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A Case Study of the 2018 Election in Bhutan

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A Case Study of the 2018 Election in Bhutan The Role of Facebook in an Election within an Emerging Democracy: A Case Study of the 2018 Election in Bhutan by Deki Choden BA (English Literature), MA (Communication Management) A Thesis submitted to Murdoch University to fulfill the requirements for the degree of Research Masters with Training in the discipline of Digital Communication School of Arts January 2019 Author’s Declaration The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made. ............................................... (Deki Choden) ii Abstract Since the emergence of the Internet and its widespread use around the globe, people have changed the way they communicate and the way they participate in politics. With a growing emphasis on social networking sites in election campaigns, previous studies have published varying conclusions on the effects of social media in political campaigns. However, there has been limited focus on the use of Facebook in particular as the largest social networking site, and how it facilitates political communication. Existing studies that focus on Facebook are Western centric, and some are carried using experiments and quantitative methods. This study was conducted using a case study research approach focusing on the use of Facebook in the 2018 election campaigns in Bhutan. Despite its short political and Internet history, nearly half of Bhutan’s population have Internet connection with majority of them on Facebook. Since the institution of democracy a decade ago, Bhutanese political parties and candidates have followed politicians in modern democracies by adopting social networking sites to campaign. The case study approach used an integration of two qualitative methods of interviews and the analysis of Facebook wall posts. Results showed that the 2018 witnessed an Internet intensive campaign with significant use of Facebook by political parties and citizens for political discourse. Facebook Live streaming emerged as one of the effective strategies in reaching a maximum number of Facebook users, generating the highest number of reactions. Furthermore, the 2018 Bhutanese election campaign on Facebook saw the use of visuals and content related to campaign pledges and development issues to maximise Facebook interactions. Findings also revealed that parties and citizens used Facebook to exert agendas extending knowledge on how Facebook contributes to formation of public opinions. The use of fake accounts and malicious content to bring down opposing parties emerged as a major challenge affecting the pattern and quality of political discussions on Facebook. iii Acknowledgements There are many people without whom this thesis would not have been possible, and I would like to express my gratitude to everyone for their support and encouragement. First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisors Dr Catherin Archer and Associate Professor Chris Smyth from the School of Arts at Murdoch University for their unwavering support, valuable input, professionalism and dedication in shaping this thesis. I am grateful for their time, understanding and patience reviewing repeated drafts of this thesis. I would also like to acknowledge my gratitude to all interview participants who were kind enough to share their knowledge and time for this study. My sincere gratitude also goes to my te am leader who put my study above any tasks at work and my colleague and friend Mr. Kamil Braima for his support in formatting this thesis. I am grateful to Mr Justin De Sousa, Regional Manager at Murdoch International for his support and faith in me, and in this project. I would like to thank my family, my late father who believed in me and supported my Journey to study in Australia. I would not have been able to do it without his faith in me. Lastly, I would like to express my gratitude like to my mother, my brother and sisters in Bhutan, my husband Yeshey Dorji and my friends for their moral support and assistance along the way. iv Table of Contents Author’s Declaration ...................................................................................................... ii Abstract ........................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ................................................................................................................ viii List of Figures ............................................................................................................... viii List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................................... ix 1 Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................... 1 1.1 Overview .............................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Research Context and Problem ............................................................................ 2 1.3 Research Aims and Questions .............................................................................. 6 1.4 Research Approach and Methodology ................................................................. 8 1.5 Significance of the Research ................................................................................ 8 1.6 Thesis Outline .................................................................................................... 11 2 Chapter 2 Literature Review ................................................................................. 14 2.1 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................... 14 2.2 History of Political Campaigns & the Use of the Internet ................................. 14 2.3 Social Media and Election Campaigns .............................................................. 17 2.4 The Agenda Setting Theory ............................................................................... 25 2.5 Facebook and US Election Campaigns .............................................................. 28 2.6 Facebook, Cambridge Analytica and Data Breach Scandal ............................... 33 2.7 Facebook and Election Campaigns in India ....................................................... 36 2.8 Facebook and Elections in Singapore ................................................................ 38 2.9 Facebook in Other Election Campaigns ............................................................. 39 2.10 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 42 3 Chapter 3 Background and Context ..................................................................... 43 3.1 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................... 43 3.2 Introduction to Bhutan ....................................................................................... 43 v 3.2.1 Introduction to Television, Internet & Mobile Network in Bhutan ............ 45 3.2.2 First Democratic Elections, Media & Internet Users 2008 ......................... 48 3.2.3 The Parliament and the Electoral System in Bhutan .................................. 49 3.2.4 Second Elections, the Media & Internet Users 2013 .................................. 52 3.2.5 Third Elections, The Media, Internet and Social Networking Sites 2018 .. 57 3.2.6 Social Media Rules and Regulations in Bhutan .............................................. 60 3.3 Research Aims & Questions .............................................................................. 63 3.4 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 64 4 Chapter 4 Methodology .......................................................................................... 65 4.1 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................... 65 4.2 A Case Study Research Approach ..................................................................... 65 4.2.1 The Relevance of a Case Study Research .......................................................... 69 4.3 Data Collection ................................................................................................... 70 4.3.1 Phase One: Interviews ............................................................................................... 72 4.3.2 Phase Two: Facebook Data Collection ................................................................ 77 4.4 Data Analysis ..................................................................................................... 80 4.4.1 Phase One: Interview Data Coding and Analysis ........................................... 80 4.4.2 Phase Two: Facebook Data Coding and Analysis .......................................... 86 4.5 A Note on Ethical Considerations ...................................................................... 89 4.6 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 92 5 Chapter 5 Findings and Analysis ..........................................................................
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