time, the meltwater and the apparent set-back had its silver lining, for as pits and quarries, to satisfy their curiosity. doing so, left a deposit of “boulder clay”— the strong winds sweeping over the hills took in the preparation of the racing track, fresh the clay, sand, gravel and boulders which it away fine material from the boulder clay Their reliance on man-made exposures of faces had been opened to supplement the had picked up during its southwards jour­ leaving the coarser gravel and boulders to this sort, however, is not without problems, original exposures ! ney. form a “desert pavement”. As the direction for such exposures tend to be short-lived and from which the prevailing winds came was In a face 2.5 m in height can be seen features to disappear through the dumping of rub­ In the northern part of the Netherlands, constant over long periods, some of the ex­ representing the last 150,000 years of geo­ bish, afforestation or just plain neglect. To there are several occurrences of low hills (up posed pebbles and stones were facetted by logical history over a large part of the north­ prevent the loss of such sites—and the to 20 m in height) which have been formed in natural sand-blasting. In areas with little ern Netherlands. Boulder clay cracked by unique information they provide —Earth- this way. Some of these have the ideal egg- snow cover, the ground was exposed to ex­ frost is the oldest deposit, its upper part hav­ science conservationists are succeeding in shaped streamlined form, known to geolo­ treme cold and was cracked by the frost ; ing been long since removed by erosion. their efforts to have more and more con­ gists as a drumlin, which is characteristically once formed, such cracks were enlarged with Above this eroded surface lies the Cover­ served and maintained in a “geologist- found where ice-sheets have moulded the each succeeding period of extreme cold. sand with a desert pavement containing friendly ” condition. One of these man-made rocks over which they once passed. Ice- stones facetted by natural sand blasting, the outcrops lies in Heetveld, a hamlet 20 km pushed features are also found in the central As the last ice age ended, podzolic soils were relics of a bleached podzolic soil and a recent north-north-west of Zwolle, the capital of and eastern Netherlands, where they are on formed under a cover of birch and pine dur­ podzol partly mixed with a humic soil. All in the Province of Overijssel. a much larger scale, rising to as much as 120 m ing a period of relatively warm conditions. In all, a unique soft rock exposure ! Cultural and social influence The historical, cultural and social influences of peatlands are varied and complex. Peat­ land encroachment overwhelmed Stone Age and Bronze Age settlement sites in parts of the west of Ireland, burying and preserv­ ing ancient field boundaries and cultivation ridges. Peatlands provided obstacles to com­ Saving our peatland heritage munication and travel and formed a barrier to the exploitation of land; they also were a To conserve what remains of the Irish peat­ natural defence against enemies, a hiding lands requires : place for treasures and bodies, a source of fuel by traditional peat cutting methods, and 1. Improved legislative control over devel­ storehouses for perishable food, particu­ opments that threaten their interest. larly butter. For some people —poets, art­ 2. An improved understanding of the hy­ ists, writers, musicians and others—they drology and hydrogeology of peatlands have been a source of inspiration but, for to enable effective measures to be taken many people in rural Ireland, undeveloped in their conservation. Irish peatlands were associated with hardship, poverty and disparaging comments. How­ 3. Increased financial and staffing re­ ever, improved economic, educational and sources to allow the purchase of peat­ travel opportunities are causing a gradual lands, the payment of compensation peatlands change in attitudes so that there is now in­ where this is necessary in the interests of creasing national pride in our peatlands and conservation, the monitoring and man­ a growing appreciation that they are part of agement of conserved sites, and im­ our national heritage. The development of proved promotional and interpretative Valuable heritage peatlands, particularly since commercial ex­ facilities. ploitation commenced in the 1940s, has 4. Increased emphasis on the creation of brought prosperity, particularly to the greater public awareness and pride in our Midlands—a prosperity which has brought peatland Areas of Scientific Interest by major social benefits and which is now under conservation scientists and administra­ than in any other European country with the threat as the peat resource is gradually being D onal Daly and the economic benefits of cultural and Blanket bogs, on the other hand, cover vast tors. sole exception of Finland. As such, the wild exhausted. eco-tourism avert destruction? The omens tracts, mainly in the wetter West of Ireland open spaces provided by peatlands are part 5. Expansion of carefully planned and con­ are good, but the time available is short, per­ and in mountain areas. Their peat is less in In recent times, the touristic potential of of the beauty, scenery and character of Ire­ trolled tourism development based on haps too short ! thickness and, unlike that of the raised bogs, peatlands is being realised as cultural tour­ land . Because of their ability to trap and pre­ conserved peatlands and providing alter­ is more “grassy” in character, with little ism and eco-tourism expand worldwide. serve animals, pollen and other plant re­ native employment to peatland extrac­ Sphagnum. Visitors, including scientists, are now com­ mains, they play a vital role in reaching an tion and utilisation. Formation and distribution ing to Ireland to appreciate a unique ecosys­ understanding of the geography of the last tem, a beautiful scenic landscape and, in 6. Further national and international en­ hink of the natural beauty of Ireland Peatlands (or mires) are accumulations of lO.OOOyearsandthisbenefitisnotmerelyaca- parts of the west of Ireland, an accessible wil­ couragement and support. and what comes to mind? Perhaps an waterlogged vegetable matter topped by a Extraordinary and special geological demic or historical for evidence from the derness area. Timage of rolling green fields, or of the surface layer of living plants. W ater plays a deposit peat can be used to assist in the understand­ Dr. D. Daly Lakes of Killarney, or of the surreal lime­ ing and prediction of present and future pol­ Geological Survey of Ireland vital role in peat formation as it acts as a pre­ Peat is a fascinating and extraordinary geo­ stone landscape of the Burren in County servative against decay by excluding the en­ lution and climatic effects. B eggars B ush logical material, although, despite its fasci­ Peatlands under threat Haddington Road Clare, but whatever it might be it will un­ try of oxygen. Consequently, peatlands doubtedly include the wild boglands or peat­ nation, it is seldom studied by geologists in Peatlands are also major habitats for plants IRL-Dublin4 form in wet areas where the rate of plant pro­ Peat cutting drainage, afforestation and ag­ lands. This is understandable—they are a Ireland. Itistheonlysedimentthat, initsnat- and animals, many of which are dependent duction exceeds the rate of plant decompo­ ricultural development have destroyed most scenic and extensive landscape feature and, ural state, consists of living plants growingon on peatland for their survival e.g. certain sition. of the peatlands of north-western Europe. although under increasing threat, many are the accumulated and now inanimate re­ speciesof Sphagnum and the Golden Plover. Ireland remains as one of the last strongholds still relatively undisturbed. In Ireland there are three types of mains of their ancestors. Thus, at the same They provide valuable genetic resources, of peatlands, although this status is now un­ peatland—raised bogs, blanket bogs and time, peat is both living and dead ! which arguably from a moral viewpoint Mention boglands to the Irish people and the der serious threat from human activities. As fens. The term “bogs” is used to describe should be conserved, but even from a utili­ automatic associations will be many and A striking characteristic is the high water a result of drainage and extraction, only 7% peatland where the only water source is the tarian viewpoint, they may in the future be varied—unproductive farmland; peat cut­ content—five metres of peat may contain as oftheraisedbogs remain relatively intact. At rainfall ; as a result such peatlands are acidic needed for the benefit of humankind, for ting for fuel and the generation of electricity ; much as 4.7 metres of water and as little as 0.3 the present rate of decline, except for six and poor in minerals. Fens, in contrast, are food, medicinal and other purposes. beautiful landscape ; an inspiration for poets metres of solid plant material. Water in peat, bogs already in part protected, all remaining less acidic and often alkaline as the main wa­ as in other rocks, is present in the free state in The development of peatland through ex­ wet, relatively intact, raised bogs of scien­ and artists-; bleak, wet and soggy areas; ter source is mineral-rich (usually calcium- the pores but, unlike other rocks, water is an traction has provided significant economic tific interest will have been destroyed by unique ecosystems ; a hindrance to develop­ rich) groundwater or surface water. ment ; a brown and purple wilderness ; tour­ essential part of the structure of the peat. benefits to Ireland, providing employment, 1997. Blanket bogs are being destroyed fuel, electricity, goods for export and substi­ more slowly but, even so, afforestation, ism potential. In these reactions lie the fu­ Raised bogs attain their finest development Only a small proportion is mobile, although tutes for imports. New peat-based products overgrazing and other human activities con­ ture of Irish peatlands, for they reflect in Ireland where they cover large areas of the this varies with the hydraulic characteristics. have been developed by Bord na Mona (the tinue to spoil the integrity of these areas so cvonflicting experiences and views as to the Midland limestone plain. Most have devel­ As a consequence, the engineering and hy­ Peatland Development Authority) which that it is difficult to find extensive and undis­ utilisation of a natural resource and hold the oped from fens—as the peat continued to ac­ drological significance of peatlands is often have potential in the prevention of pollu­ turbed tracts which now survive. The conser­ answers to a series of questions. Which will cumulate, it formed a flattened dome, complex and difficult to understand. predominate, conservation or destruction? slightly higher than the surrounding areas— tion . Peat is currently used to treat sewage ef­ vation of peatlands is the most urgent Will increasing pride in this aspect of our nat­ hence the name. Their peat consists largely Peatlands are a major landscape feature and fluent from septic tanks, to reduce odours, issue confronting nature conservation- ural heritage bring about successful conser­ of Sphagnum mosses and can reach thick­ geological unit in Ireland as they cover 16% and to absorb heavy metals from industrial including earth science conservation—in vation? Will concern for our environment nesses of up to 15 metres. of the land surface—a higher proportion effluents. Ireland. Hanklit

The coastal cliffs around the western part of Mons Klint the Limfjorden in North-West Jutland pro­ vide exposures of the white diatomaceous Mons Klint, the most famous and pictur­ These examples are sufficient to show the clays with intercalations of black volcanic esque cliff in Denmark, lies on the eastern importance of the contribution made by ash , known as the Mo-Formation and dating coast of the Island of Mons. More than 100 m D enm ark’s coastal cliffs to the study of the from long before the onset of the glaciations. in height, its face shows white Chalk broken geological history of Northern Europe. In These beds have been spectacularly dis­ by green patches which mark where mate­ addition, these cliffs have an important role torted and folded by ice moving from the rial, now vegetated, has fallen from the over- in the education of future generations of ge­ Most of Denmark is composed of sediments north during the last glaciation. The most im­ lying glacial deposits. The rocks have all ologists. Fortunately many of the sections laid down during the last 2.5 million years, an portant exposure is at Hanklit, a 65 m high been glacially distorted and deformed and they provide are protected by the Nature era known to geologists as the Quaternary. cliff on the northern coast of the island of the Chalk has been broken into 50 or more Conservation Law and the remainder are During this time, there were many periods of Mors. overthrust slices whose bedding can be seen registered as National Geological Localities intense cold when an ice sheet, somewhat from the bands of flint and chert to be of national and international