august 2011 . Vol 4 . Issue 8

Combating Terrorism Center at West Point CTC Sentinel Objective . Relevant . Rigorous

Contents AQAP’s ‘Great Expectations’

FEATURE ARTICLE 1 AQAP’s ‘Great Expectations’ for for the Future the Future By Bruce Riedel By Bruce Riedel

Reports 4 The Revival of Shi`a Militancy in Iraq By Ramzy Mardini 8 Al-Qa`ida’s Confused Messaging on Libya By Barak Barfi 12 Germany Increasingly a Center for Terrorism in Europe By Sajjan M. Gohel 16 Islamic Activism in Europe: The Role of Converts By Emmanuel Karagiannis 19 The Rise of Salafists in Tunisia After the Fall of Ben Ali By Aaron Y. Zelin

21 Recent Highlights in Terrorist Activity 24 CTC Sentinel Staff & Contacts

merican counterterrorism in the face of adversity is a model for officials recently warned other al-Qa`ida units now threatened. that al-Qa`ida in the Arabian In particular, with al-Qa`ida’s core in Peninsula (AQAP) is trying Pakistan under severe pressure due to Ato produce the lethal poison ricin to be Usama bin Ladin’s death in May 2011, packed around small bombs for use in AQAP provides insights into the jihad’s attacks against the U.S. homeland.1 This capacity to rally back from defeat. latest development is further evidence of AQAP’s growing threat to the United AQAP has done far more than just About the CTC Sentinel States. The group has demonstrated survive. In the last two years, it has The Combating Terrorism Center is an remarkable resiliency and adaptability in emerged as a potent al-Qa`ida threat to independent educational and research its history, surviving several leadership the U.S. homeland, staging two attacks institution based in the Department of Social changes and major crackdowns in both on American cities and inspiring other Sciences at the United States Military Academy, Saudi Arabia and Yemen. Its success attacks by American Muslims, including West Point. The CTC Sentinel harnesses U.S. Army soldiers attracted to AQAP’s the Center’s global network of scholars and message.2 AQAP has developed a new practitioners to understand and confront 1 Eric Schmitt and Thom Shanker, “Qaeda Trying to strategy for attacking the United States contemporary threats posed by terrorism and Harness Toxin for Bombs, U.S. Officials Fear,” New York which emphasizes small and simple other forms of political violence. Times, August 12, 2011. As stated by the New York Times, operations designed to undermine the “For more than a year, according to classified intelligence economy and “hemorrhage” a country in reports, Al Qaeda’s affiliate in Yemen has been making ef- the midst of a severe economic crisis. The views expressed in this report are those of forts to acquire large quantities of castor beans, which are the authors and not of the U.S. Military Academy, required to produce ricin, a white, powdery toxin that is so the Department of the Army, or any other agency of the U.S. Government. deadly that just a speck can kill if it is inhaled or reaches 2 For example, U.S. Army Major Nidal Malik Hasan and the bloodstream.” Private First Class Naser Abdo.

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AQAP has also led the jihadist In January 2009, the al-Qa`ida AQAP. He constructed the bomb that movement in adapting the traditional franchises in Saudi Arabia and Yemen his brother Abdullah used in a failed al-Qa`ida narrative and ideology to the merged after the Saudi branch had suicide assassination attempt against new paradigm of the “Arab Spring.” been effectively repressed by Saudi Saudi Arabia’s counterterrorism chief, AQAP embraced the revolutionary authorities. Bin Ladin and his deputy Prince Muhammad bin Nayif, in August “tsunami” both in name and action. Ayman al-Zawahiri helped orchestrate 2009. He built the bomb that Umar It articulated a new narrative for the merger. A Yemeni with close ties Farouk Abdulmutallab, a Nigerian, used al-Qa`ida that seizes on the Arab to Bin Ladin, Nasir al-Wihayshi, was in his attempt to blow up Northwest Spring and puts it into a jihadist chosen to lead the group with a Saudi Airlines Flight 253 on Christmas Day context. In Yemen, the terrorist group deputy, Said al-Shihri. Both had been 2009 as it was descending over southern has exploited the chaos and confusion in prison already for their al-Qa`ida Ontario to Detroit. He also built the around the revolution against President beliefs. Al-Wihayshi had escaped parcel bombs that AQAP dispatched to Ali Abdullah Salih to expand its room from a Sana`a jail in February 2006, Chicago on the eve of the U.S. elections for maneuver and safe havens. in October 2010, trying to blow up UPS “It is difficult to determine and FedEx planes that were instead AQAP is an ambitious organization found in Dubai and England due to a tip that has by its own statements “great the extent to which AQAP from Saudi intelligence. AQAP claims a expectations” for the future. The has actually expanded its similar parcel bomb was responsible for United States will need a focused but blowing up a UPS delivery aircraft in comprehensive policy and significant power base, and caution Abu Dhabi on September 3, 2010. assistance from Saudi Arabia to deal should be used in assessing with AQAP’s operatives. AQAP also has an American face, claims of its victory or the New Mexico-born and Colorado- This article highlights al-Qa`ida’s defeat in any particular educated Yemeni-American cleric resiliency in the Arabian Peninsula, Anwar al-`Awlaqi. Some suggest that examines its strategy of defeating the location. What is clear is al-`Awlaqi is the head of the group’s United States and its allies through that Yemen is increasingly foreign operations. He is also one of “a thousand cuts,” and identifies the the movers behind AQAP’s innovative group’s local and regional ambitions. chaotic and the central English-language web journal, Inspire, government, always weak which serves as the group’s principle Resiliency: Bouncing Back propaganda outlet to the West. It Al-Qa`ida has long been active in Yemen, outside the urban areas, is is produced by AQAP’s al-Malahim the ancestral homeland of Usama bin becoming weaker still and production studio.5 Ladin. One of its earliest major terrorist attacks was conducted in Aden in 2000 is preoccupied with the Strategy of a Thousand Cuts when an al-Qa`ida cell nearly sank the struggle for power.” AQAP devoted the third issue of Inspire USS Cole. It has also been active in Saudi to the parcel bomb plot and to outlining Arabia since the late 1990s when it tried its strategy for defeating the United to attack the U.S. Consulate in Jidda States. It expanded beyond traditional during U.S. Vice President Al Gore’s while al-Shihri had been released al-Qa`ida strategic thinking. AQAP visit in 1998.3 The head of al-Qa`ida in from Guantanamo to Saudi custody in claims it now has a team of crafty Yemen, Abu Ali al-Harithi, was killed December 2007. Together they rebuilt bombmakers producing its wares that by a U.S. drone in Yemen in 2002, the shattered remnants back into a can supposedly get through the most which disrupted the group’s activities deadly force relatively quickly. The sophisticated airport surveillance for several years. Al-Qa`ida in Saudi group’s ability to recover from adversity equipment in the world. It says its goal Arabia was ordered by Bin Ladin to rise demonstrates that al-Qa`ida franchises is to “hemorrhage” the U.S. economy by up against the House of Saud in 2003, are adept at bouncing back when they conducting waves of small-scale attacks and for the next two years it waged a have smart leadership like al-Wihayshi similar to the parcel bombs (a “thousand bloody campaign across the kingdom to and al-Shihri.4 cuts”) and the Christmas Day plot that topple the Saudi monarchy. The Saudi force added security countermeasures. authorities fought back with clever They were joined by others including a The cover proudly proclaimed that the and resourceful counterattacks that skilled bombmaker, Ibrahim al-Asiri. Al- parcel plot cost just $4,200 to execute. devastated al-Qa`ida’s infrastructure Asiri, who is probably around 29-years- The Detroit operation has already in the country. old, is the Saudi master bombmaker for produced expensive new security measures at airports from Amsterdam 4 For a number of articles on the development and lead- to Auckland. ership of AQAP, see Ramzy Mardini ed., The Battle for Ye- 3 Thomas Hegghammer, Jihad in Saudi Arabia: Violence men: Al-Qaeda and the Struggle for Stability (Washington, and Pan-Islamism Since 1979 (Cambridge: Cambridge D.C.: The Jamestown Foundation, 2010). On the merger, University Press, 2010), p. 114. Hegghammer’s book is see Michael W.S. Ryan, “Al-Qaeda’s Purpose in Yemen the best study to date on al-Qa`ida’s Saudi roots and de- Described in Works of Jihad Strategists,” Terrorism Mon- 5 Inspire magazine’s issues can be found on a number of velopment. itor 8:4 (2010). websites, including Flashpoint Partners.

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These new attacks are notable for Great Expectations: Local and Regional particular location. What is clear is their relatively small footprint. They Although AQAP is plotting against that Yemen is increasingly chaotic and are harder to defeat because they are the U.S. homeland, it does not want to the central government, always weak less complex. Unlike the 9/11 plot or replace the al-Qa`ida core in Pakistan outside the urban areas, is becoming the 2006 failed attempt to blow up 10 as the leader of the global jihad. AQAP weaker still and is preoccupied with airliners en route from London to North leader Nasir al-Wihayshi publicly the struggle for power. Al-Qa`ida is America, these efforts are conducted proclaimed his group’s allegiance to not a player in the future of Sana`a. by a small number of people. Only a Ayman al-Zawahiri as the new amir of It will not take over the country as few participated in the planning and al-Qa`ida in July 2011. The most recent a whole. Yet with a weak central execution, and the plots went from edition of Inspire was dedicated to Bin government, al-Qa`ida will face concept to action in a few months. Ladin’s memory and martyrdom, and reduced counterterrorism pressure Abdulmutallab, for example, was it clearly endorses al-Zawahiri as the from the Yemeni authorities. recruited and trained for his mission leader of global jihad, saying “now in Shabwa Province only a few weeks Shaykh Ayman carries the banner” of Yemen, of course, suffers from numerous before his attack.6 jihad. Yet AQAP does aspire to play a other challenges that divert attention much larger role in Yemen, the Arabian from AQAP. It is running out of both oil The recent intelligence on AQAP’s Peninsula and the Arab world as a and water, it has a huge unemployment attempts to acquire ricin fit within this whole. and underemployment crisis, the median strategy. According to U.S. officials cited age of its rapidly growing population in the New York Times, “evidence points to In Yemen, it has taken advantage of is 19, and much of the population is efforts to secretly concoct batches of the the uprising against the Salih regime addicted to qat, undermining work [ricin] poison, pack them around small to expand significantly its area of explosives, and then try to explode them operations, especially in the southern “The Arab Spring was not in contained spaces, like a shopping provinces. In Abyan, Hadramawt, mall, an airport or a subway station.”7 Marib, Shabwa and other remote created by al-Qa`ida, and provinces it is more active than ever the vast majority of Arabs As part of this strategy, AQAP is using before. In Abyan’s capital, Zinjibar, its propaganda message to inspire under the banner of Ansar al-Shari`a are not seeking al-Qa`ida’s American Muslims to act on their own (Followers of Islamic Law), it has taken help in removing their to attack targets on U.S. territory. Al- over significant parts of the city.10 The `Awlaqi says he encouraged Major Nidal extent of al-Qa`ida’s gains in Yemen in dictators. Yet the winter Malik Hasan to conduct his carnage the last few months is unclear. It says of peaceful change has at Fort Hood in Texas on November 5, in Inspire that “the country is falling 2009, an attack that killed 13 people. apart and our brothers are busy picking given way to violence from More recently, another U.S. soldier of up the pieces, its like walking into an Tripoli to Hama to Aden. Palestinian descent, Naser Abdo, tried orchard of ripe fruit that is falling off to carry out an attack at the same base.8 the branches and all you have to do is In this more complex and The police found a copy of an article walk through with a basket over your chaotic world, al-Qa`ida 9 11 from Inspire in his possession. head.” will have opportunities to Together with what al-Qa`ida calls the Much of this is true. Yemen has thrive and develop.” “bleeding wars” in Iraq and Afghanistan, splintered between Salih loyalists led and perhaps another one some day by his son, Ahmed—who commands in Yemen, these smaller attacks are the Republican Guard—the democracy designed to wear the United States down movement, defecting army commanders, habits and productivity. Whatever through attrition just as they believe tribal warlords, southern secessionists regime replaces Salih will have to the mujahidin war in Afghanistan in and Islamic groups of many different focus on these fundamental challenges, the 1980s bled the Soviet Union until it varieties. The Salih forces, however, leaving AQAP with space and time to collapsed. The terrorists said they had like to label all opposition as al-Qa`ida, export terrorism. such great hopes for the parcel bomb the reformers accuse the government of plot in October 2010 that they included allowing al-Qa`ida to advance to scare A strengthened AQAP in Yemen is a copy of the novel Great Expectations in the the West and the Saudis, and AQAP certain to try to put more pressure mailing envelope concealing the bombs. has every reason to exaggerate its own on Saudi Arabia and to strike Saudi Apparently, the Dickens masterpiece is successes. As a result, it is difficult to targets. AQAP’s military chief Qasim a favorite of al-`Awlaqi. determine the extent to which AQAP al-Raymi warned the Saudi leadership has actually expanded its power base, in July 2011 that they are still regarded 12 6 Adam Nossiter, “Lonely Trek to Radicalism for Terror and caution should be used in assessing as “apostates.” Al-Raymi specifically Suspect,” New York Times, January 16, 2010. claims of its victory or defeat in any put Saudi King Abdallah, Crown Prince 7 Schmitt and Shanker. Sultan, Interior Minister Prince Nayif 8 “U.S. Soldier Indicted in Texas Bomb Plot,” Agence 10 Hakim Almasmari, “Al Qaeda Seizes Town in South- France-Presse, August 9, 2011. ern Yemen, Residents Say,” CNN, August 18, 2011. 12 “Qaeda Chief Wants Saudi Leaders Dead,” Kuwait 9 Ibid. 11 Inspire, Summer 1432, 2011, p. 3. Times, July 30, 2011.

3 august 2011 . Vol 4 . Issue 8 and his son, Muhammad bin Nayif, on AQAP is probably correct. The Arab the target list.13 Spring was not created by al-Qa`ida, The Revival of Shi`a and the vast majority of Arabs are not Militancy in Iraq The group also has ambitions to seeking al-Qa`ida’s help in removing expand its cooperation with the al- their dictators. Yet the winter of peaceful By Ramzy Mardini Shabab movement across the Gulf of change has given way to violence from Aden in Somalia. Al-Shihri has spoken Tripoli to Hama to Aden. In this more the u.s. military is required to in grandiose terms about the two complex and chaotic world, al-Qa`ida completely withdraw its forces from movements some day being capable of will have opportunities to thrive and Iraq no later than December 31, 2011, in blockading the Bab al-Mandab Strait to develop. As the region becomes more accordance with the bilateral U.S.-Iraq prevent oil traffic from moving through convulsed with change, AQAP will Security Agreement signed in December the strategic choke point at the end serve as a role model for other al-Qa`ida 2008 by outgoing President George W. of the Red Sea. It is more realistic to franchises to copy due to its resiliency Bush and Iraqi Prime Minister Nuri al- anticipate the two groups cooperating and adaptability. Maliki. As Iraq struggles to normalize its in attacking individual tankers. Al- institutions and international relations, Qa`ida did attack a French tanker, the Conclusion renewed efforts by various insurgent MV Limburg, in October 2002, causing AQAP is a complex challenge and threat groups have sought to showcase their spillage of 90,000 barrels of oil into the to the United States. Covert action and influence on the backdrop of the U.S. Gulf. intelligence operations have a role to withdrawal. In late July 2011, a report play in disrupting AQAP, but they will released by the U.S. inspector general for Perhaps AQAP’s most important need to be part of a much larger strategy Iraq reconstruction asserted worsening accomplishment, however, has been in that helps to rebuild the Yemeni state, security conditions as compared to the the ideological arena. Al-Qa`ida was address its daunting socioeconomic previous year, and a higher risk for caught off guard by the revolutions challenges, and attacks the ideology U.S. personnel. Indeed, for the entire that started in Tunisia and Egypt in the of the jihadists. Drones alone are not year of 2010, the U.S. military suffered winter of 2010-2011 (albeit so was the enough, as former U.S. Ambassador 22 fatalities due to hostile fire. This rest of the world). The early responses Edmund Hull has rightly noted.15 year, and only as of July 2011, 31 U.S. from al-Zawahiri and the al-Qa`ida soldiers have been killed in Iraq, mainly core in Pakistan were hesitant and Given the serious economic crisis in at the hands of Shi`a militants backed often incoherent. The popular mass the United States and the magnitude by Iran. demonstrations did not have an Islamic of Yemen’s problems, only its neighbor message at their core in the early days Saudi Arabia has the resources to fully The severe political impasse in Baghdad, and did not embrace jihad. No one in address the challenge. For decades, an increasingly frustrated population, Tunis or Cairo was calling for Usama bin American and Saudi officials have tried and an unpopular and ineffective Ladin to lead the revolution. Al-Qa`ida to work together to help Yemen. Today, central government are contributing to looked out of date and irrelevant. however, their challenge is greater than anti-regime violence in Iraq, especially ever before. among Sunni insurgents such as al- AQAP has helped fill the propaganda Qa`ida in Iraq (AQI) and the Jaysh vacuum. It called the revolutions Bruce Riedel is a Senior Fellow in the Rijal al-Tariq al-Naqshabandi (JRTN) a “tsunami” of change, and while Saban Center for Middle East Policy at the movement.1 These factors, however, candidly admitting al-Qa`ida was not Brookings Institution and a professor at are not underlying the revival in Shi`a leading them, embraced the tsunami as Georgetown University. He has advised four militancy in the country. Instead, the good for jihad and good for al-Qa`ida. U.S. presidents on Afghanistan and was fundamental principle driving the The downfall of traditional al-Qa`ida asked by President Barack Obama in January unstable environment is the heightened enemies such as Hosni Mubarak, Bashar 2009 to chair an interagency strategic review level of uncertainty, both on the local al-Assad, Mu`ammar Qadhafi and Ali of American policy toward Afghanistan and and regional stage. The national debate Abdullah Salih is a positive development Pakistan, which was completed in March surrounding the continuance of the for the global jihad. Anwar al-`Awlaqi 2009. He is the author of The Search for U.S. presence dominates the local was particularly articulate and clear in Al Qaeda: its Leadership, Ideology and environment, while the regional factor is arguing that these changes would open Future. His latest book, Deadly Embrace: driven by the uneasiness ushered in by doors for al-Qa`ida to exploit in the Pakistan, America and the Future of the upheavals of the “Arab Spring.” In future and should be seen as the result Global Jihad, was published in early 2011. the final analysis, both make available of al-Qa`ida’s years of struggle against a strategic logic for Iran and its Shi`a the “apostates.”14 Al-Zawahiri has since proxies to exploit the Iraqi scene reiterated many of the same points. in hopes of influencing a particular outcome that favors their interests.

