REPUBLIC OF CYPRUS

Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment

Geological Survey Department

The Preparation of a Strategy for the Restoration of Abandoned Mines

FINAL REPORT

NOVEMBER 2008

DATE ISSUED: November 2008 JOB NUMBER: OS10047 REPORT NUMBER: J01 FINAL

CLIENT’S REFERENCE: 2007/43

REPUBLIC OF CYPRUS; Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Environment; Geological Survey Department

The Preparation of a Strategy for the Restoration of Abandoned Mines

PREPARED BY:

J S Sceal Consultant (WA) L S Carroll Senior Geologist (WA) H Meddings Environmental Scientist (WA) A Caramondani Town Planner (ALA) A Kalopedis Civil Engineer (ALA) Michael Michael Town and regional Planner (ALA)

APPROVED BY:

Nick Watson Technical Director

This report has been prepared by Wardell Armstrong LLP with all reasonable skill, care and diligence, within the terms of the Contract with the Client. The report is confidential to the Client and Wardell Armstrong LLP accept no responsibility of whatever nature to third parties to whom this report may be made known.

No part of this document may be reproduced without the prior written approval of Wardell Armstrong LLP.

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Republic of Cyprus, Geological Survey Department Study of the restoration of abandoned sulphide mines

TABLE OF CONTENTS GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ...... 1 TABLE OF STATUTORY AND LEGISLATIVE MATERIALS ...... 5 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...... 7 1.0 INTRODUCTION ...... 12 2.0 THE GEOLOGY OF CYPRUS...... 15 3.0 MINE RESTORATION: INTERNATIONAL GOOD PRACTICE ...... 22 4.0 LEGAL FRAMEWORK ...... 28 5.0 SITE ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ASSESSMENT AND PILOT SITE SELECTION PROCEDURE. 45 6.0 MINE RESTORATION METHODOLOGY ...... 50 7.0 PROPOSED PILOT STUDY...... 57 8.0 CONCLUSIONS...... 67

APPENDICES Appendix 1 Mines included in the study………………………………………………………………..69 Appendix 2 References…………………………………………………………………………………..71 Appendix 3 Field Study Checklist……………………………………………………………………….77 Appendix 4 Plans with individual mine information (in a separate booklet)……………………….108 Appendix 5 Photographs of Kokkinopezoula………………………………………………...... 109 Appendix 6 Forestry Commission Report……………………………………………………………..113 Appendix 7 Commentary on Individual Mines………………………………………………………..125

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS acid mine drainage Acid mine drainage refers to the outflow of acidic water due to flow through or over material that have an abundance of sulphide minerals from (usually) abandoned metal mines or coal mines. agglomerate Pyroclastic rocks consisting mainly of fragments larger than 2cm in diameter allochthounous A term applied to the material forming rocks which have been transported to the site of deposition AMD Acid Mine Drainage (see glossary entry). apophyses Thin branches or offshoots - a term applied to bodies of igneous rocks ASL Above Sea Level autochthonous Sediment in which the main constituents have formed in-situ e.g. evaporites basalt A common mafic extrusive volcanic rock. It is usually gray to black and fine-grained due to rapid cooling of lava at the surface of a planet. It may be porphyritic containing larger crystals in a fine matrix, or vesicular, or frothy scoria. Unweathered basalt is black or grey. BAT Best Available Technology. breccia A rock composed of angular fragments of rocks or minerals in a matrix that is a cementing material, which may be similar or different in composition to the fragments. BREF Best Available Techniques Reference Document. Campanian The Campanian is a stage on the geologic time scale occurring from 83.5 Ma to 70.6 Ma (million years before the present). It is the middle stage of the Late Cretaceous Epoch.

Carboniferous A period with widespread occurrence of carbon in the form of coal in these beds extends from 345 to 280 Ma (million years before the present)

Court of First First court of appeal from decisions of the European Commission. Instance Established under powers conferred by the Single European Act 1986.

Cretaceous The Cretaceous is a geological period, reaching from the end of the Jurassic Period, 145.5 Ma to the beginning of the Paleocene Period, 65.5 Ma diabase Diabase is a mafic, crystalline, igneous rock equivalent to volcanic basalt or plutonic gabbro. Diabase is also called dolerite in many references outside North America dolomite Dolomite is the name of a sedimentary carbonate rock and a mineral, OS10047 FINAL 1 November 2008

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both composed of calcium magnesium carbonate CaMg(CO 3)2 found in crystals. dyke A tubular or sheet like body of igneous rock that cuts across the structure of adjacent rocks; usually intruded into igneous rocks, filling up vents or fissures.