interest. similar to that which still exists in Antarctica steeply, or even vertically, inclined. Be­ If these cliffs are to retain their value to sci­ today, gathered over Scandinavia and then Bovbjerg tween the slices of Chalk are found parts of ence, it is most important that they should flowed southwards over Denmark. These the sequence of glacial deposits which once continue to be subject to the cleansing action glaciations have largely determined Den­ Another important cliff exposure is to be overlay the Chalk before this was fractured of the sea, for it is only through marine ero­ mark’s geology and scenery—most of the found at Bovbjerg, on the west coast of Jut­ and displaced by later ice movement. country's surf ace has been carved in material land. The cliff provides a very instructive sion that their interest is maintained. Coastal brought from the north by the ice. north-south cross-section, almost 6 km in “protection” should not be allowed to inter­ length, which demonstrates the so-called Bornholm fere with this work of nature for natural phe­ In its journey southwards, the ice sheet Ice-Border Line, a boundary important in nomena are the basis of all culture and the passed over older deposits of sand, clay, the Danish landscape. This Line separates Bornholm lies in the Baltic Sea between rocks which underlie the landscape are the chalk and limestone. The ice dislodged great the south-western part of Jutland, which was Sweden and Poland. Its rocks are much older foundation for all other natural phenomena. masses of these rocks and transported them not covered by the ice sheet in the most re­ than those of the rest of Denmark and have We thus have a cultural duty to conserve our from their original sites before later deposit­ cent Ice Age, from the northern and eastern been brought to the surface due to move­ geological localities. ■ ing them as giant rafts mixed in with its own parts, which were covered by ice at that tim e. ments within the Earth’s crust. Its north­ A. Nielsen glacial deposits. As can readily be imagined, The limit of the ice on this occasion can be western coast provides exposures of ancient these rafts were distorted by ice pressures Danmarks Geologiske Undes0gelse traded from Bovbjerg to Viborg and from granites and on the south-east there are T horavej 8 when in transport and much can be learned there further southwards. The cliff reaches coastal exposures showing the island’s his­ D K-2400 N V C openhagen about the flow of the ice from their study. 40 m in height below the lighthouse and tory over a period of about 500 million Each time a cold period came to an end, the shows glacially distorted, ice-deposited sed­ years—from the deposition of rocks contain­ ice sheet melted and the water from the melt­ iments of various ages to the north and undis­ ing early fossils to the deposition of the ing ice modified the glacial sediments, over turbed gravels and sands washed out from Chalk. the ice by meltwater to the south. which it drained, to form a new suite of fluvio-glacial landforms. In addition, the growth and shrinking of each ice sheet caused fluctuations in sea-level and these are Stevns Klint recorded by the features produced at the This cliff lies on the eastern coast of the gelse time by marine erosion and deposition. Stevns Peninsule in South-East Sealand and 0 Evidence for all these events in the pre­ reaches a height of over 30m. Its exposures history of Denmark can be seen in the show Upper Cretaceous limestones, tra­ present coastal cliffs. These exposures owe versed by horizontal beds of black chert, be­ Hanklit much of their importance and interest to the low Lower Tertiary bryozoan limestone with continued work of the sea for they are kept layers of grey chert with a thin cover of glacial deposits above. This—the most significant clear and clean by present-day marine ero­ sion. The examples quoted below serve to type locality in Denmark—is of interna­ Danish tional significance and defines the boundary give some indication of the variety and im­ between the Mesozoic Era of earth history Denmarks Geologiske Undes portance of the earth science phenomena to with the younger Tertiary Era, the actual be seen around Denmark’s coasts. junction being marked by a bed of dark marl cliffs (the so-called Fish Clay). The rocks seen at Lonstrup Klint Stevns Klint thus span the period at which The coast of Denmark shows a great variety the dinosaurs (and many other groups) be­ of phenomena in itsbeaches, dunes and tidal This 12 km long coastal exposure lies on the came extinct and were replaced by new fau­ Arne Nielsen flats and in its cliffs cut in both hard and soft west coast of Vendsyssel, Northern Jutland. nas dominated by mammals. rocks. Many of the eroding cliff faces are of Its central part—Rubjerg Knude—rises to great scientific and educational importance 90 m above the sea and provides a section and some are recognised as of international which shows up to 50 m of glacial and fluvio- glacial sediments, which were originally laid value as standard reference sections. enmark is a small and low-lying down horizontally, but which were later dis­ country. The peninsula of Jutland Thanks to the Danish Nature Conservation torted and folded by ice movements during D and the 450 or so D anish islands of all Law, there is a general right of access to all the most recent glaciation. These are cov­ sizes together have an area of only 45,000 sq beaches ; in addition, a strip of land, 100 m in ered by about 40 m of wind-blown sand, most km and nowhere rise to more than 173 m width, along the coast is protected from of which has accumulated during the past 50 above sealevel. However, despite its small building and other human interference. On years. A lighthouse, out of action since 1956, area, Denmark has a very long coastline this basis, it has proved just as possible to has been almost buried by these new sand which extends for some 7,325 km, about a conserve many localitiesof value to the earth dunes. The cliff here retreats about 1.5 m per hundred times the length of the land frontier sciences, as it has to maintain the tourist at­ year and this serves to keep the exposures with Germany. tractions along the coast. open for research and education. Mons Klint W. A. W im bledon