13 Ibid. 14 As stated in Inspire, “The Tsunami of Change. The 1 For more on the JRTN movement, see Michael Knights, unfolding revolution has brought with a wave of change. 15 Edmund Hull, “To Save Yemen,” Foreign Policy, June “The JRTN Movement and Iraq’s Next Insurgency,” CTC Shaykh Anwar explains.” See Inspire, Spring 1431, 2011. 2, 2011. Sentinel 4:7 (2011).

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Local Level: Uncertainty and the U.S. are directly tied to the IRGC Qods Force, insurgents. Of the types of roadside Presence led under the direction of the enigmatic bombs used, EFPs represent a small The neighboring presence of the U.S. Brigadier General Qasem Soleimani.5 fraction, but are one of the deadliest military in Iraq has been central to Their attacks and operations are weapons in Iraq because of its ability Iran’s national security interests. “reflective of Iranian training,” said a to penetrate even the strongest armored Tehran wields significant clout in the U.S. military official under condition vehicles used by the U.S. military.10 security and politics of post-Saddam of anonymity. “Not amateurs, they’re Most recently, on July 7, 2011, two U.S. Iraq. At various periods of the Iraqi professional.”6 soldiers were killed by an EFP-attack insurgency and political process, just outside Camp Victory near Baghdad Iran has intensified its influence and Rocket and mortar attacks on the International Airport. In the past, one resources in Iraq toward achieving International Zone and U.S. bases or two EFPs would be used in a single particular objectives. The uncertainty in central and southern Iraq are a attack; some of the recent attacks, surrounding the U.S. withdrawal has frequent occurrence. This year, there however, have involved as many as 14 provided a strong underlying rationale were 162 attacks targeting U.S. forces EFPs.11 for the Islamic Revolutionary Guard in April, up from 128 in March, and 93 Corps (IRGC) and their surrogate Shi`a in February.7 Aside from the frequency The frequency and type of operations militant groups to participate in the of attacks, a concerning trend is that by Iranian-sponsored Shi`a insurgents debate. Shi`a militants trained by Iran have has demonstrated their higher level of now learned how to effectively employ confidence and freedom of movement Tehran’s strategic logic at the local an improvised rocket-assisted mortar in Baghdad and southern Iraq. This level is largely two-pronged: to coerce (IRAM), which has been responsible is partially the result of the elevated the United States to withdraw from for many of the recent U.S. fatalities. political influence of the Sadrist Trend Iraq by manipulating and raising the “IRAMs are devastating,” said a U.S. in key southern provinces since the costs of remaining, while deterring military official. “They’re getting more March 2010 parliamentary elections. the Iraqis from accepting an extended sophisticated, more lethal, and more Occupying 40 seats out of the 325- U.S. presence by demonstrating their precise in targeting.”8 seat Council of Representatives, the power in creating troubles in Iraq. As Shi`a cleric Moqtada al-Sadr holds one senior Iraqi official said, “They Among the three Shi`a groups, KH has more representation in parliament [Iran] show not only that they were demonstrated to be the most advanced than any individual party in Iraq. His instrumental in forcing the U.S. out of and sophisticated. “They’re much more political weight is heavily considered Iraq, but to show our prime minister that experienced,” asserted the same military by al-Maliki, as the latter retained they still have power and that al-Maliki official. “It’s a learning process. They the premiership after finally securing should take Iran into consideration.”2 have better facilities, more money and al-Sadr’s support during last year’s In addition, the Shi`a militants are also backing, more experienced fighters, and government formation crisis.12 The campaigning for value and prestige in better recruiting.”9 On June 6, 2011, KH Sadrist Trend has continuously advancing the perception that their carried out multiple IRAM attacks on threatened to take drastic measures, efforts had driven the United States Camp Loyalty in eastern Baghdad that including armed resistance against U.S. out of Iraq. “Their intent is to bleed led to the deaths of five U.S. soldiers, personnel, in an effort to deter Iraqi U.S. forces on the way out of Iraq for the most in a single incident since April politicians from accepting an extended some sort of moral victory, as well as to 2009. U.S. presence. They have utilized high- reestablish coercive control over Iraqi profile visits by senior U.S. officials to governors in the south by showing off Another major trend is the noticeable their advantage by intensifying Iraqi their capacity to carry out these kinds increase of attacks involving a roadside nationalism on the street.13 of sophisticated attacks,” said recently- bomb known as an explosively- retired U.S. Army Lieutenant General formed penetrator (EFP), a signature Michael Oates, the former commander weapon used by Iranian-backed Shi`a 10 Michael Gordon, “Deadliest Bomb in Iraq is Made by 3 of all U.S. forces in southern Iraq. Iran, U.S. Says,” New York Times, February 10, 2007. 11 Dreazen. In June 2011, 14 U.S. soldiers were killed Militias in Iraq,” Institute for the Study of War, August 12 For instance, in return for al-Sadr’s backing, al-Maliki by hostile fire, representing the largest 16, 2010. reportedly yielded Maysan Province’s governorship, monthly toll for U.S. forces since June 5 For a biography of Qasem Soleimani, see Ali Alfoneh, originally held by al-Maliki’s Islamic Da`wa Party, to a 2008. Twelve of those fatalities were “Brigadier General Qassem Suleimani: A Biography,” candidate from the Sadrist Trend. For details, see “May- attributed to three extremist Shi`a Middle Eastern Outlook, January 2011; Martin Chulov, san Council Postpones Governor’s Resignation Until groups: Asaib Ahl al-Haq (AAH), Kataib “Qassem Suleimani: The Iranian General ‘Secretly Run- After Id Holidays,” Aswat al-Iraq, November 17, 2010; Hizb Allah (KH), and the Promised Day ning’ Iraq,” Guardian, July 28, 2011. Ahmad Wahid, “Deal Between the al-Sadr Trend and the 4 Brigades (PDB). All three organizations 6 Personal interview, U.S. military official, Iraq, July al-Maliki Bloc to Change Governors,” al-Hayat, Novem- 2011. ber 13, 2010; “Ali Dway New Missan Governor,” Aswat 2 Personal interview, senior Iraqi official, Iraq, July 2011. 7 Ben Lando, “Iraq Militants Ratchet up Attacks on U.S. al-Iraq, December 29, 2010. 3 Yochi J. Dreazen, “Record Number of U.S. Troops Killed Bases, Personnel,” Wall Street Journal, May 24, 2011. 13 In April 2011, the debate on the U.S. withdrawal made by Iranian Weapons,” National Journal, July 28, 2011. 8 Personal interview, U.S. military official, Iraq, July a sudden entrance into Iraq’s political mainstream as 4 For a detailed analysis on these three Iranian-backed 2011. outgoing U.S. Defense Secretary Robert Gates made his Shi`a groups, see Michal Harari, “Status Update: Shi’a 9 Lando. last official visit to Iraq. The visit heightened suspicions

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The U.S. military asserts that guys will walk across the border.”18 The of rapprochement between Cairo and members of the Iranian Qods Force U.S. military cited a lack of both will Tehran are causing unease among Arab are entering Iraq and working to re- and capability on the part of Baghdad to states about Egypt’s future role in the arm their surrogate Shi`a groups. confront the Shi`a groups. According to region.21 “We are opening a new page,” According to Major General Jeffrey a senior Iraqi military official, however, stated Ambassador Menha Bakhoum, a Buchanan, the top U.S. military the decision to diminish the operation spokeswoman for the Egyptian Foreign spokesman in Iraq, the volume of was political: “There are some targets, Ministry. “Egypt is resuming its role weapons crossing into Iraq from Iran known targets. We have not been that was once abdicated.”22 is considered the highest in years.14 In allowed to go after them.”19 the last six months, the Iraqi Security The inclination of a future adjustment Forces (ISF) have uncovered a higher Regional Level: Strategic Implications of the in Egyptian foreign policy has upset quantity of weapons caches throughout Arab Spring the regional balance of power, and the country, including EFP materiel, The upheavals of the Arab Spring and exacerbated tensions and suspicions roadside bombs, and rockets, some with the enduring uncertainty and fervor among rivals. “The cold war is a manufacturing dates as recent as 2010.15 sweeping across the region have not reality,” said a senior Saudi official in One discovered stockpile contained 49 gone unnoticed in Iraq’s state of affairs. April 2011. “Iran is looking to expand prepared EFPs.16 Both Baghdad’s Tahrir Square and its influence…we don’t have the luxury Sulaymaniyah’s Saray Square have of sitting back and watching events A significant amount of the weapons and experienced much activity this year as unfold.”23 Like Lebanon, Iraq also sits materiel is believed to be entering Iraq thousands of Iraqi Arabs and Kurds have at the crux of a heightened geopolitical through legal “ports of entry,” including taken to the streets, expressing their rivalry between Saudi Arabia and Iran, during religious pilgrimages. Others frustration over endemic corruption and where regional competition for power include decades-old smuggling routes the lack of basic services and political and influence seeps into Iraq’s security, that cross into Maysan Province, where rights. economy, and politics. the city of Amara serves as a distribution point. In late June 2011, after receiving Although these demonstrations have Riyadh’s new regional vigilance is of pressure from the United States, the ISF largely remained in the political sphere, concern. Yet given the strong rhetoric carried out operations in southern Iraq the greater threat to Iraq’s security from Iranian leaders and the immense to confront the Shi`a groups and disrupt posed by the Arab Spring is the changing power and influence at risk for Tehran, their smuggling routes and networks.17 dynamics in the region. For some Arab it is likely that the unrest plaguing The operation, however, was diluted in states, the final form and structure robustness and scope, and was largely of government will remain to be seen was confronting both Lebanese Hizb Allah and Iran, and superficial in results. Only low-profile for the foreseeable future. Yet at the indicated that Iran was attempting to smuggle arms to Shi`a insurgents were arrested, while regional level, the uncertainty caused Hamas in Gaza via Egyptian territory, posing a “serious operations were suspended as Iraqi forces by the Arab Spring has had strategic threat to Egyptian national security,” according to the were diverted toward protecting Shi`a implications on the Middle East and the cable. In April 2010, an Egyptian court convicted more religious pilgrims traveling to Karbala. balance of power, which have provided than two dozen individuals for plotting attacks in Egypt Tehran a strategic logic to intensify and on behalf of Lebanese Hizb Allah. See Heather Langan, The Iraqis had not met the expectations enhance its influence and interests in “Egypt Sought Spies in Iraq, Syria to Check Iran Es- of the U.S. military, which desired Iraq. pionage, Wikileaks Show,” Bloomberg, November 30, simultaneous operations to occur in 2010. multiple provinces. “Without multiple Before Egyptian leader Hosni Mubarak’s 21 Iran had cut off diplomatic relations with Egypt in locations, you lose a lot of surprise,” fall from power due to massive street 1980 after Egyptian President Anwar al-Sadat made said a U.S. military official, “and the bad demonstrations in February 2011, Egypt peace with Israel and offered asylum to the shah of Iran. had aligned with the concerns of Saudi Relations further worsened when Egypt backed Iraq Arabia, Jordan, and the Gulf states during the 1980-1988 Iran-Iraq War. Iran responded by regarding Iran’s regional interests and on the Iraqi street, causing anti-occupation demonstra- changing the name of a street in Tehran to Khaled Islam- nuclear ambitions. Their commonly tions to crop up across the state. On April 9, 2011, just bouli, in honor of al-Sadat’s assassin. Just a week after held threat perceptions represented an after Gates’ departure, tens of thousands of Sadr loyalists Mubarak fell in February 2011, however, Egypt allowed informal Sunni Arab counterbalance flooded the streets in Baghdad to mark the eighth anni- two Iranian warships to pass through the Suez Canal. to Iran.20 Yet the recent indications versary of the fall of Saddam, demanding an end to the In March 2011, then newly appointed Egyptian Foreign U.S. presence. See “Shiite Sadrist Trend Demonstrate in Minister Nabil al-Arabi told reporters that Egypt was Baghdad Against Foreign Existence in Iraq,” Aswat al- 18 Personal interview, U.S. military official, Iraq, July now “turning over a new leaf with all countries, includ- Iraq, April 9, 2011. 2011. ing Iran.” See “Iran Welcomes Egypt’s Call to Mend Re- 14 Tim Arango, “Weapons Retrieved in Iraq Point to 19 Personal interview, Iraqi military official, Iraq, July lations,” Voice of America, March 30, 2011. Iran,” New York Times, July 25, 2011. 2011. 22 David D. Kirkpatrick, “In Shift, Egypt Warms to Iran 15 Jane Arraf, “US Military Officials in Iraq Warn of 20 According to an April 2009 U.S. diplomatic cable and Hamas, Israel’s Foes,” New York Times, April 28, Growing Iranian Threat,” Christian Science Monitor, July acquired by Wikileaks, then director of Egyptian intel- 2011. 27, 2011. ligence, Omar Suleiman, had begun to recruit agents in 23 Bill Spindle and Margaret Coker, “The New Cold 16 Ibid. Iraq and Syria to counter Iranian espionage and “sent War,” Wall Street Journal, April 16, 2011; Karin Laub, 17 Michael Schmidt, “Iraq Cracks Down on Iran-Backed a clear message to Iran that if they interfere in Egypt, “Iran Courts Post-Mubarak Egypt, Worrying Allies,” Shiite Militias,” New York Times, July 1, 2011. Egypt will interfere in Iran.” Suleiman stated that Egypt Associated Press, July 26, 2011.

