Comparative Effects of Mitragyna Speciosa Extract, Mitragynine, and Opioid Agonists on Thermal Nociception in Rats
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Fitoterapia 109 (2016) 87–90 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Fitoterapia journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fitote Comparative effects of Mitragyna speciosa extract, mitragynine, and opioid agonists on thermal nociception in rats Jessica M. Carpenter a, Catherine A. Criddle b, Helaina K. Craig a,Zulfiqar Ali a,ZhihaoZhanga, Ikhlas A. Khan a,KennethJ.Sufkaa,b,⁎ a National Center for Natural Products Research, University of Mississippi, MS 38677, USA b Department of Psychology, University of Mississippi, MS 38677, USA article info abstract Article history: This study sought to compare the effects of Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil. extract, alkaloids fraction, and Received 16 October 2015 mitragynine, a μ-opioid receptor agonist, to that of morphine and oxycodone in a test of thermal nociception. Received in revised form 2 December 2015 In Experiment 1, male Sprague–Dawley rats were administered test articles intraperitoneally (IP) 30 min prior Accepted 9 December 2015 to testing to compare the effects of M. speciosa articles to opioid reference compounds on the hotplate assay. Available online 10 December 2015 Test articles were vehicle, 10 mg/kg morphine, 3 mg/kg oxycodone, 300 mg/kg M. speciosa extract, 75 mg/kg M. speciosa alkaloids fraction, or 30 mg/kg mitragynine. To mirror consumer usage, Experiment 2 sought to de- Keywords: Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil. termine whether M. speciosa articles retained their biological activity when given orally (PO). Test articles Mitragynine were vehicle, 6 mg/kg oxycodone, 300 mg/kg M. speciosa extract, or 100 mg/kg mitragynine with hotplate Hotplate tests conducted 30 and 60 min after administration. Mitragynine produced antinociceptive effects similar to Opioids the reference opioid agonists when administered IP and PO routes. These data suggest that M. speciosa extracts Oral containing significant quantities of mitragynine may warrant consideration for further studies in primate self- Intraperitoneal administration models to yield insight into the abuse liability of this commercially available product. © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction opiate-like effects at higher dosages [3,6]. More recent work has shown that mitragynine is a high affinity μ-opioid receptor (MOR) Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil., also known as kratom, ketum, or agonist [1,7]. MORs are found throughout the central nervous system biak-biak, is a tropical tree indigenous to regions of Southeast Asia. In including limbic structures that mediate reward and subserve addiction its traditional use, the leaves of Mitragyna speciosa (abbreviated to [8,9]. M. speciosa) have been chewed, smoked, or made into a tea for medici- A recent work by Sufka et al. [10] sought to characterize the reward- nal purposes to relieve muscle pain and fever, reduce appetite, and con- ing properties of M. speciosa extract, an alkaloids fraction, and isolated trol diarrhea [1]. Furthermore, it has been reportedly used as a mild mitragynine in the Conditioned Place Preference (CPP) assay. This narcotic in place of opium [2]. Similar to opium, M. speciosa alleviated paradigm is based on the notion that animals prefer environments workers' pain caused by manual labor and increased endurance by previously paired with positively reinforcing drugs. Mitragynine preventing fatigue [2–4]. Today, it is consumed orally for tolerance of produced an increase in preference scores similar to the reference manual labor in extreme heat, recreational purposes among younger article, D-amphetamine. M. speciosa extract showed a similar but populations, and for treatment of withdrawal symptoms of opiate ad- not statistically significant pattern of effects as its major active con- diction [1]. Despite regulation in some regions of Southeast Asia, such stituent. These findings suggest that M. speciosa containing signifi- as Thailand, export of the plant to internet pharmacies has made kratom cant amounts of mitragynine possesses an abuse liability [10]. powders and extracts easily accessible and unregulated around the There are two limitations of the aforementioned abuse liability world [1,5]. study. First, M. speciosa products were administered intraperitoneally Twenty-five alkaloids have been isolated and chemically character- (IP), not orally, as CPP protocols do not lend themselves to oral route ized from M. speciosa with mitragynine being the most dominant of administration due to poor absorption and bioavailability that are alkaloid. Mitragynine comprises 66% of the total alkaloid mixture. It necessary to establish conditioning. Second, D-amphetamine was used has been reported to exhibit stimulant-like effects at low dosages and as a positive control. Given the MOR agonist activity of mitragynine, a more appropriate positive control would be an opioid agonist such as morphine or the commonly abused prescription analgesic