wind-surfing centres and the like. The net ef­ fect of these is, of course, to alter and in some cases to totally change the very scenic coast­ line which attracted the visitors in the first in­ stance. Today’s pressures on the geology and land­ scape are the construction of new man made structures and their protection from the nat­ ural processes (slope erosion, landslipping and wave action), which always have acted, and always will act on the coast. In some ar­ eas, such as the Bournemouth cliffs, the beaches are artificially nourished, the con­ Chesil Beach has suffered great damage and disturbance through various schemes over the years. crete aprons and promenades are continu­ ous and the cliffs are graded and artifically vegetated—there is nothing natural left. In The cliff and landslip area of Lyme Regis built up by other areas, some of them internationally 190 millionyear old Lias rocks has been famous for the most important for their rocks and fos­ its giant fossil reptiles and ammonites for more than sils, the process has not gone so far but local two centuries. priorities continue to take precedence over the preservation of our landscape and scien­ The second instance is of the 100 m high Ju­ been tipped down the cliff to give this sup­ The tific heritage. rassic cliffs of the Isle of Portland, one of port. Many have said that demolition of a those sections recorded by D ’Orbigny as be­ building, which should not have been built, Housing developments which should not ing good enough to be the world standard for and compensation to the owners would have have been allowed close to cliff tops are now this piece of geological time (the Portlandian been a better and less damaging option for Dorset coast the trigger for applications for sea defences Stage). There the local authority decided, this heritage coast. and the grading and loss of the natural cliffs. without consultation, to protect a cliff-top At present it seems that the planning (devel­ Undeveloped stretches of coast close to footpath by tipping quarry spoil down the opment) system cannot cope with the situa­ towns are becoming fewer and these are cliff ; certainly not enough to support the cliff coming under increasing pressure from spec­ tion where internationally important land­ William A. Wimbledon Forthese reasons the county has always been ies of ancient life led to a realisation that the and the path, but sufficient to obscure a sec­ ulative developments. Only in those areas scape and geological sites are under threat. a honey pot and a training ground for stu­ Earth was much older than had previously tion that scientists come from all over the controlled by the army or large private es­ Responsibilities to conserve such a heritage dents of geology and geography. For those been believed, and that the relative ages of world to see. The wild undercliff of Portland “Heritage first!—or last ? ” tates does rural peace prevail. do not fit well into a local situation where lo­ researching Earth history (stratigraphy), it is the rocks could be determined by the diffe­ is inaccessible and so only time and weather cal authorities and councillors regard contin­ one of Europe’s most important areas, con­ rent fossils found in them. Dorset continues can wash away the remains of this futile ac­ ued economic growth and anything that will taining some of the best places to see rocks to be the subject of much research and inter­ tion. Examples attract more tourists as the absolute priori­ dating from the age of the dinosaurs, laid est. Since the earliest days of the science, The third instance is at Durlston Bay. There ties. Sadly such ends can ultimately only be down for the most part in ancient seas, be­ more than 3000 papers and books have been I shall cite just three examples of internation­ the Purbeck rocks record a dramatic change compatible with total urbanisation and the tween 200 and 60 million years ago. published on the county’s geology. he County of Dorset is one of the gems ally important sites where nature and geo­ that occurred over large areas of Europe at loss of all that is natural. ■ logy have come into conflict with modem so­ of England’s south coast and its Wes­ Dorset’s geology proclaims that Britain is the end of the Jurassic Period and the start of ciety. The first is Chesil Beach, an enormous Dr. W. A. Wimbledon sex landscape has been an inspiration very much part of Europe, despite any polit­ succeeding Cretaceous times. What had T storm beach which has been overtopped by N atu re C onservancy Council for many artists and novelists. Its attraction ical opinions to the contrary, for its rocks and Tourism and science been sea for the previous 60 million years be­ exceptional storms many times in recorded N o rth m in ster H ouse is, at least in part, due to its underlying rocks their fossils cry out to be compared to, for in­ came emergent land, with lakes and lagoons history ; there are accounts of large merchant GB-Peterborough PEI 1UA and its 120 km long coastline from the mas­ stance, those of Normandy or of the Boulon- Tourism in its broadest sense came to Dorset teaming with life. Durlston has been a fa­ ships having been carried over its top to be re­ sive landslips of Axmouth to Bournemouth, naisorWurtemburg. In the last century, con­ at about the same time as the first geological mous source of unique early mamals (some floated in Portland Harbour. The modern its largest town, shows some of the most di­ tinental geologists such as D ’Orbigny came revelations. Visits by George III to Wey­ of the first described in the rocks of the age of answer to these perhaps once in fifty year verse geology and landscapes in north west to visit British sites. The completeness of the mouth were a spur to the upper classes to dinosaurs) as well as fossil turtles, croco­ flood events has been to build a storm drain E urope. rock and fossil record in Dorset led come and take the air. Large hotels grew ; in diles, flying reptiles, lizards, dinosaurs and parallel with the crest back of the beach, de­ D ’Orbigny to take certain of its coastal cliffs Victorian times the coming of the railways fish. Alternations of hard and soft rocks have led stroying the contours of the feature and con­ as the global comparative standards for ma­ brought mass developments of holiday and to a variety of, often colourful, coastal taminating the body of the landform with However, twenty years ago, a block of flats jor portions of geological time (called by ge­ retirement homes for a growing middle landforms—including the fretted coastline foreign rock introduced onto the site for con­ was constructed close to the cliff top and on a ologists stages)—horizontal slices through class, followed in the present century by a of Poole Harbour, one of the largest natural struction. The irony is that no one knows if major fault line in the middle of an otherwise the enormous layer cake which is