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Syrian leader Bashar al-Assad is a key to harden their criticism and pressure geopolitical role that has defined the force driving Tehran’s strategic calculus on al-Assad, “serious issues are sure Iran-Syria axis for over three decades. to redouble its activities in Iraq. For to follow,” stated an IRGC-based media example, it was reported that Tehran outlet. “We will be put in the position of Conclusion even went all the way to pressure having to choose between Turkey and It is uncertain whether a new security Baghdad to support al-Assad’s regime Syria.”28 Indeed, Tehran has even signaled agreement will be arranged between the with $10 billion, masked in the recent the possibility of military attacks against United States and Iraq that allows for an and various economic agreements Turkish NATO bases should Ankara ongoing U.S. military footprint. Iraq’s reached between Iraq and Syria.24 play a role in the toppling of al-Assad. highly fragmented and convoluted politics has forced the debate on the The Iran-Syria axis is the most enduring Iraqi officials have expressed deep presence of U.S. troops to be tied to alliance in the Middle East.25 Syrian concerns about the developments and the politics of various, unrelated, and President Hafiz al-Assad made Syria the uncertainty surrounding Syria. Some ongoing disagreements between Iraq’s first Arab state to recognize the Islamic senior political and security figures political blocs that stem from the March Republic of Iran and was its only Arab privately believe that the recent surge of 2010 parliamentary elections.32 Due partner throughout the devastating attacks against U.S. forces by Iranian- to the sensitivities involved and the 1980-1988 Iran-Iraq War. While serving backed Shi`a militants are meant to unresolved politics between the major as a linchpin for Iran’s reach to the serve as a warning to President Barack blocs, Iraq’s leaders have, until recently, Arab world, including the Palestinian Obama: the risks of continuing to put delayed making a decision on starting Territories, Syria is also Iran’s bridge to pressure on al-Assad will be coupled the negotiation process.33 Absent an Lebanese Hizb Allah. The consequences with the loss of American lives in Iraq.29 agreement, by late summer the primary of al-Assad succumbing to the same Due to the physical presence of 46,000 mission for U.S. commanders will be to fate as Mubarak could limit Lebanese U.S. military personnel, Iraq serves withdraw the remaining 46,000 soldiers Hizb Allah’s influence and mobility. as a venue for regional actors to exert and equipment from the country. In response, reports indicate Tehran is leverage over the United States. intensifying its efforts to reproduce the Senior U.S. administration officials Lebanese Hizb Allah model by grooming According to Arab media reports, have communicated their concerns various Shi`a proxy groups in Iraq to Iranian Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali directly to al-Maliki about Iran’s extend its interests in the Arabian Gulf Khamenei had asked Iraqi President targeted campaign against U.S. soldiers and the greater Middle East.26 To add to Jalal Talabani during his visit to based in Iraq. In early August 2011, this rationale, Iran has also recognized Tehran in late June 2011 to convey however, outgoing chairman of the U.S. its failure to seize an effective role in a position to the United States that Joint Chiefs of Staff, Admiral Michael shaping the Shi`a uprisings in Bahrain “Syria is a red line” for Iran and any Mullen, stated that efforts taken by and counterbalance Saudi Arabia’s outside intervention into Syria’s affairs Iraqi security forces and the political political weight and reach in the Arabian is unacceptable.30 In early July 2011, leadership to address these Shi`a Gulf. “informed Iraqi sources” cited by the groups have resulted in a “dramatic pan-Arab al-Hayat newspaper stated reduction” of violence in recent weeks.34 In addition, Turkey’s sudden change that Iran had relayed a message to the General Lloyd Austin III, commander in behavior toward Syria and al-Assad United States via Iraqi mediators that of U.S. Forces-Iraq, reiterated the same has alarmed Iran. Ankara is already consisted of a possible quid pro quo: Iran conclusion. competing with Tehran over political allows an extended stay for a smaller influence and economic interests in U.S. presence in Iraq and works to Iraq. The recent opening of a Turkish prevent attacks by the Iranian-backed investment front in Basra is part of Shi`a groups; in exchange, Washington 32 In December 2010, Iraq’s bickering parties brokered Turkey’s intention to build an economic would refrain from supporting efforts a power-sharing agreement that concluded a nine-month 31 corridor through Iraq that reaches the that seek regime change in Syria. government formation crisis, which began after no single 27 Arabian Gulf. If the Turks continue Should the Syrian regime fall, Damascus bloc received a majority of votes in the March 2010 gen- is unlikely to serve Tehran the critical eral elections to form the next government. Under the 24 Ma’ad Fayad, “Iran Orders Iraqi Allies to Support so-called “national partnership government,” all of Iraq’s Syrian Regime Financially,” Asharq al-Awsat, August 3, on the South,” Kurdistan News Agency, July 2, 2011. political blocs were brought together to form a governing 2011; Hemin Baban Rahim, “Allegations of Iraq Funding 28 The statement can be read at www.sobhesadegh.ir. coalition. Since then, however, little confidence remains Syria Shakes Political Establishment,” Rudaw, August Also see Reza Kahlili, “Iran Warns Turkey to Butt Out of about the value and stability of an all-inclusive govern- 10, 2011; Michael Schmidt and Yasir Ghazi, “Iraqi Leader Syria,” Fox News, July 25, 2011. ment in Iraq. Backs Syria, with a Nudge from Iran,” New York Times, 29 Personal interviews, Iraqi officials, Iraq, July 2011. 33 On August 2, 2011, Iraq’s political leaders finally August 12, 2011. 30 The al-Ahram article is cited in a report from Middle asked al-Maliki’s government to begin negotiations with 25 Jubin M. Goodarzi, Syria and Iran: Diplomatic Alliance East Berlin, located at www.middleeastberlin.de. the United States that could allow some U.S. troops to re- and Power Politics in the Middle East (New York/London: 31 “Iran Reportedly Sets Conditions to Agree Extension main after this year to train Iraqi security forces. See Lara I.B. Tauris & Co., 2009). of U.S. Forces’ Stay in Iraq,” al-Hayat, July 5, 2011. Ac- Jakes, “Iraq to Negotiate Continued US Troop Presence,” 26 “Tehran Grooms Mahdi Army,” Intelligence Online, cording to the report, a second demand issued by Iran Associated Press, August 2, 2011. June 2, 2011; “Iran Grooms Mehdi Army for Gulf Ops,” involved the exclusion of Lebanese Hizb Allah members 34 Thom Shanker, “U.S. Military Claims Success Curb- United Press International, June 9, 2011. from UN indictments regarding the 2005 assassination ing Attacks in Iraq with Iranian Weapons,” New York 27 “Turkey Uses Basra Launchpad for Financial Assault of former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri. Times, August 1, 2011.

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To be certain, Iraqi security forces Al-Qa`ida’s Confused of six points: 1) the revolt should be an have returned to only Maysan Province atonement for the past sins of Libyans in a more concerted effort to disrupt Messaging on Libya who failed to confront the Qadhafi smuggling routes and confront the regime; 2) an Islamic era will follow Shi`a militants attacking U.S. forces. By Barak Barfi his downfall, which should prioritize Although the rationale behind al- establishing a future constitution Maliki’s decision to intensify and frustration with the excesses and based on Shari`a (Islamic law); 3) if return to Maysan is unclear, two corruption of authoritarian Arab the new situation in Libya is unable to broad arguments provide a degree of regimes has provided al-Qa`ida with incorporate Islamic warriors, then it skepticism on the sustainability and powerful propaganda over the years should strive to avoid harming them. continuity of these efforts. to recruit disaffected Arabs. The Moving beyond an Islamic context, al- “Arab Spring,” however, has upset Misrati: 4) urged Libyans to safeguard First, Iraq’s forces are not facing al- this dependable formula. It has left al- their fraternity and the ties that bind Sadr and the Jaysh al-Mahdi militia Qa`ida and its affiliates scrambling to them; 5) recommended they forgive as they previously had in Operation logically and coherently explain the those affiliated with the regime and “Charge of the Knights” in the spring changes taking place in the Middle its excesses (excluding Qadhafi’s of 2008. Rather, the ISF is facing Iran’s East and to offer policies that future associates); and 6) warned Western surrogates in Iraq and likely the direct regimes should adopt. In doing so, the powers not to attack the country or policies driven by the IRGC. This is a organization has demonstrated key interfere in Libya’s affairs. major distinction between the two Iraqi weaknesses and an inability to offer a campaigns against Shi`a militancy. convincing alternative to the historical Al-Misrati’s recording was a personal It is unlikely that al-Maliki attains narratives its secular adversaries have and intimate message from a Libyan the resolve and fortitude to challenge proffered. to his countrymen. He offered them Brigadier General Qasem Soleimani. guidelines for the post-Qadhafi era. Nowhere is this more apparent than In doing so, al-Misrati placed his Second, the recent surge of Shi`a in Libya, where rebels appear close counsel within an Islamic framework, insurgent attacks directed against to defeating the regime of Mu`ammar emphasizing the centrality of religion U.S. forces may be more than just a Qadhafi. Al-Qa`ida has struggled to to the revolt and the country’s future, localized campaign to shore up prestige place the country and the uprising noting, “I swear Islam is indeed coming or influence the debate on the U.S. in an Islamic context. It has failed to anew.” military’s future presence. The United contextualize the revolution by offering States perhaps overstresses the “prestige historical precedents that Muslims Muhammad Hassan Qayyid Idris, motivation” behind the revival of Shi`a there have experienced in previous known as Abu Yahya al-Libi, issued a militancy, and by default overlooks centuries. It has been unable to propose 30-minute video in March.3 Although the broader dynamics playing out in what a future Libya should look like entitled “To the Sons of Our People the region as a source of instability in beyond offering vague religious slogans in Libya,” the message provided few Iraq. Indeed, the strategic implications and recycled criticisms of Western details about the conflict in Libya and carried by the Arab Spring—the democracy. no guidelines for its citizens.4 Instead, consequences of developments in Syria, it was a rambling polemic against Arab heightened Saudi-Iranian rivalry, and These failures will become clear by authoritarian regimes and their Western a new assertive Turkish foreign policy examining four statements by al-Qa`ida backers. in both Iraq and the region—will largely leaders—two from its leaders based in characterize Iraq’s security environment Pakistan and two from its North African Regarded as an inspirational for the foreseeable future. affiliate, al-Qa`ida in the Islamic preacher, Abu Yahya’s message was Maghreb (AQIM). as passionate as it was eloquent. Yet Ramzy Mardini is a research analyst at within his motivational framework, he the Institute for the Study of War, and Exiles Pine for their Homeland neglected to offer Libyans a road map an adjunct fellow at the Iraq Institute Al-Qa`ida’s Pakistan-based leaders for their revolution. He was unable for Strategic Studies. From 2007-2010, released two videos about Libya.1 to move beyond the typical al-Qa`ida he served as a Middle East analyst at Both were issued by Libyans in the The Jamestown Foundation, and he also organization, illustrating how the People in Libya,” February 25, 2011, available on various previously served on the Iraq desk at the group uses nationals to target their jihadist web forums. U.S. State Department. Mr. Mardini is the compatriots. Jamal Ibrahim Ishtawi al- 3 For his biographical details, see Hamid Barrada, “La editor of the book, Volatile Landscape: Misrati released a 10-minute video in ‘Nouvelle Star’ d’al-Qaïda,” Jeune Afrique, April 28, 2008. 2 Iraq and its Insurgent Movements February. His message was composed For his ideology, see Michael Scheuer, “Abu Yahya al- (2010). Libi: Al-Qaeda’s Theological Enforcer - Part 1,” Terrorism 1 Al-Qa`ida’s new leader, Ayman al-Zawahiri, has spo- Monitor 4:25 (2007); Michael Scheuer, “Abu Yahya al- ken about the Libyan revolution as well, but only in pass- Libi: Al-Qaeda’s Theological Enforcer - Part 2,” Terrorism ing. See Ayman al-Zawahiri, “The Message of Hope and Monitor 4:27 (2007). Joy to Our People in Egypt,” May 22, 2011, available on 4 Abu Yahya al-Libi, “To the Sons of Our People in various jihadist web forums. Libya,” March 2011, available on various jihadist web 2 Jamal Ibrahim Ishtawi al-Misrati, “Greetings to Our forums.

8 august 2011 . Vol 4 . Issue 8 propaganda, critical of the West while dwelled on past crimes and the collusion The revolutions rocking the region have focusing on the venality of Arab leaders between Western powers and their Arab clearly put al-Qa`ida on the defensive, and the poverty of their citizens. He authoritarian clients. He accused the forcing both Droukdel and al-Anabi to provided only ambiguous slogans about West of aspiring “with every last ounce of scurry to keep the jihadist movement what policies a post-Qadhafi Libya its strength to deviate these revolutions relevant. Al-Anabi claimed that AQIM’s should adopt, noting, “true happiness, from the source of their power, to find struggle against Arab regimes paved the prosperity and pure freedom come from an alternative to the tyrants who are way for the current uprisings, saying a true and serious return to the law of less hostile to them and more prepared it had “a role in shattering the barrier the Lord of worshippers.” to concede sovereignty.” In contrast, of fear in the hearts of the people and al-Misrati discounted fears of an toppling fear of these Pharaohs [Arab Regional Affiliates Seek to Make Inroads American-European invasion, terming leaders].” He contended that their AQIM also chimed in on the Libyan them “Satanic illusions.” Whereas al- exploits empowered Arabs to rise revolution.5 The organization’s leader, Misrati framed his recording as advice up against rulers who have been in Abdelmalek Droukdel (also known as to his Libyan compatriots, Droukdel’s power for more than three decades. Abu Mus`ab `Abd al-Wadud), issued a message was a stern warning laced with Conspicuously absent, however, is statement in March.6 Like al-Misrati’s conspiracy theories. recording, the letter was composed of a number of points: 1) the Arab revolutions Al-Qa`ida’s most recent discussion of “The revolutions rocking are continuing the battle jihadists have Libya came from the head of AQIM’s the region have clearly been fighting against the Arab tyrants Council of Notables, Abu Ubayda Yusuf and the crusading Western powers; 2) al-Anabi.8 In a recorded interview on put al-Qa`ida on the the United States and the North Atlantic topics ranging from the death of al- defensive.” Treaty Organization are enemies who Qa`ida leader Usama bin Ladin to the should not be trusted; 3) the Arab organization’s relationship with African leaders are conspiring to defeat the states, al-Anabi briefly discussed the revolution; and 4) only Libyans’ fervent Libyan revolution. a discussion of the Libyan Islamic devotion to their religion will prevent Fighting Group, a jihadist organization Western powers from plundering their Al-Anabi’s calculated positions and that spearheaded a violent campaign wealth and controlling their country.7 professional tone stood in stark contrast against Qadhafi during the late 1990s. to Droukdel’s obsessive tirade. Unlike With this omission, Droukdel and Droukdel’s letter was more bitter Droukdel’s suspicions of Western al-Anabi again illustrate al-Qa`ida’s than al-Misrati’s cordial message. It plots, al-Anabi discounted fears that penchant for general discussions at the highlighted the Western plots and Arab the Americans will seek to establish expense of specific details. conspiracies scheming to defeat the military bases in North Africa. Instead, Libyan revolution. Rather than focusing he merely warned Libyans that “there are These messages exemplify al-Qa`ida’s on the future by offering Libyans advice indications that illustrate the despicable difficulty in responding to the Arab about how to build a new state, Droukdel fleecing the Crusaders are undertaking in revolutions, while also revealing exchange for their air support.” nuances in its messaging. Above all, 5 For AQIM, see Jean-Pierre Filiu, Les Neuf Vies d’al-Qai- they demonstrate the group’s inability da (Paris: Fayard, 2009), pp. 184-188, 214-218; “The Lo- Like Abu Yahya and Droukdel, al-Anabi to formulate a clear vision for a post- cal and Global Jihad of al-Qa’ida in the Islamic Maghrib,” was unable to conceptualize a vision of Qadhafi Libya. All four writers failed Middle East Journal 63:2 (2009): pp. 213-226. Camille a future Libya. Although his arguments to answer the aspirations of a people Tawil’s articles in al-Hayat and at The Jamestown Foun- were more coherent than those of the by offering a viable alternative to the dation must be consulted as well. For a detailed discus- other two leaders, he could not move current regime. All they could muster sion of its ideology, see Hanna Rogan, “Al-Qaida in the beyond explaining the uprisings in were vague calls to embrace Islam Islamic Maghreb: Ideological Dissent in the Algerian ambiguous Islamic terms, such as “it without articulating what this would Jihad,” paper presented at The Annual International is well known that these revolutions entail. Studies Association Convention (ISA) in New York, Feb- are a form of commanding the good ruary 2009. Mathieu Guidère has some interesting ideas and forbidding the evil.” Although a At the same time, however, these (some of which, such as the organization’s deep penetra- Qur’anic phrase familiar to all Arabs, statements reveal a striking lack of tion of Europe and success in attracting North African it provides no framework for Libyans uniformity in al-Qa`ida’s message, jihadist organizations into its fold, are suspect), but his to adopt. While Libyans are debating illustrating that the group is far from lack of footnotes makes it impossible to follow his trail the type of political system to establish monolithic. While Droukdel glossed over of evidence. Mathieu Guidère, al-Qaïda à la Conquête du after Qadhafi’s removal from power, Qadhafi’s transgressions and al-Misrati Maghreb (Monaco: Rocher, 2007). al-Qa`ida is recycling general Islamic mentioned him only in passing, Abu 6 For Droukdel, see Camille Tawil, “A Jihadist in the concepts that are irrelevant to the Yahya harped on the beleaguered Libyan Sand: The Rise of AbdelMalek Droukdel, al-Qaeda’s current political situation in the Arab leader. Whereas al-Misrati offered Amir in Algeria,” Militant Leadership Monitor 1:2 (2010): world. Libyans a series of recommendations pp. 8-11. in a structured framework, Abu Yahya 7 Abu Mu`sab `Abd al-Wadud, “Aid to the Noble De- 8 “A Special Interview with Abu Ubayda Yusuf al- sought to inspire his audience by scendants of Umar al-Mukhtar,” March 18, 2011, avail- Anabi,” July 8, 2011, available on various jihadist web drawing on Islamic scripture. Despite able on various jihadist web forums. forums. such differences, it is unlikely that the