Eco-Management A voluntary initiative designed to improve companies’ environmental and Audit System performance established by European Regulation 1836/93; designed to recognise and reward those organisations that go beyond minimum legal compliance and continuously improve their environmental performance. In addition, it is a requirement of the scheme that participating organisations regularly produce a public environmental statement that reports on their environmental performance.

EIA Environmental Impact Assessment (see glossary entry).

EIS Environmental Impact Statement (see glossary entry).

EMAS Eco-management and Audit System (see glossary entry).

Environmental Impact Is defined as: The process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and Assessment mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made

Environmental Statement ES Environmental Statement (see glossary entry). exhalative Deposits relating to volcanic gases exploration Searching for ore. It may include geological reconnaissance, e.g. remote sensing, photogeology, geophysical and geochemical methods, and both surface and underground investigations. facies Facies is the characteristics of a rock type, which are dictated by the conditions of formation, reflecting a particular process or environment. gossan Gossan is intensely oxidized, weathered or decomposed rock, usually the upper and exposed part of an ore deposit or mineral vein grade Concentration of ore mineral, measured as a percentage or parts per million. ha Hectare, a land measurement of 10,000 square metres. igneous Igneous rocks are rocks formed by solidification of cooled magma (molten rock), with or without crystallization, either below the surface OS10047 FINAL 2 November 2008

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as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as extrusive (volcanic) rocks. IPPC Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (see glossary entry) km A kilometre or one thousand line or metres lenticular A lens is a body of ore or rock or a deposit that is thick in the middle and thin at the edges, resembling a convex lens in cross-section. Adjective: "lenticular". limburgitic A term applied to a dark - coloured volcanic rock resembling basalt containing olivine and augite limestone Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the mineral calcite (calcium carbonate: CaCO3). lithology The character or composition of a rock or rock formation m metre m ASL metres above sea level. mafic Mafic is an adjective describing a silicate mineral or rock that is rich in magnesium and iron; Most mafic minerals are dark in colour. Common mafic rocks include basalt and gabbro marble Marble is a nonfoliated metamorphic rock resulting from the metamorphism of limestone, composed mostly of calcite marly Marly is originally an old term loosely applied to a variety of materials, most of which occur as loose, earthy deposits consisting chiefly of an intimate mixture of clay and calcium carbonate metamorphic Metamorphic rock is the result of the transformation of a pre-existing rock type, (the protolith), The protolith is subjected to heat and pressure causing profound physical and/or chemical change. The protolith may be sedimentary rock, igneous rock or another older metamorphic rock. Miocene The Miocene Epoch is a period of time that extends from about 23.03 to 5.33 Ma (million years before the present). mm millimetre. oceanic crust Oceanic crust is the part of Earth's lithosphere that surfaces in the ocean basins. Oligocene A geological period that extends from about 33.9 million to 23 million Ma (million years before the present) ophiolite An Ophiolite is a section of the Earth's oceanic crust and the underlying upper mantle that has been uplifted or emplaced to be exposed within continental crustal rock Permian The Permian is a geologic period that extends from 299.0 to 251.0 Ma (million years before the present) pillow lava Pillow lava is the rock type typically formed when lava emerges from an underwater volcanic vent or a lava flow enters the ocean. The viscous lava gains a solid crust on contact with the water, and this crust cracks and oozes additional large blobs or "pillows" as more lava emerges from the advancing flow

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Pleistocene The Pleistocene is the epoch from 1.8 million to 10,000 years BP (before the present) covering the world's recent period of repeated glaciations. propylitic Fine grained igneous rock turned to a mass of minerals such as chlorite, epidote and quartz due to hydrothermal alteration sedimentary Rock formed from the compaction (lithification) from material derived by various processes from pre-existing material and material of organic origin sill A tabular mass of igneous rock that has been intruded laterally between layers of older rock. sill A sheet like body of igneous rock which is concordant i.e. runs parallel to the bedding or structural planes of the host rock tailings management An area used to contain tailings; its prime function is to achieve facility solids sedimentation, consolidation and desiccation, and to facilitate water recovery or removal without impacting the environment. It refers to the overall facility, and may include one or more tailings storages TMF Tailings Management Facility (see glossary entry