the Earth’s flowering of caravan sites. In the last fifteen harbours ; the rock arches and coves of the the drain will work when the exceptional natural cliffed bay. This was done despite op­ crust. years, road improvements have put Dorset Lulworth Fossil Forest area and, further within a few hours of the major centres of storm comes, but it is certain that a unique position from geologists and conservation west, the 30 km long shingle tombolo of Che- Dorset’s geological fame dates back to these population, and the growing numbers of visi­ piece of landscape, perhaps dating back to bodies. The cliffs eroded and, in 1989,2 mil­ sil Beach, described as one of the natural and to earlier studies in the late 18th and tors have been a catalyst for speculative de­ before the last Ice Age, has been irretriev­ lion pounds was spent to support the build­ wonders of the world. early 19th centuries when the first discover­ velopments of more housing, marinas, ably damaged. ing. An enormous cone of rock debris has ...- Swiss moraines national importance. This ensures that it re­ ceives maximum protection under the Fed­ eral Nature and Heritage Protection Act. Even so, the future of the moraine landscape area remains uncertain in so far as the grow­ ing scarcity of raw materials could justify the gravel suppliers’ claim to be acting in the Bruno Stürm Physiographical feature worthy of public interest. protection The moraine landscape on the edge of Swit­ Conclusions zerland’s central plateau, between the Riv­ ers Sihl and Lorze (Canton of Zug) will serve At the time of their maximum extension dur­ Gravel, sand and other mineral resources to illustrate the point. ing the Würm glaciation, the two glaciers are irreplaceable in the same way as unspoilt merged over a distance of some 5 kms. In the landscapes, and must therefore be used eco­ Albert Heim, the celebrated geologist de­ south-western part of the region, one can dis­ present to approximately 10—15 million cu­ Solution in sight nomically. scribed this area as the most magnificent cern four maximum stages of the Linth/ bic metres. Other reserves totalling some 40 landscape in the country. Where it has es­ The currently applicable legal texts and Rhine glacier. The corresponding terminal or 50 million cubic metres are not authorised The instruments available to the authorities caped the severest onslaughts, it has every planning instruments empower the authori­ moraines, outwash fans and meltwater for exploitation although their volume and for guidance and co-ordination have been appearance of an unspoilt rustic landscape ties to keep gravel quarrying under control in ince the earliest times, mankind has troughs have left their mark on the physical structure would permit this, according to steadily improved under pressure from pub­ with typical old farmhouses to delight the the moraine landscape area and to safeguard been changing the face of the earth. In appearance of this region to this day. current economic and technical parameters. lic opinion. eye, as well as fine cherry and pear orchards this valuable physiographical feature. How­ the past he proceeded gradually, and With the market under such strain, this rep­ S and marshy dells. Particularly attractive and As a result of warmer climates, the glaciers With the introduction of planning measures, ever, the problems associated with gravel his response to natural phenomena was resents a huge potential source of conflict. conspicuous are the numerous lime-tree retreated. Because the floor of the Linth/ areas for gravel extraction have been strictly supply have not been solved satisfactorily, more sensitive, imaginative and discrimina­ covered hummocks which local people refer Rhine glacier was only very mildly sloped, While it is true that the consequences of in­ demarcated. They are mainly limited to ar­ but only shifted into other sectors. No-one tive than is the case nowadays. The land­ to simply but affectionately as “Höger“. This unlike that of the Reuss glacier, its recession dustrial operations can be mitigated by care­ eas there this use has been autorised before. yet knows how the intervention system thus scapes fashioned in this way had a distinctive unique, impressive physiographical feature steps are more pronounced and more ful selection of gravel-pit sites and appropri­ established will react to the next rash of de­ character and created a harmonious effect. To achieve maximum economy in the use of came into being as a result of the combined sharply segmented. Evidence of glacial re­ ate landscape restoration, there are limits to velopment. Modern techniques allow increasingly dras­ mining grade reserves, a quota system has action of two major ice masses : treat in the landscape include moraine walls, what can be achieved: lack of rock-fill or of tic changes to be inflicted on the texture of been imposed by law to fix the amounts of The need now is for a supraregional plan to meltwater troughs and dead ice depressions, suitable materials for the purpose, the de­ the land and the balance of nature : land­ A transverse valley cut in the bedrock before material that may be quarried annually. In ensure that the commercial exploitation of many of which are silted up. mands of water protection and the farmers’ scapes are rationalised and cleared of what­ the ice age assisted the advance of the Linth/ the area of moraine landscape between the raw materials is economic and at the same interest in having land that is as even and as sine and the Lorze, the present figure is time respects the landscape and the environ­ ever appears to be of no use ; they are “do­ Rhine glacier from the basin of Lake Zurich easy to cultivate as possible, are consider­ mesticated!’, robbed of their specific around 800,000 cubic metres. ment. To ease the market, every encourage­ towards that of Lake Zug, occupied by the Conflicts ations which restrict the landscape artist’s character and their originality. The geologi­ Reuss glacier. As the glaciers moved into the ment must be given to the use of gravel scope ; valuable features like drumlins and Under the 1988 Act on the protection and substitutes. ■ cal and geomorphological evidence of thou­ previously ice free area from both sides, ice Situated on the edge of the Zurich conurba­ moraine walls can at best be reconstituted af­ maintenance of the moraine landscape, no sands or millions of years of landscape build­ reservoirs were formed in which varved sed­ tion, between the Rivers Sihl and Lorze, this ter the manner of the originals and on the new quarrying permits may be granted. The Dr. B. Stürm ing is among the principal victims. Most of iments were deposited. Strong meltwater in­ moraine landscape suffers from increasing same spot ; but their substance and internal rules may, however, be waived to permit Lämmlisbrunnenstr. 