9 august 2011 . Vol 4 . Issue 8 organization has an agreed upon division Confused messaging is a running Above all, these two messages reveal the of labor in terms of topics. The four theme in AQIM’s statements. Although splits within AQIM’s ranks. When other statements overlap in content and lack a Droukdel’s address was to the Libyan al-Qa`ida affiliates pledged allegiance coherent overarching narrative beyond people, he also found it necessary to to the organization, it was their leaders the nebulous call to adopt Islam. speak to his home audience in Algeria, who did so.14 Thus, when Abu Mus`ab where the organization is based, and al-Zarqawi’s Tawhid and Jihad faction AQIM: Al-Qa`ida’s Weakest Link Morocco, where it seeks to extend its joined the group as al-Qa`ida in Iraq, AQIM has often been accused of being influence. For this reason, he lashed it was he who delivered the oath to Bin the weakest link in al-Qa`ida’s chain Ladin.15 When the Salafist Group for of affiliates. It kidnaps Westerners Preaching and Combat (GSPC) became for ransom rather than kill them as its “The differences in AQIM, its amir Droukdel offered fealty siblings have done elsewhere. It has these two statements to Bin Ladin.16 Yet when AQIM renewed suffered countless defections and is its allegiance to the new al-Qa`ida chief, plagued by internal strife that reveals demonstrate AQIM’s Ayman al-Zawahiri, it was not Droukdel itself in the Algerian media.9 Nuances shortcomings and who did so; rather, it was al-Anabi, in Droukdel’s message and al-Anabi’s who is junior to Droukdel in AQIM’s interview illustrate the organization’s incongruent messaging. leadership hierarchy. The Algerian divisions and its inability to structure AQIM cannot stay on point media has noted the friction between a cohesive narrative in tune with its the two in the past by highlighting al- audience. and offer a harmonious Anabi’s attempts to usurp Droukdel’s narrative. Instead, its prerogatives.17 His latest power grab AQIM’s messages are disparate and illustrates the divisions within an lack focus. In the past, most of AQIM’s conflicting messages organization long adrift. venom has been directed at proximate confuse its audience.” European powers, such as France and The differences in these two statements Spain, that occupied Islamic lands in demonstrate AQIM’s shortcomings and previous centuries. They have been incongruent messaging. AQIM cannot singled out for the threat they pose to out at the Algerian and Moroccan stay on point and offer a harmonious Islam and their continuing control of governments, accusing them of helping narrative. Instead, its conflicting messages Arab territories.10 Yet in Droukdel’s Qadhafi mobilize presumably African confuse its audience. With internal letter, the United States was the mercenaries to fight the rebels.12 dissent undermining its leadership and central player, with its European allies diverting the group’s energies from relegated to secondary, nameless roles. AQIM’s lack of clarity extends to its plotting spectacular attacks, it is easy He altered AQIM’s traditional narrative terminology as well, illustrating how to understand why AQIM is unable to despite the fact that it is France that the organization is out of touch with strike fear in its adversaries and reach has led the offensive against Qadhafi the common Libyan. Droukdel sent the lofty status of other al-Qa`ida while the United States has adopted a greetings to the “free proud Libyan affiliates in jihadist circles. subordinate role. Although al-Anabi tribes” despite the fact that the rebels struck a similar tone in accusing the have downplayed tribalism and erected United States of operating secret bases signs reading “One Tribe” throughout in Algeria, he nevertheless reverted areas under their control.13 Furthermore, to AQIM’s customary propaganda Droukdel did not even use the same 14 This oath of allegiance to the leader, known as by calling the Algerian regime “the language as the Libyan resistance. The bay`a, has its origins in the selection of the successor to sons of France” while citing its role in opposition to Qadhafi call themselves the Prophet Muhammad. For its use in Islam, see Ella annulling elections in 1992 in which rebels (thuwar), an expression nowhere Landau-Tasseron, “The Religious Foundations of Politi- Islamists were poised to take power. found in Droukdel’s letter. Instead, cal Allegiance: A Study of Bay’a in Pre-Modern Islam,” Droukdel’s focus on the United States he used the moniker “fighters for the Hudson Institute, May 2010. For its use by modern secu- to the detriment of France is puzzling faith” (mujahidun), a religious term. lar Arab leaders, see Mohamed Tozy, Monarchie Et Islam in light of Bin Ladin’s recent critique of Al-Anabi, in contrast, used the term Politique Au Maroc (Paris: Presses De Science Po, 1999), 11 French policy in Afghanistan. thuwar throughout his interview, again pp. 79ff. illustrating the nuanced differences 15 Abu Mus`ab al-Zarqawi, “The Bay’a to the al-Qa’ida within AQIM. 9 For defections, see Salima Tlemçani, “Le Chef du GSPC Organization Under the Leadership of Sheikh Usama pour la Capitale Arrêté,” El Watan [Algiers], November bin Ladin,” October 17, 2004, available on various jihad- 20, 2007. on various jihadist web forums. ist web forums. 10 For criticism of France, see Abu Mus`ab `Abd al- 12 For the United Nations Security Council Resolution 16 Abu Mus`ab `Abd al-Wadud, “Announcement and Wadud, “France…The Mother of Malice,” June 28, 2009, noting Qadhafi’s use of mercenaries, visit http://daccess- Glad Tidings on the Joining and the Pledge of Allegiance available on various jihadist web forums. For a critique dds-ny.un.org. of the Salafist Group For Preaching and Combat to the of Spain, see Abu Mus`ab `Abd al-Wadud, “A Message 13 For Libyan tribalism, see Moncef Ouannes, Militaires, Sheikh Abu Abdallah Usama bin Ladin,” September 13, to Our People in the Islamic Maghreb,” undated, avail- Élites et Modernisation dans la Libye Contemporain (Paris: 2006, available on various jihadist web forums. able on various jihadist web forums. L’Harmattan, 2009), pp. 287-331. For an anthropological 17 Isma’il F., “Abu Yusuf al-Anabi is Taking Over the 11 Usama bin Ladin, “From Usama bin Mumammad bin account, see John Davis, Libyan Politics: Tribe and Revolu- Position of Emir of the Salafist Group,” al-Nahar al-Jadid Ladin to the French People,” January 21, 2011, available tion (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1988). [Algiers], March 8, 2010.

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Al-Qa`ida’s Nationalist Dilemma five centuries before the arrival of the desert, which straddles the center of Al-Qa`ida’s primary messaging problem Vandals in 455. The subsequent Islamic the Libyan state, divided these regions with Libya is the country’s history. era rarely brought unity to Libya’s by preventing rulers from unifying the From the lack of a common historical disparate provinces. Although the Arabs country, with invading armies unable past to the absence of strong religious conquered the whole country in 642, the to traverse it.23 One scholar wrote, “the institutions and important scholars, Byzantines periodically occupied some Great Syrte is unquestionably one of the Libya does not have the traditions that of the coastal regions until the end of most pronounced natural and human bind the citizens of other Arab states. the century.21 For the next 100 years, frontiers that exist in the world.”24 It A purely European creation, fashioned the entire country remained under the provides such a good barrier that the control of the Umayya and Abbasid rebels bent on overthrowing Qadhafi dynasties, until the slow collapse of today found themselves stalemated with “While Libyans are the latter led to a renewed partition of his forces in the desert’s sands. debating the type of Libya’s provinces by their avaricious rival governors. The Fatimids briefly It is not only geography that deprives political system to establish ruled the entire country in the 10-11th Libya of an Islamic past. Until the after Qadhafi’s removal centuries before their empire collapsed, Karamanli dynasty took power in Tripoli leaving Libya again to its traditional in 1711, no independent Islamic polity from power, al-Qa`ida is divisions. It was not until the Ottomans ruled from Libya.25 The country equally recycling general Islamic conquered the country in 1551 that the lacks a strong religious history. The coastal regions of modern Libya were merits of important Islamic regions such concepts that are irrelevant again brought under one banner, paving as Palestine and Syria were extolled in to the current political the way for the establishment of a later texts called fad’ail or virtue literature.26 independent state. Yet Libya has no such traditions. Unlike situation in the Arab neighboring Tunisia and its Zaytuna, world.” Other modern states birthed by Western it has no important historical Islamic powers that lack a common history, monuments or religious seminaries. In such as Lebanon, face similar problems. contrast to Egypt with its historically Yet jihadists can dispense with this rich capital of Cairo, Libya does not from lumping together three provinces dilemma by subsuming Lebanon under a have significant Islamic cities. Unlike in the wake of World War II, it has single historical region such as al-Sham, remote regions such as Yemen, it cannot neither a shared Islamic history nor which includes Syria, Israel and Jordan. boast of any major historical Islamic a traditional territorial integrity.18 In Yet because Libya’s three regions were scholars.27 the last 3,000 years, its three regions historically divided between competing were rarely governed by the same dynasties, it cannot lay claim to being versity of California Press, 2005), p. 38. rulers. In broaching the question of part of a larger province. In fact, 23 The Sirte desert “is commonly considered the eastern Libya, al-Qa`ida is forced to use the Islamic scholars often viewed Cyrenaica boundary of the Maghrib, from which Cyrenaica is thus secular nationalist narratives of its as part of Egypt and Tripolitania as at least theoretically excluded.” See Wright, p. 116. Arab adversaries, which place a greater a section of Africa (Ifriqiya) or North 24 Jean Despois, La Colonisation Italienne en Libye (Paris: 22 emphasis on the independent nation- Africa (Maghrib). The expansive Sirte Larose, 1935), p. 45. state rather than a pre-modern Islamic 25 This excludes the short-lived quasi-independent polity. 21 For an account of its medieval history, see C. Edmund states the Banu Khazrun and Banu ‘Ammar established Bosworth, “Libya in Islamic History,” Journal of Libyan in Tripoli during the 11th and 14th centuries respectively, Since its earliest days, Libya has been Studies 1:2 (2000): pp. 6-16. which did not extend far beyond the city. See Michael a divided nation, with the regions of 22 For Cyrenaica, see Abu’l-Mahasin Jamal al-Din Yusuf Brett, “The City-State in Mediaeval Ifriqiya: The Case of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica generally b. Taghribirdi, Nujum al-Zahra fi Misr wa al-Qahira (Cairo: Tripoli,” Cahiers de Tunisie 34:135-6 (1986): pp. 69-94. 19 ruled by different dynasties. While Ministry of Culture and National Guidance, undated), 26 Ali ibn Muhammad al-Raba’i, Kitab Fada’il al-Sham Greek colonists occupied Eastern Libya vol. 1, p. 37. For Tripolitania, see the scholars cited in wa Dimashq (Damascus: Matba’at al-Tarraqi, 1950). For around 630 BCE, the Phoenicians settled Mahammed Hadj-Sadok, Description du Maghreb et de Palestine, see Mujir al-Din Abu’l-Yumm Abd al-Rahman 20 in the West in the fifth century BCE. l’Europe au III-IX siècle (Algiers: Carbonel, 1949), pp. 92, b. Muhammad al-Hanbali, al-Uns al-Jalil fi Tarikh al-Quds The Romans unified the country for nt. 64. For a Western discussion of the Islamic sources, wa al-Khalil (Hebron: Dandis, 1999). For a discussion of see Jean Maspero and Gaston Wiet, “Matériaux pour Ser- Yemen, see Barak Barfi, “Yemen on the Brink? The Re- 18 For a discussion of the country’s history, see John vir à la Géographie de l’Égpyte,” Mémoires de l’Institut surgence of al Qaeda in Yemen,” New America Founda- Wright, A History of Libya (London: Hurst & Company, Français d’Archéologie Orientale, vol. 36, 1919, pp. 38, tion, January 26, 2010. For jihadist praise of the country, 2010). 163. For a modern scholarly account, see the comments see Abu Mus`ab al-Suri, ‘The Responsibility of the Peo- 19 For a concise discussion of Libya’s historical divi- of Ross Dunn: “The province of Tripolitania, today part ple of Yemen to Muslims’ Holy Sites and Their Wealth,” sions, see “Libiya Ba’ad Qadhafi,” Markaz Yaqin al- of Libya, marked geographically the eastern extrem- undated. ‘Ilami, April 28, 2011. ity of the island Maghrib. From here the coastline ran 27 Among the important scholars to have resided in Ye- 20 For Libya’s classical history, see Joyce Reynolds ed., southeastward for more than 400 miles…Here was the men are Muhammad bin Idris al-Shafi’i, the eponymous Libyan Studies – Selected Papers of the Late R.G. Goodchild well-populated region of Cyrenaica…If Tripolitania was founder of one of Sunnism’s four law schools and Abd (London: P. Elek, 1976). For more concise accounts, see historically and culturally the end of the Maghrib, Cyre- al-Razzaq bin Hammam al-Sana’ani, an important ha- the entries Cyrene, Oea, Pentapolis and Tripolitania in naica was the beginning of the Middle East.” See Ross dith scholar. The city of Zabid was a key Sunni center of The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Dunn, The Adventures of Ibn Battuta (Berkeley, CA: Uni- learning for centuries. For a brief discussion of leading