Triassic The Triassic is a geologic period and system that extends from about 251 to 199 Ma (million years before the present) tuffaceous A type of rock consisting of consolidated volcanic ash ejected from vents during a volcanic eruption. ultramafic An igneous rock with a very low silica content and rich in minerals such as hypersthene, augite and olivine. These rocks are also known as ultrabasic rocks. umbers Umber is a natural brown clay pigment which contains iron and manganese oxides. US$ US Dollar volcanic Descriptive of rocks or processes of or caused by a volcano xenolith Inclusions in igneous rock during emplacement and eruption

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TABLE OF STATUTORY AND LEGISLATIVE MATERIALS

Statute, Legislation and Guidance Source or reference code Title Date Cyprus GSD The Mines and Quarries (Regulation) 1953 Law Cyprus GSD The Mines and Quarries (Regulation) 1956 Law Cyprus GSD Mines and Quarries Regulations 1958 Cyprus GSD Town and Country Planning Law 1990 Cyprus GSD Environmental Planning Law 2001 Cyprus GSD Law for the Removal, Minimization and 2002 Control of Water and Soil Pollution Cyprus GSD Removal, Minimization and Control of 2002 air Pollution from Industrial Sources Council of Europe and others Bern Convention 1982 The Framework Convention on Rio Convention 1992 Climate Change (UNFCCC), Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). The EU Action Plan for Forest Forest Law 2003 Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade (FLEGT) Directive 82/501/EEC Health and Safety Framework Law 1982 Directive 2006/21/EC Mine Waste Directive 2006 Directive 2006/12/EC Waste Framework Directive 2006 Directive 96/82/EC Seveso II EU major incident reporting system 1996 amending Dir 82/501 Seveso I controlling large industrial accidents European Commission Reference Document on Best July Directorate General JRC Joint Available Techniques for the 2004 Research Centre Management of Tailings and Waste- Rock in Mining Activities European Commission COM Safe Operation of Mining Activities 2000 (2000) 664 Reg. 93/1836 eco-management and audit system 1993 (EMAS) Directive 85/337/EEC Assessment of effects of public and 1985 private projects on the environment Directive 90/313/EEC Freedom of access to information 1990 Directive 97/11/EC Integrated Pollution Prevention and 1997 Control United Nations Guidelines for Berlin II Guidelines 2002 Mining and Sustainable Development UNEP and WHO Mine Rehabilitation for Environment 1998 and Health Protection: A Training Manual UN Division of Economic and Environmental Guidelines for Mining 1997

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Social Affairs (DESA) and UNEP Operations UNEP and ICME Case Studies on Tailings Management 1998 Mineral Industry Research A Technical Framework for Mine 1999 Organisation (MIRO) Closure Planning. Technical Review Series No.20

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This report presents the results of a study of the restoration of abandoned sulphide mines in Cyprus. A total of 25 selected mine sites were included in the study.

The objectives of mine restoration are to render the abandoned mine sites in a safe condition, preventing pollution and returning the land to a condition that is acceptable for future usage.

With these objectives in mind, the study comprised a series of complementary activities aimed at documenting the factors and criteria that affect the restoration of abandoned mines and associated installations.

The study commenced with a desk study review of available information and collation of data sources on geology and mining, as well as ownership and planning constraints. The background information for the sites includes geological and mining data that are not directly relevant to restoration but serve to identify the current status of the baseline information. The information was generally collated prior to the site inspection visits. The planning and ownership information for each site, as provided by the client, was only available after the field visits were completed. A separate report from the Cyprus Forestry Department was only received when all the other assessments had been completed, but this did not restrict the technical evaluation activities or the conclusions of the study.

It was intended that topographic records supplied by the client would be utilised as a base plan for the subsequent field inspections of each site, but in the event there were problems with obtaining base plans in a useable format. The field inspections were carried out using available map and satellite based information for the base plans.

The field inspections comprised site walk overs to identify the main components of each mine site. Typically the mine components comprised the former open pits, waste dumps, infrastructure and plant buildings, but on a few sites there were tailings dams and mine openings that serviced underground workings. The inspections were carried out by experienced and qualified technical personnel.

During the site visits a visual record was made of the extent of mine waste at surface, and the presence of potential contaminants in the soils and surface waters. Because the inspections were visual, the assessment of contamination is based on evidence for acid mine drainage (ochrous waters) in water bodies, and sulphide or copper mineralisation in mine waste materials which could have the potential for causing environmental harm. The inspections identified the areal extent of the excavations

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Republic of Cyprus, Geological Survey Department Study of the restoration of abandoned sulphide mines and mine waste spoil, and following compilation into digital format on GIS systems, the areas affected by past mining activities were calculated using computer software.