62 the damage is done unconsciously and can be flows led to large-scale aggradation. As the development pressure. The boom in the structure are lost for ever. schemes that are demonstrably in the public CH-9001 St G allen put down to mankind’s failure to appreciate ice masses moved forwards, they eventually building industry has caused the demand for interest to go ahead. the interrelationships and the values at covered up the materials deposited in the in­ gravel and sand to soar to unprecedented Only in the last few years have people be­ stake. But with information that is factually tervening space. Most of the “Höger” are levels. On average, a million cubic metres of come aware of the special significance and To ensure that all interests are duly taken correct and appropriate basic principles for drumlin-like lateral moraines formed in the material have been excavated every year for uniquenessof this moraine landscape, andof into account, the moraine landscape be­ legislation and planning, the process may yet phase of glacial advance and subsequently the past five years. Reserves in respect of au­ the threat that hangs over it. Public opposi­ tween the Sihl and the Lorze has been en- be channelled in the right direction. covered over. thorised quarrying schemes amount at tion to new quarrying schemes is growing. teredin the Federal Register of landscapesof A. L yytikäinen Finnish eskers

scapes, increasing risks to groundwater sup­ plies and by restricting the recreational use of esker areas .For economic reasons, gravel cannot be transported over distances of more than 60-70 km (and sometimes much less) and the gravel resources of Finland are somewhat unequally distributed on a re­ gional scale, with many areas rich in gravel having only a low level of demand. There is therefore great pressure to extract the lim­ Osmo Kontturi vegetation which contains a number of rare ited resources near the major towns and cit­ species. In spite of its poverty and lack of va­ ies so that natural glacio-fluvial landscapes riety in biotopes, the typical esker vegeta­ have largely disappeared from within 40-60 tion offers habitats for a number of species of km of all the larger population centres in animal—for example, the wild forest rein­ Southern and Central Finland, such as Hel­ deer, semi-domesticated reindeer and vari­ sinki. ous birds such as the tree pipit and the night­ jar. Such factors have been taken into This forms the background to the scientific account when the conservation of glacio- assessment of eskers as part of the case for fluvial landforms has been in the balance. their conservation and to the obligation to preserve untouched samples of natural The slopes of eskers frequently show the glacio-fluvial landscapes for future genera­ marks of ancient shorelines at various tions. heights and these tell of fluctuations in the level of the Baltic Sea or of local lakes. ll countries have their own charac­ Former shorelines are known to have been Investigations and planning teristic landscapes whose evolution important to Stone Age Man who used them is a result of an interplay of natural, for fishing and who built his houses nearby. The first definite moves towards the conser­ A vation of glacio-fluvial landscapes in Finland historical and anthropogenic factors. All Research into the natural history of these an­ parts of the world are now influenced by hu­ cient shorelines often yields results which date from 1972 when a nationwide investiga­ man activity and it is therefore becoming can be used to estimate the dates of prehis­ tion of eskers, financed by the National Bu­ more and more worthwhile to conserve nat­ toric dwelling sites. reau for Nature Conservation, was begun. ural landscapes as they are today, especially The principal aim was to gather together all if they are examples of some rare or uncom­ information relevant to planning the future mon variety. The glacio-fluvial, or esker, Conflicting land uses land use of the glacio-fluvial areas on a na­ landscapes of Finland are a case in point, tional basis. This was done in two phases, the Although human activity in esker areas can having developed through the interaction of first—the preparation of an inventory— be traced back to prehistoric times, human geological, biological and socio-economic being carried out in the 1970’s under existing Even before the Extractable Land Re­ tries, to Soviet Karelia and to North impact on glacio-fluvial landscapes is largely Conservation in practice processes over the past 12,000 years. legal powers for nature conservation, and sources Act came into force on 1 January America, and since they are liable to destruc­ restricted to the last few centuries, with vir­ the second—in which new methods of inves­ 1982, two Ministries had been involved with In legal terms, the protected glacio-fluvial tion over most of the Nordic countries, their tually all the major changes having been ef­ These landscapes date from the end of the tigation and analysis were developed and the planning for the conservation of glacio- areas of Finland are: protection, as first proposed by the Nordic most recent glacial period and were formed fected in the last 20 to 30 years. inventory was updated—took place after fluvial landscapes. A working group in the Council of Ministers in 1973, is a matter of in­ at a time when the Scandinavian ice sheet 1. Parts of nature reserves or national Today, the glacio-fluvial deposits of sand new laws governing sand and gravel extrac­ Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry had ternational concern and should be a matter was wasting away. They originated, either parks, with the status of state land ; and gravel are subject to a wide variety of tion had been passed in 1982. collected data from 1977-80 with the aim of of international co-operation. The failure to under the ice, or at the ice front, through the partially conflicting, and partially compati­ drawing up a co-ordinated national pro­ 2. privately owned land which has been de­ follow up this proposal is therefore a chal­ action of meltwater. Deposition and erosion The first stage in the preparation of the in­ ble forms of land use, including extraction of ventory was the identification of glacio- gramme for esker conservation and the Plan­ clared a nature conservation area ; lenge to earth science conservationists, es­ of sand