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For these reasons, the traditional against.31 While other Western Germany Increasingly a historical and religious narratives from creations, such as Lebanon and Syria, which al-Qa`ida typically draws are can be explained as a European division Center for Terrorism in absent in Libya. Instead, it is compelled of al-Sham, and the Jewish state of Israel Europe to adopt the secular Libyan historical as the usurpation of Muslim Palestine, account, which largely begins with the there is no Islamic alternative to the By Sajjan M. Gohel Italian invasion of 1911 and the dawn of secular Libyan state. Its lack of an the colonial era. This explains why three Islamic past necessitates accepting terrorism is on the rise in Germany. of the four authors discussed above cite the service provided by its Western The phenomenon is not new, although `Umar al-Mukhtar, a Libyan who led midwives. As a result, al-Qa`ida is it has taken on various forms over the the resistance to Italian encroachment. compelled to acquiesce to the narrative decades. During the Weimar Republic, With no local Muslim hero to extol from created by its chief adversaries—Arab terrorism was routinely practiced the utopian Islamic past, they are forced tyrants and Western crusading nations. as elected officials were beaten and to highlight the one contemporary murdered. The political climate Libyan with whom all his compatriots Conclusion eventually led to the rise of the Nazis. can identify. In his seminal work on political In the 1960s, the Red Army Faction Islamists such as the Muslim (RAF) appeared on the scene. Several Libya’s secular rulers have faced the Brotherhood, Olivier Roy concluded generations devoted themselves to same dilemma. After the Americans that these movements were doomed to targeting what they saw as Western evacuated Wheeler Air Force Base— fail because they “will not invent a new imperialism. Today, the threat of named for a U.S. soldier—Qadhafi society.”32 Today, jihadists have fallen terrorism in Germany comes from renamed the base Uqba bin Nafi. into the same pit. Although they claim Islamic radicals, which is viewed as Yet Uqba was no Libyan. Rather, he to reject Western categorizations and the country’s primary national security spearheaded the early Arab conquests refuse to compromise with their values, concern. in North Africa.28 It is not only local they are doing just that in the case of Islamic heroes Libya lacks. When Libya. In Libya, al-Qa`ida is forced In 2005, German authorities began Qadhafi sought to offer a pan-Islamic to accept “the framework of existing recording the number of potential entity to unify North Africans, he states” created by the West.33 It cannot “Islamic militants” inside the country.1 cited the Fatimid dynasty that ruled present a historical Islamic narrative In January 2005, there were 105 the region for more than 200 years.29 because none exists. If al-Qa`ida cannot individuals posing a potential national No Sunni ruler would dare extol the convince Libyans to see the revolution security threat. By January 2007, that Shi’i Fatimids who often persecuted through the jihadist prism rather than figure had dropped to 65. By January 2011, the Sunnis and suppressed their creed. a secular one, then it will fail to draw however, it had risen sharply to 130. Of Yet with no Arab or Libyan dynasty to people to its narrative, leading them to these, 59 are German natives, whereas evoke, Qadhafi was compelled to invoke question the relevance of the militant in 2009 only 27 were German natives. the Fatimids. Theirs was the last Arab organization. Seventeen of the 130 are imprisoned in empire to include all of the modern Germany, while 43 are currently abroad Libyan state. The fragmentation and Barak Barfi is a Research Fellow with suspected of supporting armed jihad. disunity that characterized pre-modern the New America Foundation, where he Of the 43 abroad, six are imprisoned in Libya led a leading scholar of the specializes in Arab and Islamic affairs. foreign countries. Approximately 96 of country to confidently state, “medieval He has spent the last five months in the 130 are citizens within the European Libya was in fact no such thing.”30 Libya. Union.2 The majority of the radicals are centered in Berlin, Hamburg, and Even more problematic for al-Qa`ida North Rhine-Westphalia. Five would- than the lack of a unifying Islamic be extremists leave Germany on average history is the dilemma of the Libyan state. It is the only country that was born out of the United Nations, an 1 Potential Islamic militants are known individuals organization jihadists have railed whose activities have aroused suspicions and concerns by the authorities in Germany, posing a direct threat to national security and public safety because of their sup- Yemeni scholars, see Wilferd Madelung, “Der Islam im port for terrorism. As a result, they are being monitored Jemen,” in Werner Daum ed., Jemen 3000 Jahre Kunst und by German law enforcement agencies, although this is Kultur des glücklichen Arabien (Frankfurt: Pinguin, 1987), 31 For al-Zawahiri’s critique, see “Bin Ladin is Fine not always possible when some of them travel abroad. pp. 172-176. and Attacks in Israel, Saudi Arabia and Egypt to Come 2 In January 2006, the number of potential “Islamic 28 V. Christides, “Ukba b. Nafi,”Encyclopedia of Islam 2. Soon,” al-Quds al-Arabi, April 4, 2008. For AQAP, see militants” was 98. In January 2008, it was 78. In January 29 “In Overture to Iran, Qaddafi Declares North Africa the interview of its leader Nasir al-Wihayshi with Abd 2009, it was 84. In January 2010, the figure was 127. All Shi’ite and Calls for Establishment of New Fatimid State,” Illah Haydar Sha’a, available at www.abdulela.maktoob- of these figures are derived from: “Presentation by State Middle East Media Research Institute, April 6, 2007. blog.com. Bureau of Investigations, Section IV - Counterterrorism 30 Michael Brett, “Libya: Some Aspects of the Medieval 32 Olivier Roy, The Failure of Political Islam (Cambridge, Branch,” PfP Consortium Counter-Terrorism Working Period, First-Ninth Century H/Seventh-Fifteenth Cen- NJ: Harvard University Press, 1994). Group (CTWG), Reichenau an der Rax, Austria, April tury AD,” Libyan Studies 20 (1989): p. 210. 33 Ibid., p. 194. 14, 2011.

12 august 2011 . Vol 4 . Issue 8 each month to go to one of the militant known as the Sauerland cell, had preaching and attend terrorist training training camps in Pakistan.3 acquired approximately 700 kilograms camps. of hydrogen peroxide and an explosives Another feature is the growth of precursor, which they secretly stockpiled The IJU claims to have several German converts4 to Islam who have become in a garage in southern Germany. Had members, and the group has been radicalized. In 2007, the percentage of the plot succeeded, it would have been targeting Germany for some time now, radicals in Germany who were converts the biggest attack in Europe, more both through propaganda and also with to Islam was 8.2%. By the end of 2010 powerful than the bombs used in the operations. The IJU was involved in that figure had increased to 17.7%.5 Madrid and London train attacks in the recruitment and training of Cuneyt Of the 130, five of the individuals are 2004 and 2005 respectively.8 Ciftci, Germany’s first suicide bomber. women—all German nationals living in Ciftci, born in Bavaria to a family of Berlin. Three of the women are converts, The four members of the Sauerland cell Turkish immigrants, was married and and German authorities believe that admitted to belonging to a “terrorist had two children. Yet he drove a pick- they have all traveled to the Pakistani organization,” plotting murder and up truck laden with explosives into tribal areas with their husbands.6 conspiring for an explosives attack. On a U.S. guard post in Afghanistan on March 4, 2010, a Düsseldorf court jailed March 3, 2008, resulting in the deaths This article identifies the various the members of the cell. Sentencing of two U.S. soldiers. In the aftermath, a German militants who have joined the the extremists to between five and 12 disturbing video clip of Ciftci appeared, Islamic Jihad Union, al-Qa`ida central, years, Judge Ottmar Breidling said that showing him smiling and brandishing a as well as those who undertook jihad they planned to stage a “monstrous pistol.13 as “lone wolf” terrorists. Based on bloodbath.”9 The four included converts the following case studies, Islamist Fritz Gelowicz and Daniel Schneider, In an IJU production from October 2008, extremism in Germany could be growing who each received 12-year jail terms. entitled “A Call from Hindukush,” the and proliferating at a faster rate than Adem Yilmaz, a Turkish citizen, received German convert Eric Breininger14 (also in other European countries, giving 11 years, while Atilla Selek, a German of known as Abdulgaffar al-Almani) stated Germany the unfortunate distinction of Turkish origin, was sentenced to five that Germany’s policies toward Muslims, being one of the main centers for terrorist years.10 including its military engagement in activity on the European continent. Afghanistan, are “increasing the risk The leader of the group was Gelowicz, of attacks on German soil.” He also The Islamic Jihad Union who was born in Munich and converted encouraged the German people to One al-Qa`ida affiliate linked to a to Islam when he was 16-years-old.11 “approach their own government if they number of Germans is the Islamic Although he became a devout Muslim, want to be spared from the attacks of Jihad Union (IJU) based in Pakistan’s he appeared to lead the life of a normal Muslims in Germany.”15 tribal areas. The IJU splintered from teenager. His views changed, however, the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan when he started visiting an Islamic The number of Germans involved with in March 2002. It settled in North center in the southern city of Neu-Ulm. the IJU is clearly alarming. Fortunately, Waziristan Agency and made Mir Ali its During the trial, Gelowicz admitted the IJU has suffered a number of setbacks headquarters.7 to being a member of the IJU and said in the last few years.16 Nevertheless, that in 2006 he traveled to one of the it is premature to say that the group’s In September 2007, German authorities group’s training camps in the tribal infrastructure has been completely detained three IJU operatives, including areas of Pakistan where he received dismantled in Pakistan. The IJU is still two German converts, disrupting training in weapons and explosives. He functional, and the thread that connects the group’s plans to attack targets in also met Schneider at the camp, who it to Germany remains intact.17 Germany—including the Ramstein later became one of the other operatives Airbase where the primary targets in the Sauerland cell.12 would be U.S. diplomats, soldiers and civilians. A fourth suspect was arrested The trial confirmed for the first time soon after in Turkey. The operatives, the existence of an IJU cell on German soil. In addition, the cases of Gelowicz

3 Marcel Rosenbach and Holger Stark, “Homegrown and Schneider, in particular, shocked 13 Roger Boyes, “Bavarian Cueneyt Ciftci is Germany’s Terror Takes on New Dimensions,” Der Spiegel, May 9, the country, raising questions how First Suicide Bomber,” The Times, March 18, 2008. 2011. seemingly “normal” Germans could 14 Breininger was killed in a firefight in Pakistan on April 4 Converts are those individuals who switch from one become radicalized by Islamic militant 30, 2010. For details, see “German Islamic Terrorist Re- religion, such as Christianity, to another religion, such ported Dead in Pakistan,” Deutsche Welle, May 3, 2010. as Islam. 8 “Profile of Islamic Jihad Union (IJU),” U.S. National 15 Anne Stenersen, “A Unified Strategy Towards - Ger 5 “Presentation by State Bureau of Investigations, Sec- Counterterrorism Center, 2011; Tristana Moore, “Ger- many?” Jihadica.com, February 2, 2009. tion IV - Counterterrorism Branch.” The percentage of many Convicts Men Who Plotted Second 9/11,” Time 16 Cerwyn Moore, “The Rise and Fall of the Islamic Jihad converts in 2008 was 10%, while in 2009 it was 12.6%. Magazine, March 4, 2010. Union: What Next for Uzbek Terror Networks?” Terror- 6 Ibid. 9 Ibid. ism Monitor 8:14 (2010). 7 Guido Steinberg, “The Evolving Threat from Jihadist 10 Ibid. 17 Personal interview, official from the German Federal Terrorism in Turkey,” Real Instituto Elcano, February 11 Ibid. Gelowicz was 27-years-old upon his arrest. Office for the Protection of the Constitution, November 16, 2009. 12 Ibid. 5, 2010.

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Al-Qa`ida Central when a gas-laden truck smashed into a 2010. These militants were possibly tied For al-Qa`ida’s central leadership, synagogue, killing 21 people. Ganczarski to the proposed Mumbai-style terrorist Germany has always served as a useful was sentenced to 18 years.21 The Djerba plot for Europe.27 staging ground and launch pad for attack, which was claimed by al-Qa`ida, international operations. The original targeted the historic Ghriba synagogue On May 9, 2011, a Frankfurt court starting point was the northern city of on the Tunisian island of Djerba, a sentenced Rami Makenesi, a German Hamburg, where the plot for the 9/11 magnet for tourists.22 As part of the man of Syrian origin, to four years terrorist attacks was hatched. The attack, suicide bomber Nizar Naouar and nine months in prison after he Hamburg cell consisted of several people, drove into the building in an explosives- admitted on the opening day of his but most notably the three suicide pilots laden fuel tanker. In total, 14 German trial that he was a member of al-Qa`ida Muhammad `Atta, Marwan al-Shehhi tourists, five Tunisians and two French and trained at one of its paramilitary and Ziad Jarrah. On January 8, 2007, nationals were killed and many more camps in Pakistan. In exchange, a German court sentenced Moroccan people were injured.23 Among evidence he was given a reduced sentence. Mounir el-Motassadeq, a friend of the put forward by the prosecution were Makanesi left Germany for Pakistan 9/11 pilots, to 15 years in prison for images of Ganczarski and Usama bin in 2009 to undergo training at a camp being an accessory in the murders of 246 Ladin at training camps in Afghanistan. in North Waziristan. Prosecutors people aboard the commercial planes He was known as “Ibrahim the stated that he had planned to return to used in the 9/11 attacks. El-Motassadeq German.” A video dating from January Germany to raise funds for al-Qa`ida came to Germany in 1993 to study 2001 showed him sitting in the first row and participate in terrorist operations.28 engineering and fell in with a radical among hundreds of armed fighters in an Makenesi was tasked to raise 20,000 Islamic group in Hamburg that included al-Qa`ida camp, watching a speech by euros (approximately $29,000) every two of the hijackers, Muhammad `Atta Bin Ladin. Behind him sat the 9/11 pilot six months and was supposed to act as and Marwan al-Shehhi. He had wired Muhammad `Atta.24 a contact in Germany.29 He was arrested money to al-Shehhi, and he admitted to in Pakistan in June 2010 and returned attending a terrorist training camp in In July 2010, another German citizen to Germany two months later. During Afghanistan sponsored by Usama bin from Hamburg was detained for his his trial, Makanesi cooperated with Ladin.18 El-Motassadeq was involved ties to al-Qa`ida. Ahmed Sidiqi, a authorities, outlining planned terrorist in the running of the al-Quds mosque German citizen of Afghan origin, was attacks that allowed for increased in Hamburg, which prosecutors say apprehended in Kabul and transferred security measures.30 was the focal point of the group’s to U.S. custody. He worked for a activities.19 The mosque, which is in cleaning company at the Hamburg Al-Qa`ida has also utilized German Hamburg’s St. Georg district, has been International Airport, attended the al- nationals in its propaganda material. under surveillance since the 2001 Quds mosque, and had direct ties to Bekkay Harrach, a German national, attacks. In August 2010, German police Mounir el-Motassadeq.25 Sidiqi was the rose within al-Qa`ida to become part finally shut down the mosque because source of much of the information on a of its propaganda production unit, al- they believed it was again being used as potential “Mumbai-style” terrorist plot Sahab. Harrach appeared in a 2009 a meeting point for extremists.20 in Europe.26 Shortly after, U.S. drone video entitled “Rescue Package for strikes killed several militants with Germany.” His words largely echoed Al-Qa`ida’s connections to Germany German citizenship in the tribal areas those of Eric Breininger. Harrach extend beyond the Hamburg cell. On of Pakistan in September and October warned that if Germany continued its February 5, 2009, a French court found military engagement in Afghanistan, German national Christian Ganczarski 21 “French Allege Detained German Is Top Al Qaeda it would not “get away with it for guilty of playing a central role in the Leader,” Deutsche Welle, June 12, 2003; Britta Sandberg free,” and therefore the German people deadly 2002 Djerba attack in Tunisia and Holger Stark, “Verdict Expected in Djerba Bombing should “stand up and be reasonable” Case,” Der Spiegel, February 5, 2009. in the upcoming September 2009 31 18 Mark Landler, “9/11 Associate is Sentenced in Ger- 22 Ganczarski is of Polish descent. Born in Gliwice, parliamentary elections. It was the many to 15 Years,” New York Times, January 9, 2007. southern Poland, to strict Catholic parents in 1966, he first time al-Sahab tailored a message There was a deep sense of trust between el-Motassadeq later moved to Germany with his parents and became a specifically to Germans—including and the 9/11 plotters. In 1996, el-Motassadeq was a signa- naturalized citizen. He and his wife are converts to Islam. by an actual German national—which tory to `Atta’s will. El-Motassadeq, however, only first Trained as a locksmith, he eventually became known as strengthened al-Qa`ida’s image as a 32 came under suspicion in November 2001, when German a computer expert in extremist circles. truly global organization. authorities discovered that he had power of attorney 23 “Paris Court Finds German Guilty of Tunisian At- over a bank account held by al-Shehhi that was used to tack,” Der Spiegel, February 6, 2009. 27 Tom A. Peter, “Al Qaeda Plot in Europe Possibly fund flight lessons in the United States and provide the 24 Ibid.; “French Allege Detained German Is Top Al Revealed by German Terror Suspect,” Christian Science expenses for American visa applications for the 9/11 plot- Qaeda Leader.” Monitor, September 29, 2010. ters. Money in an account set up by `Atta in Florida was 25 Sidiqi drove el-Motassadeq’s father to visit Mounir in 28 “Germany Sentences Al-Qaida Member to Prison,” traced back to Hamburg. prison and even vacationed with el-Motassadeq’s family. Voice of America, May 9, 2011. 19 “Profile: Mounir al-Motassadek,” BBC, December 4, See “Hamburg Islamist Speaks of Threat of Attacks in 29 “Al Qaeda Dealt Battlefield, Court Setbacks with 2 2006. Germany,” Der Spiegel, September 6, 2010. Dead, 1 Guilty Plea,” CNN, May 5, 2011. 20 The cultural association that runs the mosque has 26 Nic Robertson and Paul Cruickshank, “Europe 30 “Germany Sentences Al-Qaida Member to Prison.” also been banned. See “Germany Shuts 9/11 Plotters’ Warned of Mumbai-style Terror Attacks,” CNN, Sep- 31 Stenersen. Mosque in Hamburg,” BBC, August 9, 2010. tember 29, 2010. 32 Harrach, however, appears to have been killed at