oxycodone. ⁎ Corresponding author at: Department of Psychology, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA. Given that mitragynine shows MOR agonist activity, it would not be E-mail address: [email protected] (K.J. Sufka). surprising to find this botanical constituent to show activity similar to http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2015.12.001 0367-326X/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 88 J.M. Carpenter et al. / Fitoterapia 109 (2016) 87–90 other opioid compounds. One assay that shows robust sensitivity to opi- mitragynine in the CPP paradigm. Drug dosages were increased by 2– oids and easily lends itself to multiple routes of administration is the 3× to accommodate pharmacodynamic differences of absorption and hotplate test. The opioid agonists morphine and oxycodone increase first pass metabolism when using oral gavage route over IP route of ad- hotplate latencies that reflect the antinociceptive effects of these com- ministration [13]. Therefore, dosages in Experiment 2 were increased pounds. The goal of this research is two-fold. First, we sought to deter- accordingly for both reference compound and mitragynine [14,15]. mine whether IP administration of M. speciosa and mitragynine However, we found that dosage of M. speciosa was at the limit for solu- mirrored hotplate activity of morphine and oxycodone. Second, we bility and was unable to increase further. sought to determine whether mitragynine retained such effects when given via an oral route of administration. 2.4.1. Experiment 1 Rats were given vehicle, 10 mg/kg morphine, 3 mg/kg oxycodone, 2. Materials and methods 300 mg/kg M. speciosa extract, 75 mg/kg M. speciosa alkaloids fraction, or 30 mg/kg mitragynine IP 30 min prior to hotplate testing. Sample 2.1. Plant material sizes were n = 9–10. M. speciosa leaves were purchased from Bouncing Bear Botanicals 2.4.2. Experiment 2 (Lawrence, KS, USA). The plant material was identified by Dr. Rats were given vehicle, 6 mg/kg oxycodone, 300 mg/kg M. speciosa Vijayasankar Raman at The National Center for Natural Products extract, or 100 mg/kg mitragynine orally. During drug administration, Research at the University of Mississippi (voucher no. 12433). the rat was gently restrained in an upright position while a stainless steel gavage feeding tube was inserted into the stomach to deliver com- 2.2. Extraction pounds. Hotplate tests were conducted at 30 and 60 min post drug ad- ministration. Sample sizes were n = 8–9. M. speciosa leaves were extracted with methanol (3 l × 4× for 24 h) at room temperature and the solvent was removed using rotavap 2.5. Hotplate test to yield dried extract. The extract was mixed with 5% HCl in water and extracted with ethyl acetate. The water soluble part was made basic The antinociceptive effects of test compounds against thermal (pH 9–10) with liquid ammonia and extracted with ethyl acetate. The nociception were quantified using the hotplate test. Rats were gently ethyl acetate soluble part from basic media was dried in vacuum to ob- placed into an acrylic enclosure positioned on top of a hotplate tain an alkaloid enrich fraction. Repeated column chromatography of al- (model # 52-8570, Harvard Apparatus) maintained at 52 °C. The latency kaloid enrich fraction over silica gel, using chloroform/methanol (9:1) to flutter or lick a hindpaw or perform an escape response (i.e. jumping and hexanes/acetone/liquid ammonia (210:90:1) solvent systems, out of the apparatus) was recorded. A 45 s cut-off score was employed mitragynine (97% pure) was purified. The structure of mitragynine to avoid tissue damage. All animals were returned to their home cages was confirmed by mass and NMR data analyses including 1D NMR upon completion of testing (and in between tests in Experiment 2). and 2D NMR [11], as well as by comparing NMR data with reported values [12]. 2.6. Data analysis 2.3. Animals Data analyses were conducted using SPSS software. Data was ana- lyzed using one-way ANOVAs with Fisher's planned post-hoc analyses. Male Sprague Dawley rats (175–200 g Harlan, Indianapolis, IN) were housed in pairs and maintained under a 12-h light/dark cycle in a tem- 3. Results perature and humidity controlled vivarium. Food and water were avail- able ad libitum up to the day before testing. In Experiment 1, animals 3.1. Experiment 1 — IP administration of test articles were handled daily 5 days prior to testing in order to minimize any experimenter-related stress. In Experiment 2, naive animals were han- The effects of intraperitoneal (IP) administration of M. speciosa prod- dled and trained to drink a small amount of sucrose water (.2 ml) via ucts and the opioid reference compounds on hotplate response laten- gavage-type feeding tube twice daily for a period of 5 days. Such train- cies are summarized in Fig. 1. Morphine, oxycodone, and mitragynine ing was performed in order to acclimate animals to the gavage proce- produced antinociceptive effects in this assay. A one-way ANOVA of dure for oral route of administration and reduce experimenter-related these data revealed a significant main effect for treatment, F(5,53) = stress.