and gravel led to the production of a ning and Building Department of the Minis­ pecially those interested in the Nordic coun­ gravel, supply of groundwater, building, re- fluvial landscapes on the Basic Map of Fin­ 3. special forest areas, designated as such by great variety of the so-called glacio-fluvial try of the Interior, from 1976-80, had cration and nature conservation. land and this was followed by traditional some government agency, usually the tries and Karelia; the lack of interest in the landforms, ranging form flat fans to knobs surveyed esker areas of national signifi­ fieldwork supplemented by oblique air pho­ National Board of Forestry. The total conservation of glacio-fluvial landscapes and ridges, but the most striking is undoubt­ Many camping sites, sports centres and tour­ cance. The results obtained were combined tography and, to some extent, Landsat im­ area protected is about 15,000 ha, or must also concern their colleagues in Central edly the esker, a meandering sand and gravel ist centres have been established in glacio- and reviewed by the new Ministry of the En­ Europe where there are remnants of glacio- ages. Each area was classified on the basis of about 1.5% of the area of glacio-fluvial ridge which can be tens of kilometres long, fluvial landscapes but, unfortunately, their vironment which was set up in 1983. The out­ fluvial landscapes and geotopes produced by its geological, geomorphological, biological landscape in Finland. In terms of the tar­ and which is aligned parallel to the direction attractive and highly varied scenic landforms come was a national programme for esker earlier déglaciations. ■ and landscape character and a recommenda­ gets set, this is obviously quite inade­ of ice movement. have not proved sufficiently resistant to such conservation which was ratified by the treatment. This has led to mild conflicts be­ tion was made regarding suitable future quate. Dr. O. Kontturi forms of land use. Data were collected for Council of State in 1984and which covers 159 tween tourism and nature conservation. esker sites with a total area of 96,000 ha. In For example, the Salpausselkä End University of Joenssu Internationally valuable asset 1,765 esker areas, with a total land area of Department of Geography Major environmental conflicts arise over some 240,000 ha—approximately 25% of addition to the sites included in this national Moraines—in international terms, the most P O B o x 111 By definition, glacio-fluvial landscapes are gravel extraction. Although the total con­ the total area of glacio-fluvial landscapes in programme, many areas of glacio-fluvial significant formation in Finland in the field SF-80101Joenssu restricted to areas of past glaciation. In Fin­ sumption of gravel is very small in compari­ Finland. Most glacio-fluvial landscapes lie in landscape are recognised at a regional level, of Quaternary Geology — are represented land, they form some of the most beautiful son to the gross resources, extraction has Northern and Eastern Finland—the most e.g. through being included in the lists of in only five conserved areas, all in the south­ scenery, especially where combined with caused considerable damage to the environ­ remote and sparsely populated parts of the conservation and recreation areas drawn up west . Since features of this type have a signi­ lakes, mires and rivers. They have a unique ment e.g. by harming beautiful esker land­ country. by the Regional Planning Associations. ficance which extends to all Nordic coun­ National Agencies of the Centre At the Council of Europe

Among other things, the Charter states that develop, on the basis of the principles they AUSTRIA HUNGARY NORWAY regional spatial planning seeks to ensure re­ had adopted, some instruments for promot­ Mr Peter SONNEWEND-WESSENBERG Mrs Louise LAKOS Mrs Irene SIGUENZA sponsible management of the environment ing, implementing and managing a policy of Naturopa-Zentrum Austria Department for International Relations Ministry of Environment and the resources of land, sub-soil, air and judicious and restrained land use. Stiftgasse 16 Ministry of Environment M yntgaten 2 (Swarovski-Haus), II. Stock PO Box 351 PO Box 8013 DEP water, as well as achieve the rational use of A-6020 INNSBRUCK H-1394 BUDAPEST N-0030 OSLO 1 the land. At their 9th session, in Ankara (Turkey) in October 1991, the Ministers will discuss the In 1988, the 8th session of Ministers respon­ various ways of improving instruments for BELGIUM ICELAND PORTUGAL sible for Regional Planning took these achieving rational use of land. These in­ M. Jean RENAULT Mr Sigurdur A. THRÂINSSON Prof. Miguel Magalhaes RAMALHO guidelines as a basis for discussing land use clude : Ministère de l’Agriculture Nature Conservation Council Liga para a Protecçào da Natureza problems, with particular reference to the — information instruments (e.g. cartogra­ Administration de la Recherche Agronomique Hverfisgötu 26 Estrada do Calhariz de Benfica, 187 Manhattan Center 7e étage ISL-101 REYKJAVIK P-1500 LISBOA new initiative of the Committee on quantitative use of land. In the resolutions phy, remote-sensing and databanks), Avenue du Boulevard 21 Agriculture aims at stopping soil and they adopted, the Ministers expressed their and monitoring instruments B-1210 BRUXELLES water pollution by nitrates, phos­ concern at “the increasing tendency in re­ — regulatory instruments and incentives IRELAND SA N M A R IN O A cent years to use land for immediate needs (e.g. fiscal measures and impact stud­ Mr Michael CANNY Mme Antonietta BONELLI phates, heavy metals and other pollutants CYPRUS Wildlife Service Département des Affaires Etrangères caused by manure from intensive animal without sufficient regard to the needs of pos­ ies); Mr Andreas PISSARIDES Office of Public Works Contrada Omerelli production. The Committee, in its report, terity or of nature”. — socio-political instruments (e.g. an inte­ Nature Conservation Service Leeson Lane Palazzo Begni stresses the importance of restoring or safe­ grated policy of local and regional devel­ Ministry of Agriculture and IRL-DUBLIN 2 Via Giacomini They noted that land was a limited, non- 47031 SAN MARINO guarding unpolluted soil and ground water opment, and co-operation between pub­ Natural Resources increasable resource which couldbe difficult CY-NICOSIA resources which are of fundamental impor­ lic authorities and the private sector). and costly to recover and which should there­ ITALY tance for the production of quality food. It fore be properly protected. They also Dr. ssa Elena MAMMONE SPAIN asks in particular for improvements