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Lone Wolves U.S. Air Force bus was waiting. Uka Conclusion In addition to the threat from al-Qa`ida watched as 16 U.S. military service The German government is increasingly and more organized terrorist groups, members gradually arrived, then asked concerned about the number of its the spread of “lone wolf” terrorism is one of them for a cigarette and where the nationals becoming terrorists. To date, also a major concern for Germany’s soldiers were heading. After the airman no transnational terrorist attack, linked security apparatus. “Lone wolves” are confirmed that they were on their way to al-Qa`ida or an affiliate, has been more motivated to act spontaneously to Afghanistan, Uka turned around, carried out on German soil. This is due and sporadically. Although they may not reached into his backpack and loaded a above all to the vigilance of the German necessarily be successful as they lack magazine into his pistol.37 Uka waited security services, who in many cases the hands-on skill of more established until almost all the airmen had boarded have intervened early and prevented terrorist operatives, they also do not leave the bus, then shot dead a senior airman terrorist groups from carrying out their a trail to other cells or terrorist groups as he returned from a luggage trolley. plans. A number of German nationals abroad, making it harder for authorities Boarding the bus, Uka then fatally shot have, however, continued to be victims to track them and disrupt their activities. an airman in the driver’s seat while of terrorist attacks in other countries. repeatedly shouting “God is great” in It must be assumed that unidentified On July 31, 2006, Jihad Hamad and Arabic. He seriously wounded two other terrorist networks or cells exist in Youssef el-Hajdib, both Lebanese men standing in the bus aisle. Uka is Germany that are integrated into nationals, placed two suitcases filled believed to have fired nine times before functioning cross-border structures with propane gas and crude detonators his gun jammed. He then fled from the and, to a large degree, can plan attacks on regional trains in Cologne. The bus into a terminal where he was tackled independently based on their capabilities bombs were supposed to explode near and detained by German authorities.38 and the means available. Germany also Hamm and Koblenz. Although the faces the possible growing threat of “lone triggers went off, the canisters failed Uka, an ethnic Albanian from Kosovo, wolf” Islamist extremists, lured by al- to detonate. German authorities said was a devout Muslim. Although born Qa`ida’s violent ideology yet having no the bombs could have caused up to 75 in Kosovska Mitrovica, his family had connection to organized terrorist cells. casualties.33 The attacks were originally been living in Germany for 40 years. These individuals hope to contribute planned for the 2006 FIFA Soccer On the surface, Uka was a German to the “jihad” with smaller-scale, World Cup held several weeks earlier, success story for an immigrant family. retaliatory efforts—similar to the action but the suspects reportedly abandoned In 2005, he and some classmates won a taken by Arid Uka in March 2011. the plan when they realized that the government prize for a school project on bombs would not be ready in time.34 how to prevent violence in society and These cases demonstrate that jihadist Hamad fled to Lebanon where German posed proudly with Gerhard Schröder, activity in Germany is becoming more investigators tracked him down in the chancellor of Germany at the time.39 lethal. In the past, German territory was conjunction with their Lebanese He worked part time in the mail room at used by Islamist militants strictly to counterparts. El-Hajdib was arrested Frankfurt airport.40 plan terrorist operations abroad. Today, in Germany.35 On December 18, 2007, a however, terrorists are increasingly court in Beirut sentenced Hamad to 12 According to German prosecutors, the viewing Germany as a target in its own years in prison. On December 9, 2008, internet may have played a major role right. el-Hajdib was sentenced to life in prison in Uka’s radicalization. His Facebook by a Düsseldorf court.36 page illustrated a side of him that even Dr. Sajjan Gohel is International Security his family apparently did not know. Director at the Asia-Pacific Foundation, an Another case of “lone wolf” terrorism He posted a link to a jihadist battle independent intelligence and security think- in Germany occurred on March 2, 2011, hymn, “I can no longer stand this life tank. He received his Ph.D. in International when Arid Uka traveled to Frankfurt of humiliation among you. My weapon History from the London School of Economics airport armed with a pistol and two is ready at all times.”41 According to & Political Science (LSE). His doctoral thesis, knives. Uka spotted two U.S. airmen German authorities, Uka confessed entitled, “The Evolution of Egyptian Radical emerging from a baggage claim area to targeting U.S. military members, Ideological Thought from Hasan al-Banna and followed them to an exit where a claimed he acted alone and did not to Ayman al-Zawahiri,” is in the process of belong to a terrorist network or cell. In being published. Dr. Gohel’s primary research interests include: the security challenges in some point between May 2010 and January 2011. His fel- addition, the U.S. Embassy in Kosovo’s South Asia, the Middle East and the Horn low militants announced his death, but a clear date was capital of Pristina referred to “the act of 42 of Africa and the connection with the West; not provided. See “Al-Qaeda Fighter Bekkay Harrach a single individual.” radical ideological thought both present and ‘Killed in Afghanistan,’” BBC, January 20, 2011. historical; and the role that New Media plays in 33 “Cologne Suitcase Bombers Get Long Sentences,” Der 37 Jack Ewing, “Man Charged in Germany in Killing of transnational terrorism. Spiegel, December 18, 2007. U.S. Airmen,” New York Times, July 7, 2011. 34 Personal interview, official from the German Federal 38 Ibid. Office for the Protection of the Constitution, November 39 Souad Mekhennet, “Frankfurt Attack Mystifies Sus- 5, 2010. pect’s Family,” New York Times, March 8, 2011. 35 “Kofferbomber handelten im Dienst des Islam,” West- 40 Helen Pidd, “Frankfurt Airport Shooting May Have deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, December 19, 2007. Islamist Link, say Police,” Guardian, March 3, 2011. 36 “German Court Sentences Man to Life for Attempted 41 Mekhennet. Bombing,” Der Spiegel, September 12, 2008. 42 “Airport Shooter Said to Admit Targeting U.S. GIs,” CBS News, March 3, 2011.

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and often discrimination against Factors Leading Europeans to Conversion Islamic Activism in Europe: European Muslims means that many Conversions of native Europeans to The Role of Converts converts maintain a low profile to avoid Islam took place in West European harassment and exclusion. countries from the 1960s onward By Emmanuel Karagiannis and were the result of two important While European converts to Islam developments: post-war Muslim islam is the fastest growing religion in represent only a tiny percentage of immigration and the rise of protest Europe. Although much of the spread Europe’s Muslim population, members and counterculture movements in the has been driven by immigration and of that group have been increasingly 1960s. The first generation of Muslim higher birth rates among Muslims vocal and active about Islamic issues. immigrants remained rather isolated living in Europe, conversion of native More importantly, European converts from the rest of society; the second Europeans also figures in this growth. have participated in most terrorist and third generations of Europe’s A convert is defined as one who has plots and actual attacks that have taken Muslims, however, have increasingly changed membership from one religious place on European soil since 9/11. The married outside their religious group. group (for example, Christianity) to shoe bomb plot in 2001, the terrorist Although circumstances differ from another religious group (for example, attacks in Madrid and London in 2004 country to country, many non-Muslim Islam). One can only speculate about and 2005 respectively, the transatlantic partners typically convert to Islam to the exact number of Muslim converts in aircraft plot in 2006, the 2007 bomb plot receive approval from their in-laws. Europe since most European population in Germany, and the 2010 Moscow metro Additionally, individuals involved surveys do not include a question bombings all shared one common feature: in Hippie and other counterculture on religion. In total, there are likely European converts to Islam were involved movements embraced Sufism as a 200,000-320,000 converts in Europe, at various levels and stages. spiritual alternative.2 The fact that making up less than two percent of Sufism is a mystical and spiritual Europe’s Muslim population.1 In total, at least 40 converts had a movement within the Muslim faith, confirmed role in the plotting and/ in search of communication with God Generally speaking, most European or execution of terrorist attacks in through ascetic practices, was appealing converts tend to follow liberal European countries in the last 20 to those who rejected Christianity for interpretations of Islam. Since they years. Although in absolute numbers being too “materialistic.” grew up in modern and secular societies, jihadist converts are a small group, converts naturally adjust Islam to fit they represent a significant subgroup of Following the collapse of communism in their own needs. Moreover, the social Europe’s terrorists. Their significance the late 1980s, there is currently another environment in which converts live also stems from the fact that in many wave of conversions. In the post-Cold compels them to behave in a certain European societies converts tend to be War era, Islam is often viewed as a way to maintain an “acceptable” less physically visible than Muslims religion of rebels. Interestingly, many professional and social image. Suspicion of immigrant origin. Indeed, jihadist former Marxists have been involved in a converts have taken advantage of the renewed quest for identity, which partly 3 1 In France, estimates suggest approximately 50,000 Schengen Treaty and U.S. visa-waiver shows itself in an interest in Islam. to 100,000 converts out of a population of three to four programs to travel without much A growing number of former Marxists million Muslims. For details, see Mapping the Global Mus- scrutiny. European governments must have converted to Islam, including lim Population (Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, carefully choose strategies and policies prominent French philosopher Roger 2009). In 2006, there were 850,000 Muslims in the for dealing with converts, if they are to Garaudy. Netherlands, including 12,000 converts. For details, see avoid a threat to European security. “More than 850 Thousand Muslims in the Netherlands,” In addition, individuals have embraced Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek, October 27, 2007. In This article first analyzes the factors Islam for more personal reasons. It Germany, the estimated number of converts ranges from leading some Europeans to embrace is common for many new Muslims to 12,000 to 100,000, with the total Muslim population set Islam before examining the phenomenon mention an event that changed their at around three million. For details, see Johannes Kandel, of activism among converts, focusing on lives forever and eventually led to their “Organisierter Islam in Deutschland und gesellschaftli- certain individuals and organizations. conversion. For example, and strictly che Integration,” Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, September Islamic activism does not necessarily anecdotally, a young Dutch man thought 4 2004. In Great Britain, there were about 63,000 native lead to radicalization, but it can reveal that it was a love disappointment ; an converts out of a population of 1.6 million Muslims in political trends within the community English woman believed that it was the the early 2000s. For details, see the 2001 Census com- of converts. Therefore, it is important to death of her brother from drug abuse pleted by the Office for National Statistics. Their num- understand the social world of European that convinced her to “search for the bers, however, must have increased because the Muslim converts and how it is organized. population as a whole reached 2.4 million in 2009. For details, see Richard Kerbaj, “Muslim Population Rising 2 Kate Zebiri, British Muslim Converts: Choosing Alterna- 10 Times Faster Than Rest of Society,” The Times, Janu- tive Lives (Oxford: Oneworld, 2008), p. 249. ary 30, 2009. Spain has an estimated 800,000 Muslims, 3 Anne Sofie Roald, New Muslims in the European Context: roughly 20,000 of whom are converts. For details, see The Experience of Scandinavian Converts (Boston: Brill, Geoff Pingree and Lisa Abend, “In Spain, Dismay at 2004), p. 344. Muslim Converts Holding Sway,” Christian Science Moni- 4 Personal interview, “Mark,” a Dutch male convert, tor, November 7, 2006. Amsterdam, Netherlands, December 2008.

16 august 2011 . Vol 4 . Issue 8 truth”5; an English man mentioned Muslim causes.”10 In recent years, there and defending Abu Mus`ab al-Zarqawi “troubles with the law.”6 has been a growing number of converts for his 2005 Amman bombings in who have taken a public stance on Islam- Jordan.14 Her inflammatory rhetoric Converts are keen to demonstrate to related issues. They often feel more about Israel and U.S. foreign policy in their circles their allegiance to the confident than Muslims of immigrant the Middle East has made her a popular (proper) Muslim way of life. Therefore, origin to criticize government policies figure within Europe’s Islamist circles. they often quit habits such as drinking and defend Islamic agendas. Non- alcohol and eating pork. Many converts Muslims are usually suspicious of Pierre Vogel represents another have mentioned difficult times they had converts because they “abandoned the interesting case of a convert who turned with parents and siblings when they religion of their forefathers.”11 On the into an Islamic activist. He was born in announced to them their decision to contrary, many Muslim activists view Germany and converted to Islam at the embrace Islam. As a Greek-Canadian these converts as mediators between age of 23 while he was a professional female explained, “her parents believed authorities and the Muslim community. boxer. After studying for two years in at first that she betrayed her culture.”7 Mecca, Vogel returned to Germany and Female converts have faced strong One of the most famous Islamic activists started preaching Salafism.15 Vogel has criticism for their decision to wear a hijab in the United Kingdom is Yvonne Ridley, used the internet to reach out to young which, from the Western point of view, a journalist of leftist background who German Muslims.16 In December 2009, has largely symbolized oppression. In converted to Islam after being freed Swiss authorities barred him from the words of a Dutch woman, “people from Taliban captivity in October 2001. attending a demonstration against the felt sorry for me and almost treated me In 2004, Ridley entered British politics minaret ban in Bern. Due to his anti- as a victim. To them, I was a woman as a candidate European MP for the integration messages, the 32-year-old who had been coerced by her husband Respect coalition party. The party had self-appointed imam has also been into giving up her rights.”8 monitored by German authorities who worry about radicalism among the According to a 2007 New York Police “Although many would country’s large Muslim community.17 Department report entitled Radicalization stereotypically associate in the West: The Homegrown Threat, “converts The Dutchman Abdul-Jabbar van de have played a prominent role in the jihadist terrorists as Arabs Ven is another leading Islamic convert. majority of terrorist case studies and or South Asians, European He converted to Islam at the age of tend to be the most zealous members 14. He studied in Amman and Medina of groups. Their need to prove converts have actually before returning to the Netherlands. He their religious convictions to their participated in most has preached Salafism in the notorious companions often makes them the most al-Fourqaan mosque in Eindhoven. aggressive.”9 Indeed, there have been terrorist plots and actual Like Pierre Vogel, Van de Ven has used a few cases of European converts, like attacks that have taken the internet extensively to propagate the French brothers Jerome and David his Islamist messages. He has also Courtailler, whose conversion zeal led place on European soil been known for his controversial them to “prove” their commitment to the since 9/11.” statements regarding the assassination new faith by joining jihadist groups. of Theo van Gogh.18 Van de Ven was under investigation for his relationship Islamic Activism and Converts

The phenomenon of Islamic activism first been established by former Labour MP neRidley.org, July 10, 2006. appeared in Europe in the late 1980s, George Galloway together with the 14 Her exact words were, “What Queen Noor failed to ex- when the Salman Rushdie affair erupted Socialist Workers Party (SWP), the plain on her CNN broadcast was that the three [targeted] in the United Kingdom. Thousands of Revolutionary Communist Party of hotels, Hyatt, Days Inn and Radisson, are all US-owned Muslims protested against the British Britain, and prominent members of the and are seen as dens of iniquity by Jordan’s reserved author and burned copies of his book, Muslim Association of Britain and the Muslim community.” She also proceeded to call some of The Satanic Verses. Quintan Wiktorowicz Muslim Council of Britain. According those killed in the blasts “collaborators” with “America.” has defined Islamic activism as “the to its manifesto, the party condemns For details, see Yvonne Ridley, “Something Rather Re- mobilization of contention to support ”Islamophobia and the demonization of pugnant,” Tajdeed, November 23, 2005, available at 12 Muslim communities.” Ridley herself www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/1529185/posts. 5 Personal interview, “Sarah,” an English female con- has turned into a vocal and controversial 15 Ehrhardt Von Christoph, “Ick Bin Ein Muslim Jew- vert, London, January 2009. figure, referring to Shamil Basayev as a orden,” Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, September 6, 6 Personal interview, “John,” an English male convert, rebel leader who “led an admirable fight 2007. 13 London, January 2009. to bring independence to Chechnya” 16 Andrea Brandt and Maximilian Popp, “Will Efforts 7 Personal interview, “Maria,” a Greek-Canadian female to Train Homegrown Muslim Leaders Fail?” Der Spiegel, convert, Athens, Greece, December 2009. 10 Quintan Wiktorowicz ed., Islamic Activism: A Social September 16, 2010. 8 Personal interview, “Edith,” a Dutch female convert, Movement Theory Approach (Bloomington, IN: Indiana 17 Ibid. Amsterdam, Netherlands, December 2008. University Press, 2004), p. 2. 18 During a television interview in November 2004, Van 9 Mitchell Silber and Arvin Bhatt, Radicalization in the 11 Personal interview, imam, London, January 2009. de Ven mentioned that he “felt a certain joy” when Dutch West: The Homegrown Threat (New York: New York Po- 12 “Civil Liberties,” Respect Party, 2010. film director Theo van Gogh was murdered by Moham- lice Department, 2007), p. 29. 13 Yvonne Ridley, “The Passing of a Chechen,” Yvon- med Bouyeri, a Dutch-Moroccan Muslim.