The background data, and the field inspection records, have been collated into a field database that records the conditions on site relative to a series of common attributes. The list of attributes comprises information that is relevant to future mine restoration activities. The database is supported by technical description of the geology and mining situation – now largely of background historical interest but relevant as a statement of the current situation on site – and describes the likely restoration problems at each site in a qualitative manner. For each site there is also a summary of the ownership and planning constraints that could affect mine restoration, based on an overview of data supplied by the client.

The field inspection records were compiled onto plans. There were significant problems associated with compiling the plans to a common background base since high resolution topographic maps were are not available for the whole of Cyprus. The annotation records were therefore provided using a combination Google earth base plans and topographic maps for the purposes of visual presentation. This affected the subsequent production of the site records in GIS format. The planning and ownership boundaries were compiled onto the baseline information provided by the client, which in places extends well beyond the confines of the sites inspected. Annotation records, planning zoning and ownership information were provided for each site. In addition, the GIS database has been compiled onto a common system (UTM 36) to allow future interrogation of the information obtained by this study .

At the same time as the desk study researches and the site inspections were carried out, a review of the current situation regarding best practice in mine restoration and the current regulatory situation in Cyprus was also undertaken. The aim of this review was to show how the restoration activities arising from study results would comply with current international best practice as well as local regulatory requirements.

The legal framework in Cyprus affecting mining and mine restoration activities is complex. In recent years Cyprus legislation has changed to accommodate the requirements of EU membership. In the EU, environmental legislation directly impacts on mine waste disposal as well as restoration activities, and the relevant directives are the Mine Waste and Water framework, although IPPC, and EIA have a bearing on the design and permitting of restoration schemes at mine sites.

There are common themes associated with the EU waste directives. All aim to promote the minimisation of waste at source, prevent pollution, health risks, technical

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Republic of Cyprus, Geological Survey Department Study of the restoration of abandoned sulphide mines accidents and environmental harm, use BAT (Best Available Techniques) for waste disposal, and promote the rehabilitation of land following completion of activities to a useful condition. Transparency is important, and complements the need for geotechnical and environmental monitoring activities to inform decision making processes affecting the common good.

The waste from mining operations has been recognised as a special situation when compared with other waste disposal activities, and the mine waste directive was produced as a consequence to deal with the special circumstances associated with mining activities. With regard to closed sites such as those identified by this study, all member states are required to produce an inventory of the sites and those that present the greatest risk to the environment and health should be rehabilitated. The responsibility for clean up appears to rest with the owner of the site on the ‘polluter pays’ principle.

The objectives of this study are in keeping with the aim of producing inventories of closed sites, and the findings from the desk study and field inspections comprise a comprehensive dataset on which future rehabilitation measures can be based.

The database of mine records produced by this study was used to produce a ranking of the sites so that rehabilitation measures could be prioritised. The sites were compared by using a ranking system, whereby key parameters, such as environmental impact, are identified and scored based on subjective judgement, for each site. The scores were summed to provide an indication of the relative level of the restoration problems associated with the mine sites.

The results have been presented in the form of an Impact Matrix, which provides a quick and simple, as well as transparent, way of identifying priority actions. Although there are some parameters that could not be scored for a few of the sites, in general the approach provides a framework for identifying priority actions. The Kokkinopezoula mine has the highest rank using this system.

It should be noted however, that one site, the Polis installations, is a special case, and it is evident that there are significant environmental issues associated with the former tailings lagoons. In terms of EU directives on water pollution, as well as current legislation in Cyprus, it is evident that this site should be the subject of priority actions in terms of mitigating environmental impact on receiving waters. According to the EU directive on mine waste disposal, at the more hazardous sites – those containing hazardous waste or those presenting a risk to human life – there is a responsibility on the member states to identify the major-accident hazards and ensure these sites contain safety features to mitigate the risks to the environment

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Republic of Cyprus, Geological Survey Department Study of the restoration of abandoned sulphide mines and human health. Operators and regulators have responsibilities relating to the provision and implementation of emergency action plans, and the public is involved in the consultation process.

In terms of the objectives of this study, the Polis site does not receive the highest ranking – although scoring highly on impact on water – and nor is it generally representative of the problems encountered on the remaining mine sites. It is however a site that should be given urgent attention as a separate project because of the environmental and safety issues associated with the tailings dams on the site.