on stor­ DENMARK Ministern dell’Agricoltura Mme Carmen C A SA L F O R N O S stressed the interdependence of the quanti­ age and spreading regulations in member International problem Ms Lotte BARFOD Ufficio delle Relazioni internazionali Direcciön General de Medio Ambiente tative and qualitative aspects of soil/land Ministry of the Environment 18, via XX Settembre Ministerio de Obras Püblicas y Urbanismo states in order to avoid that the application of protection and the interaction between spa­ Because the problem of land use in a new and The National Forest and Nature Agency 1-00187 ROMA Paseo de la Castellana 67 animal manure on farmland should result in Slotsmarken 13 E-28071 MADRID tial (land use) planning policy and environ­ complex subject which in the past was dealt any degradation of the environment but DK-2970 H0RSHOLM ment policy. with only at national level, there is a need for should rather improve soil and soil fertility. LIECHTENSTEIN international co-operation in the form of the SWEDEN This implies setting maximum limits on Mr Wilfried MARXER-SCHÄDLER pooling of information and experience re­ FINLAND Liechtensteinische Gesellschaft für Umweltschutz Mr Ingvar BINGMAN quantities applied as a function of soil culti­ National Swedish Environment Land versus development garding research and the application of its re­ Mrs Mirja RUOKORANTA Heiligkreuz 52 vation and manure quality. It also necessi­ National Board for Waters and the Environment FL-9490 VADUZ Protection Board sults. At present no machinery for co­ tates rules for storage, application periods People are now beginning to appreciate the Environmental Data Centre PO Box 1302 operation or documentation exists in this Haapaniemenkatu 5 S-17125 SOLNA and application technology as a function of true value of land as a resource limited in field on a Europe-wide scale. At national SF-00530 HELSINKI LUXEMBOURG geography, climate and habitation. quantity. It has been realised in a number of level, some land observatories have been set Mme Maryse SCHOLTÈS countries that socio-economic development Ministère de l’Environnement SWITZERLAND Soil pollution and the consequences for agri­ up, and the experience acquired by them consumes vast amounts of land every day FRANCE 5A rue de Prague Dr Ulrich HALDER culture was also one of the main concerns of could be of interest to other countries. Mme Sylvie PAU L-LUXEMBOURG-VILLE Ligue Suisse and that this trend needs to be controlled if the first European Agricultural Forum Direction de la Protection pour la Protection de la Nature the wastage and indeed permanent loss of The Ministers’ discussions might therefore W artenbergstraße 22 which was organised from 2 to 4 May by the de la Nature good-quality land is to be avoided. Hence lead to the following conclusions : Ministère de l'Environnement CH-4052 BALE Committee, in co-operation with the Aus­ MALTA the call for the rational use of land. At the 14, boulevard du Général-Leclerc Mr Joe SULTANA trian Federal Ministry of Agriculture and • the various instruments will not become F-92524 NEUILLY-SUR-SEINE CEDEX same time, however, rational land use Secretariat of the Environment Forestry and the European Confederation fully effective until individuals and institu­ M-BELTISSEBH TURKEY should not hamper economic activity and de­ of Agriculture. It was attended by some 200 tions have recognised that land is a sepa­ Mr Hasan ASMAZ velopment, since they play a key role in our GERMANY Turkish Association representatives of governments, parlia­ rate entity and a limited natural resource ; well-being and standard of living. Conse­ Mrs Helga INDEN-HEINRICH THE NETHERLANDS for the Conservation of Nature ments and the agricultural profession from Deutscher Naturschutzring e. V. and Natural Resources quently, an acceptable balance needs to be • conceptual and operational instruments Drs. P. W. BOS Central, Eastern and Western Europe. The Kalkuhlstraße 24 Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Menekse sokak 29/4 found between, on the one hand, policies to Kizilay Forum expressed the concern that soil pollu­ for rational land use can enable urban and Postfach 3202 10 Department for Nature Conservation protect and preserve the environment and, D-5300 BONN-OBERKASSEL 3 TR-ANKARA tion and soil erosion represented a threat not industrial development to be reconciled Environmental Protection on the other, the demands of present-day and Wildlife Management only to agricultural production in Europe with soil protection provided that the socio-industrial development. physical integrity of land is respected and PO 20401 but in fact it could endanger world food secu­ GREECE NL-2500 EK s-GRAVENHAGE UNITED KINGDOM rity. The Ministers acknowledged the existence the concepts of functional flexibility, re­ M. Gregorio L. TSUNIS Mr M. W. HENCHMAN Nature Conservancy Council of a conflict which should be resolved by an usability and ease of demolition are ac­ Société hellénique pour la protection In 1986, the Committee presented a report to cepted in respect of buildings ; de la nature Northminster House active policy of rational land use. With a view 24, rue Nikis GB-PETERBOROUGH PEI 1UA the Parliamentary Assembly in which it put to facilitating the implementation of suitable G R -10557 ATHENES forward a recommendation that member • satisfactory vertical and horizontal co­ policies at national level, they included in governments should give far more impor­ ordination of instruments for rational their final resolutions a set of principles on tance to their soil protection policies. ■ land use should increase their efficiency, built-up areas, agriculture and the country­ priority being given to the idea of sustain­ side. able development ; • a European campaign for rational land he European Regional Spatial Plan­ Instruments for rational land use use and sustainable development might ning Charter, the so-called Torre- be organised to alert the public to the Tmolinos Charter, which was adopted After analysing the main problems arising problems described above and promote Information concerning Naturopa, the Centre Naturopa or the Council o f Europe may he obtained from the Centre or the National Agencies listed above. in 1983 by the European Ministers responsi­ from land consumption, the Ministers went the implementation of relevant national ble for Regional Planning, sets out the fun­ on to consider the instruments with which policies. ® damental objectives of regional spatial plan­ the objectives outlined in Lausanne might be ning. achieved. First priority, in their view, was to Naturopa 65 E-1990