17 august 2011 . Vol 4 . Issue 8 with Jason Walters, a radical Dutch- believed in the superiority of Islam and Islamic Board of Spain (Junta Islámica de American convert, who turned into a advocated the imposition of Shari`a, España) terrorist.19 which automatically limited its appeal The Islamic Board of Spain (IBS) has among non-religious and secular British been one of the most active and vocal For years, Europe’s Islamist groups Muslims. Islamic organizations in Europe. have recruited converts and promoted Although the IBS is open to all them to senior positions. In particular, The Association for British Muslims Muslims, its leadership consists mainly Hizb al-Tahrir has recruited an The Association for British Muslims of Spanish converts. IBS has promoted increased number of converts who tend (AOBM) was established in 1974 a moderate and more “Westernized” to be middle class and highly educated. and claims to represent the interests Islam, with the encouragement of the The Canadian Jamal Harwood is a well- of British converts. The AOBM has Zapatero government. Moreover, the known convert in the British branch promoted a “British Islam,” arguing organization has denounced terrorism of Hizb al-Tahrir. Al-Muhajiroun, an that British traditions are “compatible by jihadist groups. In March 2005, offshoot of Hizb al-Tahrir in the United with Islam.”21 The AOBM has portrayed the IBS grabbed international media Kingdom that was supposedly dissolved itself as a rather apolitical organization attention when it issued a fatwa against in 2004, also recruited a number of that advocates integration and avoids Usama bin Ladin, which stated that converts; indeed, some of them like controversial issues. It has focused on Simon (or Suleiman) Keeler, the former public activities such as conferences, as long as Usama bin Ladin and his spokesman, managed to climb the public lectures, community and organization defend the legality of organizational pyramid. charitable services. Some of its members terrorism and try to base it on the were involved in the humanitarian Sacred Qur’an and the Sunna, they Despite this, and as a result of their small missions for the Bosnian Muslims in are committing the crime of istihlal numbers, there are only a limited number the early to mid-1990s. For instance, (i.e. distortion of the Islamic of Islamic groups and organizations in Neil (Ibrahim) Golightly, a 34-year-old law) and they have become ipso Europe run and controlled by converts. convert from Glasgow, was killed while facto apostates (kafir murtadd), who The most important such organizations trying to bring food and supplies to should not be considered Muslim are the following. besieged Sarajevo in August 1995. The nor be treated as such.24 AOBM has celebrated him as a shahid The Islamic Party of Britain (martyr) who fell for a just cause. The Yet the IBS has sparked some The Sunni-oriented Islamic Party of group remains active today. controversy in regard to the “al-Andalus Britain (IPB) was established at the issue.” From 711 to 1492, a great part of time of the Rushdie affair in September The Finish Islamic Party (Suomen islamilainen the Iberian Peninsula was controlled by 1989. The party was dissolved in 2003 puolue) Muslim kingdoms. For many centuries, because it never managed to gain much The Finish Islamic Party was the Andalusian city of Cordoba in support from Muslims in constituencies established in 2007 by Finnish southern Spain was one of the most where the party stood. In the November converts Abdullah Tammi and important centers of Islamic culture. 1990 by-election, for example, held in Abdullah Rintala. Its membership After the fall of Grenada in 1491, most the constituency of Bradford North, an is unknown but estimated to be only a of the Muslims left for North Africa. area with a large Muslim population, the few hundred people. The party, which The Great Mosque of Cordoba, the IPB won only 2.2% of the votes. In reality, has limited influence among Finland’s symbol of Muslim Spain for centuries, the huge majority of British Muslims, 40,000-50,000 Muslims (most of whom was converted to a Roman Catholic who are of South Asian origin, could not have Tatar origin), supports a ban on Church. Since then, Muslims have not identify with a party run mostly by white alcohol sales and gender segregation for been allowed to pray in the building. converts. The party was founded and led Muslims. It has also favored Finland’s For several years, Juma Islamica has by David Musa Pidcock, who is English, withdrawal from the European Union. petitioned unsuccessfully both the local and Sahib Mustaqim Bleher, who is The FIS has increasingly taken a stand church authorities and the Vatican to German. Another reason for its limited in many pan-Islamic issues (such as the open the building to Muslims. electoral appeal was probably its Islamist war in Iraq and the Prophet Muhammad ideology. The party argued that “Islam is cartoon controversy). Due to Tammi’s The repatriation of Moriscos is another the solution to the world’s problems. No past as a KGB agent, the FIS has followed issue raised by the IBS. Following the other religion, way of life or culture can a pro-Russian line.22 For example, the Reconquista of Andalusia, the remaining possibly succeed, because only truth can party has been highly critical of Estonia Muslim population converted under the satisfy the soul of humankind, and only for its “apartheid policies” under which threat of exile to Christianity and came the guidance, laws, and concepts taught the “educational system discriminates to be known as Moriscos. One hundred to us by God are capable of achieving against Russian-speakers.”23 years later, however, the Spanish throne just balance.”20 In other words, the IPB

21 Personal interview, two members of AOBM, London, Rasismia Ja Fasismia Vastaan,” Finish Islamic Party, 19 “Politici walgen van doodsverwensing; Donner: November 2010. March 3, 2009. Weinig kans op strafzaak imam Van de Ven,” De 22 Panu Hietaneva, “Leader of Finnish Islamic Party 24 Mansur Escudero Bedate, “La Comisión Islámica Telegraaf, November 25, 2004. Says he was a Soviet Spy,” Helsingin Sanomat, November de España emite una fatua condenando el terrorismo y 20 “Our Policies,” Islamic Party of Britain, undated, 4, 2008. al grupo Al Qaida,” La Comisión Islámica de España, available at www.islamicparty.com/policies/policies.pdf. 23 “Suomen Islamilaisen Puolueen Kannanotto Viron March 11, 2005.

18 august 2011 . Vol 4 . Issue 8 expelled them to North Africa. In 2006, Conclusion The Rise of Salafists in Junta Islamica endorsed a proposal Despite being negatively presented in made by the Andalusian branch of the media and elsewhere, Islam has won Tunisia After the Fall of United Left (a Spanish left-wing party) thousands of new followers in many Ben Ali to enable descendants of the expelled European countries. Although many Muslim population to gain Spanish would stereotypically associate jihadist By Aaron Y. Zelin citizenship. terrorists as Arabs or South Asians, European converts have actually in the aftermath of the “Arab Spring,” The persecution of Muslims by the participated in most terrorist plots and many analysts proclaimed that it was Christian medieval armies and the loss actual attacks that have taken place on the death knell of al-Qa`ida and its of Spain have been often mentioned by European soil since 9/11. ideology, while others warned that Islamist groups as proof of Western it would open space for al-Qa`ida to intolerance. Therefore, several Islamist While at least 40 European converts exploit and even potentially take over a groups, including al-Qa`ida, have have turned into jihadist terrorists, a government similar to the 1979 Iranian openly called for the reconquest of al- much larger number of them have been Revolution. These two narratives miss Andalus. At the beginning, the issue mobilized around Islamic issues. Being the point. Indeed, jihadist ideology was taken lightly. Following the Madrid familiar with the political culture and has been marginalized and has opened bombings in March 2004, however, system of government of their own space for other schools of thought to the IBS’ interest in al-Andalus has countries, many converts have been counterbalance it. Yet, at the same only reinforced suspicion among the involved in Islamic activism, defending time, in societies such as Tunisia conservative segments of society that Muslim rights and in some cases where religion has been suppressed at Spanish converts have a secret agenda propagating Islamist messages. Having the hands of a dictatorial government, to “re-Islamize” Spain. diverse agendas, organizations which it has created new opportunities for are run by converts cannot be treated individuals to organize at the local level, The Association of Muslims in Greece (Enosi as a monolithic world. The IPB and the including non-violent political Salafists Mousoulmanon Elladas) FIS have been outright Islamist groups, who sympathize with intellectual The Association of Muslims in Greece whereas AOBM, IBS, and AMG have aspects of jihadist ideology. (AMG) was established in 2003 mostly focused on social, religious and to “defend the Muslims’ rights in cultural issues. One such Salafist group is known as several fields.”25 Although the current Ansar al-Shari`a in Tunisia (AST), and president, Naim el-Ghandour, is a The converts working for these its media outlet al-Qayrawan Media naturalized Greek citizen of Egyptian organizations come from different Foundation (QMF). It is not clear origin, the AMG is run mostly by Greek backgrounds and certainly follow whether AST was organized prior to the converts. Greece’s Muslim population is different interpretations of Islam. What fall of former Tunisian President Ben estimated at around 250,000-300,000 they have in common is a deep sense of Ali’s regime, but if it existed beforehand people,26 excluding the indigenous, personal commitment to the “defense” it would have been highly covert due to largely Turkish-speaking Muslim of Islam from external criticism. They the repressive environment under the community of northeastern Greece act as cultural intermediaries because previous government. Regardless, since and the large Albanian immigrant they belong both to their native society April 2011 the group’s activities are community whose members are and to the umma. Therefore, they seek increasingly public, holding rallies and either secular or Christian. Despite to promote a less Arab-looking and even creating Facebook pages. AST has constituting only a small percentage of more Europeanized Islam that dares to garnered the attention of online jihadists the Muslim community in Greece, the confront its “enemies.” These converts at Ansar al-Mujahidin and al-Jahad al- AMG’s converts have been vocal on largely perceive themselves as an Islamic `Alami, two of the most popular Arabic- Muslim issues. At the beginning, the vanguard that practices “jihad by language jihadist forums. AMG focused on symbolic topics such tongue”: educating non-Muslims about as the construction of a mosque and Islam, and to strive with one’s tongue This article chronicles the rise of AST, a Muslim cemetery in Athens, where to “support good and fight wrong.” In showing how the group is a product of the majority of the Muslim population practice, this is done through speeches, the new openness in Tunisian society currently resides. Following the wars debates and other public activities. as well as the liberation of the “public in Lebanon and Gaza in 2006 and square” in the Arab world as a whole. 2008 respectively, however, the AMG Emmanuel Karagiannis is an Assistant This new commons has featured a rise in has increasingly taken part in protests Professor at the University of Macedonia’s Salafist movements, creating challenges and sit-ins against the United States Department of Balkan, Slavic and Oriental for Western states that want to establish and Israel. Studies in Thessaloniki, Greece and an diplomatic relations with new actors in Investigator at the University of Maryland’s transitioning Arab societies. START Center. To navigate the maze of new actors, it is crucial for Western governments 25 Naim el-Ghandour, “Mosque and Cemetary: Too to go beyond understanding the old Much to Ask?” Greeks Rethink, February 13, 2009. Islamist parties linked to the Muslim 26 “International Religious Freedom Report 2006,” U.S. Brotherhood (as well as the secular and State Department, 2006.

19 august 2011 . Vol 4 . Issue 8 liberal trends), but also the growing Even though it is difficult to assess AST’s Most Recent Activities prominence and broader trend of connections that AST has with the The biggest issue that AST has taken Salafist movements in Tunisia and the online jihadist community, it does show up in recent months has dealt with Arab world. that some of the members of the forums the arrest of its members, as well as may be connected with the movement Tunisian prisoners held in Iraq. In The Public Rise of AST and have an interest in giving it a wider late June, the Tunisian transitional On April 27, 2011, a blog titled the audience in the online jihadist world. government started cracking down on al-Qayrawan Media Foundation was Although the group has refrained from Islamists and jihadists.8 Some of the created.1 Two days later, the same calls to violence, it has reposted content members of AST were thrown into jail, organization established a Facebook from Hani al-Siba’i and Ayman al- but later released.9 In mid-August, AST page.2 Additionally, it created a Zawahiri (who they describe as the amir) supplementary Facebook page under on its Facebook page. “The history of Islamic the name Ansar al-Shari`a in Tunisia on May 15, which coincided with the Since the launch of the blog and extremism shows that jail Facebook page, AST has released 29 time can have a radicalizing “It is premature to statements, essays, and audio messages. effect on individuals. determine AST’s future, Ten have specifically come from AST, while others have been authored by a As a result, if members but it is a fascinating variety of individuals: al-Khatib al- of AST are subjected to example of how groups in Idrisi al-Bukhari, Munir al-Tunisi, Abu Ayyad al-Tunisi, Abu al-Wafa’ al- torture in the future, one Tunisi, ‘Abd Allah al-Hijazi, and Abu societies that did not have may see an organization the opportunity to organize Ayyub al-Tunisi. Additionally, in many AST communiqués, they highlight key that has favored peaceful historical events in Tunisia’s Islamic have used their newfound protests and non-violent freedoms to propagate history and link it back to the current state of affairs. For one, QMF is an actions alter its tactics and their cause.” allusion to the famous Tunisian city Qayrawan, which is considered by some take a more aggressive to be the fourth holiest Islamic city and approach.” holds the Mosque of Uqba, a place for announcement of a conference being elite scholastics in the first few Islamic convened in Tunis on May 21.3 A day centuries.5 Also, QMF’s first official later, on May 16, QMF’s conference release states that it is the descendant also rallied against what they describe announcement appeared on the Ansar of Yusef bin Tashfin (1061-1106 CE), the as unjust and aggressive arrests of al-Mujahidin Arabic Forum (AMAF), king of the Almoravid Berber kingdom, youth from the city of Manzil Bourguiba a top-tier al-Qa`ida forum, and a who conquered Morocco, founded in northern Tunisia. They condemned second-tier forum, al-Haqiqiyyah al- Marrakesh, and reunited the Muslim the unfair treatment they have been Ichbariyyah. Following the conference, Taifa kingdoms in al-Andalus, holding subjected to in military court.10 The on May 25 the AMAF released a series off the Christian reconquista.6 It is not history of Islamic extremism shows that of photos from the conference, which surprising that Tashfin is noted since jail time can have a radicalizing effect were later posted in June on both he is a great figure in North African on individuals. As a result, if members QMF’s and AST’s Facebook pages.4 The jihadist lore. He also gets a fair amount of AST are subjected to torture in the pictures were more popular than the of mentions in al-Qa`ida in the Islamic future, one may see an organization that conference announcement and appear Maghreb’s literature as well.7 has favored peaceful protests and non- also at al-Jahad al-`Alami, al-Majahden, violent actions alter its tactics and take al-Haqiqiyyah al-Ichbariyyah, and al- a more aggressive approach. Jahafal forums. Based on pictures from multiple events and rallies, there are approximately a few hundred supporters that publicly follow the group.

5 The mosque is named after the Muslim General Uqba 1 This website can be accessed at www.al-qayrawan. ibn Nafi who founded the city of Qayrawan in 670 CE. blogspot.com. He served at the pleasure of the Umayya dynasty and 2 As of August 23, 2011, the page has 3,862 individuals played an important role in the Islamic conquests of 8 Andrew Hammond and Tarek Amara, “Tunisia Isla- who “like” it. North Africa. mists Arrested After Clashes in Capital,” Reuters, June 3 As of August 23, 2011, the page has 8,249 individuals 6 This statement can be accessed at www.al-qayrawan. 28, 2011. who “like” it. The conference announcement can be ac- blogspot.com/2011/04/httpwww.html. 9 For a video of AST members after being released from cessed at www.al-qayrawan.blogspot.com/2011/05/18- 7 For more on this phenomenon see Geoff D. Porter, prison, visit www.facebook.com/video/video.php?v=10 1432.html. “AQIM’s Objectives in North Africa,” CTC Sentinel 4:2 7666999329321&oid=211220622244900. 4 To see the images, visit the following URL: www.as- (2011); Lianne Kennedy Boudali, “Leveraging History in 10 For more information on the rally, visit www.face- ansar.com/vb/showthread.php?t=39918. AQIM Communications,” CTC Sentinel 2:4 (2009). book.com/note.php?note_id=247787781921517.