The study presents a generic methodology for the implementation of restoration programmes at each mine site. A phased approach is recommended in order to progress restoration in a logical manner.

The first phase – the assessment of environmental impacts – involves obtaining baseline environmental and geotechnical information that could be utilised for environmental impact assessment as well as for the design process.

The second phase – preparation of reclamation principals – involves the identification of the options and techniques available to restoration, subject to the restoration objectives for each site. Field trials would be carried out as part of this process.

The third phase – reporting and preliminary scheme design – involves the preparation of a finalised strategy and preliminary designs.

The study recognised that the scope of work associated with restoration of the mine sites could vary significantly and would also depend on the objectives at each site. The study concludes therefore with proposals for a pilot programme at the Kokkinopezoula mine site, which received the highest ranking on the Impact Matrix, with the aim of providing preliminary field trials for use in the design of restoration schemes on all the abandoned sulphide mine sites.

The proposed scheme takes into account the typical problems in common facing the restoration of the former sulphide mine sites; these problems are associated with the stability of the former mine waste dumps and the open pit excavation slopes. Arguably, the risks associated with the former open pits are less than those associated with the waste dumps. Both have steep and unstable slopes that were designed with operational factors in mind rather than for future land usage, but the consequences of failure of the open pit slopes is less than the impact the waste dump slopes have on stability, the environment and landscape.

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Republic of Cyprus, Geological Survey Department Study of the restoration of abandoned sulphide mines

In the past, there has been a significant emphasis on finding solutions for the rehabilitation of the slopes of mine waste dumps. It is important to form a stable slope from the point of view of providing an adequate factor of safety against rotational slippage, and promoting the growth of vegetation. The presence of vegetation is needed to prevent erosion of the surface during periods of high rainfall and surface run off.

The mine waste materials comprise mixed granular and cohesive materials placed largely at their angle of repose, which is steep, and when climatic factors and constraints due to land ownership are taken into account, the engineering works needed to rehabilitate and revegetate the slopes can be problematic.

The scope of work associated with the proposed pilot study has been identified using the three phase approach of the proposed generic methodology for the restoration of abandoned sulphide mines. The open pit at the Kokkinopezoula site is used by the army as a firing range, and any restrictions arising from the army usage will need to be taken into account by the design proposals. It is proposed that the pilot study involves slope stabilisation trials and revegetation of the outer slopes of the waste dumps lying to the east of the open pit, together with trials to reuse water now ponded at the base of the open pit for irrigation.

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1.0 INTRODUCTION Wardell Armstrong LLP (WA) was commissioned as part of a consortium with ALA Planning Partnership (ALA) by the Geological Survey Department (GSD) of the Government of the Republic of Cyprus to conduct a study of the restoration of the abandoned mines of sulphide minerals.

An agreement was signed on 13 November 2007 (reference number 2007/43) between the Geological Survey Department (Dr Polys Michaelides, Director), and ALA Planning Partnership (ALA) and Wardell Armstrong LLP (WA).

The study was required to determine and document all the factors and criteria that affect the restoration of 25 selected properties comprising abandoned sulphide mines and associated operations (see Appendix I for the complete list).

This project follows on from work previously undertaken by WA in 2004 “Strategy for Sustainable Quarrying and Mining Development of Cyprus 2001- 2025“ (The Sustainable Mining project). Similar methodology and format of research and field procedures have been applied for this project in order to provide continuity with the preceding project. This approach allows for correlation of data and prevents the more recent project from negating work undertaken previously.

The Terms of Reference (ToR) for the project indicate that there is a large amount of geological and mining data and records held by government departments, including geological surveys of the mining areas, records of borehole investigations and results of chemical analyses inter alia. Much of these data relate to the investigation and potential exploitation of former ore bodies and their subsequent operation and yield. The ore bodies associated with the mines covered by this project have been substantially depleted during operations and, therefore, much of the original data, whilst of importance and historical interest, is now of limited value in meeting the primary requirement of the ToR, “to document factors and criteria that affect the restoration of abandoned mines and associated installations”.

The scope of the study, comprised desk studies, archive research and field inspections. Archive and literature searches encompassed the following:
Overview of International practice in the restoration of sulphide mines and treatment/enrichment installations.
Collection and documentation of existing data for each of the identified mines and associated processing installations/operations.

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Republic of Cyprus, Geological Survey Department Study of the restoration of abandoned sulphide mines

Overview of existing legal framework and relevant EU Directives relating to mine restoration.
Determination of the ownership status .