20 august 2011 . Vol 4 . Issue 8

Toward the end of July, AST also is not in the context of waging jihadist started a campaign to try and free war against them. Instead, they are Recent Highlights in Tunisian prisoners in Iraq who they concerned about the United States and Terrorist Activity believe have been unfairly arrested. France meddling in their society. As It warns against a repeat of the lack of for Israel, they do not want to establish July 1, 2011 (UNITED STATES): Leon justice in a trial that sentenced Tunisian official diplomatic relations with a Panetta, the former head of the Central Yosri ben Fakher Trigui to death in perceived enemy. Therefore, the rise Intelligence Agency, was sworn in as 2006. It also pleas for Tunisian officials of AST coincides with the spread of secretary of defense. – Voice of America, in Iraq to help resolve the situation, Salafism in the region and is similar to July 1 although it believes that the most the more pronounced public show of it significant obstacle is the unwillingness in Egyptian and Jordanian societies. July 1, 2011 (GERMANY): German of the transitional government to take Interior Minister Hans-Peter action.11 On August 23, AST conducted It is premature to determine AST’s Friedrich warned that the terrorist a peaceful sit-in in front of the Iraqi future, but it is a fascinating example threat to Germany has not decreased, embassy in Tunis to demand the release of how groups in societies that did and the number of radicals continues of Tunisian prisoners.12 not have the opportunity to organize to grow. – AP, July 1 have used their newfound freedoms to Another sign of the group’s potential propagate their cause. It also raises July 3, 2011 (IRAQ): Gunmen killed growth is their announcement on July important questions for the West five policemen in a drive-by shooting 24 that they were going to soon publish when engaging with transitioning near Rutba, Anbar Province. – Voice of the first issue of a new magazine titled Arab societies. Not only will the West America, July 3 Echo of the Helpers (Sada al-Ansar). Once have to better understand and come to the magazine is released, more can be terms with the older Islamist parties July 3, 2011 (PAKISTAN): Approximately learned about the group. They may that are usually linked to the Muslim two dozen Taliban fighters attacked a release the first issue during ‘Id al-Fitr Brotherhood, but also new Salafist police checkpoint in Shangla District at the end of Ramadan to celebrate the groups that are smaller yet whose of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, holiday and to show the progress the influence could potentially grow with killing three policemen. – AFP, July 2 organization has made in just a few greater room for the dissemination of months, as well as to project the tone of their program. July 4, 2011 (PAKISTAN): Pakistan’s the group going forward. military launched an offensive against Aaron Y. Zelin is a research associate in Taliban fighters in Kurram Agency of Conclusion the Department of Politics at Brandeis the Federally Administered Tribal Based on the content AST has released University and maintains a blog at Areas. – Wall Street Journal, July 4 in the form of statements, essays, Jihadology.net. and videos, the group does not seem July 5, 2011 (MAURITANIA): Suspected interested in global or local jihad. militants from al-Qa`ida in the Islamic Rather, most of the issues the group Maghreb attacked a military base in is agitated about deal with local Bassiknou, Mauritania. The militants problems, and they have expressed fled toward neighboring Mali after the their views through peaceful protests. attack. – AP, July 6 For example, AST is very concerned with the so-called secularists in July 6, 2011 (GLOBAL): U.S. officials Tunisia who they see attempting warned that al-Qa`ida in the Arabian to drive religion out of the state. Peninsula may attempt to surgically Although at times the United States, implant an explosive device in an air France, and Israel are mentioned, it traveler, with the aim of blowing up an airplane. – Wall Street Journal, July 7 11 They first posted a warning about this on July 25, 2011, which can be accessed at www.facebook.com/Molta9a. July 6, 2011 (AFGHANISTAN): Taliban Ansar.Alchari3a/posts/259863817372580. Three days fighters attacked multiple Afghan later, they posted another Facebook post about the issue, border police checkpoints in Nuristan which can be accessed at www.facebook.com/photo.php Province, killing an estimated 23 ?fbid=238078959559066&set=a.211666092200353.6078 police officers. Three women and two 1.211220622244900&type=1&ref=nf. They also released children were also killed. – New York videos from the rally that can be accessed on AST’s Fa- Times, July 7 cebook page. 12 For the statement announcing the sit-in, visit www.fa- July 6, 2011 (PAKISTAN): Pakistani cebook.com/note.php?note_id=249928875040741. They troops and Taliban fighters clashed identify the following individuals who are imprisoned: in Miranshah, located in North “Tariq al-Hirzi al-`Auni, Yasri al-Tariqi, Muhammad Waziristan Agency of the Federally al-Madini, Muhammad al-Hammami, `Abd al-Rahman Administered Tribal Areas. According al-Bazduri, and others that only God knows about.” to Agence France-Presse, “witnesses

21 august 2011 . Vol 4 . Issue 8 said Wednesday’s clashes broke out July 12, 2011 (AFGHANISTAN): July 14, 2011 (YEMEN): U.S. drones after Pakistani troops started to Ahmed Wali Karzai, a prominent and fighter jets reportedly attacked blow up a private hospital used by Afghan politician and the half-brother militants belonging to al-Qa`ida in the the Taliban and other militants, one of President Hamid Karzai, was Arabian Peninsula in Abyan Province. day after a nearby bomb attack killed assassinated at his home in Kandahar At least eight fighters were killed as three troops and wounded another city. The assassin was apparently they slept in a police station which 15.” – AFP, July 6 one of Wali Karzai’s security guards. they had overrun. – New York Times, July According to an Afghan police chief, 14 July 7, 2011 (AFGHANISTAN): “As he [the assassin] entered Wali’s Canada formally ended its combat room, Wali came out of his bathroom. July 16, 2011 (ALGERIA): A suicide mission in Afghanistan. According Mohammad [the assailant] fired twice bomber killed a police officer and a to the Associated Press, “Canada is at Wali without any conversation city hall employee at a public security the sixth largest troop-contributing passing between the two. Wali headquarters in Boumerdes region. nation, behind the U.S. and European received one bullet in the chest and Al-Qa`ida in the Islamic Maghreb countries. While 2,850 Canadian second in the head.” The killer was later claimed responsibility. – AP, July combat troops are going home, 950 then shot dead by other security 16; Reuters, July 20 others have started streaming into the guards. – Pajhwok Afghan News, July 12 country to help train Afghan security July 18, 2011 (PAKISTAN): According forces.” – AP, July 7 July 12, 2011 (RUSSIA): A suicide to Pakistani officials, Taliban bomber attacked a police checkpoint insurgents released a video showing July 7, 2011 (NORTH AFRICA): in Ingushetia, located in the North them executing 16 Pakistani men, most Al-Qa`ida in the Islamic Maghreb Caucasus. The bomber was the only of whom appear to be police officers. reportedly swore allegiance to new casualty. – RIA Novosti, July 12 – New York Times, July 18 al-Qa`ida chief Ayman al-Zawahiri. – Middle East Media Research Institute, July 7 July 13, 2011 (TURKEY): Turkish July 19, 2011 (YEMEN): Senior al- authorities foiled a plot to attack the Qa`ida in the Arabian Peninsula July 9, 2011 (AFGHANISTAN): U.S. U.S. Embassy in Ankara, arresting 15 militant Ayad al-Shabwani was killed Defense Secretary Leon Panetta told suspected al-Qa`ida-linked terrorists. near Zinjibar, according to Yemen’s reporters that the United States is – ABC News, July 13 Defense Ministry. – AP, July 21 “within reach” of defeating al-Qa`ida. According to Panetta, “Now is the July 13, 2011 (AFGHANISTAN): A July 20, 2011 (GERMANY): German moment, following what happened suicide bomber killed five French authorities arrested “Omid H.,” with bin Laden, to put maximum soldiers guarding a meeting between identified as a 21-year-old Afghan pressure on them [al-Qa`ida’s Afghan tribal elders and NATO officers national, on suspicion of recruiting leaders], because I do believe that if in Kapisa Province. As reported in the or fundraising for al-Qa`ida and the we continue this effort that we can New York Times, “the French soldiers, Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan. really cripple al-Qaeda as a threat to local leaders and tribal elders had – Reuters, July 21 this country…I’m convinced that we’re gathered to discuss potential road within reach of strategically defeating projects, new dams, bridges and July 20, 2011 (AFGHANISTAN): al-Qaeda.” – Washington Post, July 9 other development projects that are Taliban fighters killed at least three important elements of the military’s Afghan policemen during a two-hour July 11, 2011 (PAKISTAN): A suspected attempts to build goodwill among firefight in Kandahar city. – Vancouver U.S. drone killed 12 alleged militants Afghans and restore the country’s Sun, July 20 in Gorvak village of North Waziristan shattered infrastructure.” – New York Agency in the Federally Administered Times, July 13 July 20, 2011 (AFGHANISTAN): A Tribal Areas. – AP, July 11 suicide bomber on a bicycle killed four July 13, 2011 (INDIA): Three blasts people in the northern city of Mazar- July 11, 2011 (PAKISTAN): A suicide ripped through Mumbai, killing i-Sharif. – New York Times, July 20 bomber killed seven people at a more than 20 people. Authorities political rally in Battagram District of suspect that the Indian Mujahidin July 21, 2011 (AFGHANISTAN): The Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province. – AP, is responsible. – NDTV, July 13; Time British Ministry of Defense announced July 11 Magazine, July 13 that two Britons, a male and a female, were arrested in Afghanistan in a joint July 11, 2011 (PHILIPPINES): Two July 14, 2011 (AFGHANISTAN): A operation between Afghan forces and U.S. citizens and one Filipino were suicide bomber targeted the funeral British soldiers. They are suspected of kidnapped in Zamboanga City. services for Ahmed Wali Karzai at a involvement in terrorism. – BBC, July Authorities blame the Abu Sayyaf Kandahar mosque, killing four people. 21 Group, and they believe that the – National Journal, July 14 hostages were brought to Basilan Province. – GMANews.tv, July 13

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July 22, 2011 (UNITED STATES): July 26, 2011 (UNITED STATES): protects Israel’s interests and grants Mohammed Zazi, the father of New Matthew Olsen, President Barack the (Muslim) nation a few freedoms.” York subway bomb plotter Najibullah Obama’s nominee to head the U.S. – AP, July 28 Zazi, was convicted of lying to National Counterterrorism Center, authorities. He faces up to 20 years said that attacking the U.S. homeland July 27, 2011 (UNITED STATES): in federal prison on each of the two remains a “significant goal” for al- Police arrested Naser Jason Abdo, an charges. – Christian Science Monitor, July 22 Qa`ida. “That threat is not so much AWOL U.S. Army soldier, for allegedly from the senior (al Qaeda) leadership plotting to attack fellow soldiers at July 22, 2011 (NORWAY): A car in Pakistan with one unified goal, it Fort Hood, Texas. Authorities found bomb exploded outside government is now diffused in various regional an article from Inspire magazine in his buildings in downtown Oslo, killing locations under various leaders and possession. – USA Today, July 29 eight people. Shortly after, a gunman with various goals,” he explained. shot to death 69 people at a youth – Reuters, July 26 July 27, 2011 (AFGHANISTAN): A camp on Utoeya island. The man suicide bomber killed the mayor of responsible for both incidents was July 26, 2011 (UNITED STATES): The Kandahar city, Ghulam Haidar Hamidi. identified as Anders Behring Breivik, U.S. State Department issued a global The bomber apparently concealed the a right-wing Norwegian extremist. travel warning telling Americans explosives in his turban. – Reuters, July – BBC, July 24; AP, July 29 to take precautions about terrorist 27 threats. As reported in the Associated July 24, 2011 (PAKISTAN): A suicide Press, “It said al-Qaida and other July 28, 2011 (UNITED STATES): bomber attacked an army checkpoint groups are planning terror attacks The recently retired head of the U.S. in South Waziristan Agency of the against U.S. interests in Europe, National Counterterrorism Center, Federally Administered Tribal Areas, Asia, Africa and Middle East. The Michael Leiter, told reporters that al- killing one Pakistani soldier. – AP, July department said attacks may be Qa`ida would like to attack the United 24 in the form of suicide operations, States using “simple forms of chemical assassinations, kidnappings, hijackings or biological weapons.” He also warned July 24, 2011 (PAKISTAN): A local and bombings. Americans should that “smaller scale terrorist attacks tribal militia clashed with Taliban consider the potential for attacks on are with us for at least the foreseeable fighters in Kurram Agency of the transportation systems and tourist future.” – AP, July 28 Federally Administered Tribal Areas. infrastructure, it said. It noted such The tribal militia was supported by attacks in Moscow, London, Madrid, July 28, 2011 (IRAN): According to Pakistani forces. Approximately 27 Glasgow and New York in recent the Associated Press, “The Obama militants and four tribesmen were years. The department also warned administration accused Iran on killed in the fighting. – AFP, July 25 Americans to avoid demonstrations in Thursday of entering into a ‘secret Arab countries because they can turn deal’ with an al-Qaida offshoot that July 24, 2011 (YEMEN): A suicide violent.” – AP, July 28 provides money and recruits for bomber detonated an explosives-laden attacks in Afghanistan and Pakistan. truck at an army camp in Aden, killing July 26, 2011 (ALGERIA): A suicide The Treasury Department designated nine Yemeni soldiers. Yemeni officials bomber detonated his explosives to six members of the unit as terrorists claimed that the bomber was a Saudi avoid arrest in the eastern Algerian subject to U.S. sanctions…Treasury member of al-Qa`ida in the Arabian town of Bouhamza. There were no said a branch headed by Ezedin Abdel Peninsula. – AFP, July 24; UPI, July 26 other casualties. – AFP, July 27 Aziz Khalil was operating in Iran with the Tehran government’s blessing, July 26, 2011 (GLOBAL): The leader of July 27, 2011 (GLOBAL): Al-Qa`ida funneling funds collected from across al-Qa`ida in the Arabian Peninsula, chief Ayman al-Zawahiri released a the Arab world to al-Qaida’s senior Nasir al-Wihayshi, swore allegiance new video message, praising Syrian leaders in Pakistan. Khalil, the to new al-Qa`ida chief Ayman al- protesters seeking to overthrow department said, has operated within Zawahiri. “I and your loyal fighters the regime of President Bashar al- Iran’s borders for six years.” – AP, July announce our loyalty to you [al- Assad. Criticizing al-Assad for being 28 Zawahiri] and on fighting the enemies the “leader of the criminal gang” of God,” he said. “We are doing fine and the “descendent of the traitors,” July 28, 2011 (JORDAN): A Jordanian and making progress both at the al-Zawahiri also tried to frame the military court convicted Palestinian- domestic and foreign levels and in line uprising as an Islamic battle against born Isam Mohammed Taher al- with the plan you have drawn for us.” U.S. and Israeli interests. “Tell America Barqawi to five years in prison. Al-Wihayshi also said, “The crusader and Obama...we are waging a battle of Al-Barqawi was the mentor of Abu American foe has stood impotent freedom and liberation, freedom from Mus`ab al-Zarqawi, the slain leader before the situation in Yemen.” – AP, corrupt tyrants and the liberation of of al-Qa`ida in Iraq. He was found July 26; Bloomberg, July 26 the religion of the Muslims,” he said. guilty of “plotting terrorism,” as well Al-Zawahiri argued that the United as recruiting individuals in Jordan to States wants to replace al-Assad with fight with the Taliban in Afghanistan. “a new ruler who follows America, – AP, July 28

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July 28, 2011 (AFGHANISTAN): CTC Sentinel Staff Taliban fighters launched a complex assault on Tirin Kot, the capital of Editor-in-Chief Uruzgan Province. Using suicide vests, Erich Marquardt assault rifles and a car bomb, Taliban Senior Editor, CTC militants killed at least 19 Afghans. The assault may have involved as Editorial Board many as seven suicide bombers. – Wall COL Michael J. Meese, Ph.D. Street Journal, July 29; New York Times, July 28 Department Head Department of Social Sciences (West Point) July 28, 2011 (PHILIPPINES): Philippine soldiers engaged in a COL Cindy R. Jebb, Ph.D. five-hour battle with Abu Sayyaf Deputy Department Head Group fighters on Jolo Island in Sulu Department of Social Sciences (West Point) Province. Seven Philippine soldiers were killed. – AFP, July 28 LTC Liam Collins Executive Director, CTC July 29, 2011 (PAKISTAN): The Pakistani Taliban said that they have custody of two Swiss tourists who were kidnapped earlier in the month while traveling through Baluchistan Province. In exchange for their release, the Taliban demanded that the United States free Aafia Siddiqui, a female Contact Pakistani scientist convicted of trying Combating Terrorism Center to kill Americans. – AP, July 29 U.S. Military Academy 607 Cullum Road, Lincoln Hall July 30, 2011 (AFGHANISTAN): West Point, NY 10996 Afghanistan’s intelligence agency Phone: (845) 667-6383 said that an Afghan army officer has Email: [email protected] been arrested on accusations of being Web: www.ctc.usma.edu/sentinel/ a member of the Taliban and intending to organize suicide and terrorist * For Press Inquiries: (845) 667-6383 attacks in Kabul. – AFP, July 30

July 31, 2011 (AFGHANISTAN): A suicide bomber detonated an explosives-laden vehicle outside the police headquarters in Lashkar support Gah, Helmand Province, killing The Combating Terrorism Center would approximately 12 Afghan police like to express its gratitude to its financial officers and a child. – Los Angeles Times, supporters, for without their support and July 31 shared vision of the Center products like the CTC Sentinel could not be produced. If you are interested in learning more about how to support the Combating Terrorism Center, please visit http://www.ctc.usma.edu or call Kristin Sorenson at West Point’s Association of Graduates at 845-446-1561.

The views expressed in this report are those of the authors and not of the U.S. Military Academy, the Department of the Army, or any other agency of the U.S. Government.

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