The regulatory background to the restoration of abandoned mines is reviewed. Current international standards are identified with particular reference paid to the application Best Accountable Techniques – BAT in determining appropriate restoration methods. Restoration will need to comply with the Cyprus legal framework which is reviewed in the content of this study.

Field inspections encompassed the following:

A visual appraisal of the extent of mine waste dumps and tailings marked up in the field on a copy of available topographical survey for each mine site.
Evaluation and appraisal of the stability of the cut slopes and mine waste dumps.
Evaluation of the soil and water pollution (surface and underground).
Evaluation of the air pollution from solid and air pollutants.
Commentary on any other identified environmental impacts and/or hazards.

The site appraisal and evaluations represent preliminary assessments of the site conditions and the conclusions rely on available data and experience with similar sites elsewhere. Reference to ‘contamination’ in the field appraisals means that sulphide minerals are visible in mine waste deposits.

The results of the field investigation have been compiled into databases and GIS-based field sheets showing general components of the former mine sites and identifying features, such as mine waste deposits, that are relevant for the design of mine restoration programmes.

An evaluation of the significant issues pertaining to each site has been made based on data gathered as part of the desk studies and field observations outlined above. Methods of mitigating, ameliorating or solving any identified significant issues have been suggested within this report.

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A site for a pilot restoration programme was selected using a criteria matrix based on the weighting of significant issues and in consultation with the client. The suggested restoration programme at the pilot site considered the following:
Restoration of the soils in the excavated areas and mine wastes dumps.
Treatment of acid mine water.
Forestation and/or replanting.
The potential use of sewage sludge as a soil conditioner.
Post-restoration land-use potential.

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2.0 THE GEOLOGY OF CYPRUS 2.1 Regional Geology Geology dictates the location, type and availability of specific minerals; it also has a fundamental bearing on topography, water, soils, vegetation and land use. Cyprus can be divided into four geological zones:
Pentadaktylos (Kyrenia) Zone,
Troodos Zone or Troodos Ophiolite,
Mamonia Zone or Complex, and
Zone of the autochthonous sedimentary rocks.

The Pentadaktylos (Kyrenia) Zone forms the Kyrenian mountain area of northern Cyprus. It is mainly composed of allochthonous, massive and recrystallised limestones, dolomites and marbles of Permian-Carboniferous to Lower Cretaceous age (350-135 Ma). These have been overthrust and now lie above younger autochthonous sedimentary rocks of Upper Cretaceous to Middle Miocene age (67-15 Ma)

The Troodos Zone dominates the central part of the island as an elongated dome structure outcropping in the main mass of the Troodos mountain range and in the Limassol and Akapnou Forests areas. It comprises a distinctive assemblage of mafic to ultramafic rocks that represent part of an oceanic crust that has been thrust to the surface. The sequence of rocks found in the Troodos is illustrated in Fig. 3.1 and the commonly occurring economic minerals are also indicated.

Formation and Rock Units Economic minerals Perapedhi Formation Umber

Mafic volcanic complex. Upper Pillow Lavas Pillow lavas dominant in Upper Pillow lavas with less than Massive sulphide 5% dykes. deposits Dykes comprise 20 to 50% in Lower Pillow Lavas. Lower Pillow lavas Diabase dykes are abundant in Basal Group and are gradational down into the Sheet Dyke Complex. Basal Group

Diabase - mafic Sheeted Dyke Complex Aggregates

Gabbroic complex ordinarily with cumulus textures and commonly Sulphide containing peridotites and pyroxenites and usually less deformed mineralisation than the ultramafic complex

Ultramafic complex consisting of varying proportions of harzburgite, Chromite lherzolite and dunite usually with a metamorphic tectonite fabric and Asbestos more or less serpentinised

Figure 1: The Troodos Ophiolite Sequence

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This rock sequence is referred to as an ophiolite. Formed in the Upper Cretaceous (90 Ma), the Troodos is regarded as the most complete ophiolite complex in the world.

The Mamonia Zone occurs in the Pafos district in the south-western part of the island. It is a series of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, ranging in age from Middle Triassic to Upper Cretaceous (230-75 Ma). They have generally been intensely deformed and mixed with rock fragments of the Troodos ophiolite and are regarded as allochthonous both in relation to the overlying autochthonous carbonate successions and the Troodos ophiolite.

The autochthonous sedimentary rocks range in age from Upper Cretaceous through to Pleistocene (67 Ma to recent) and cover the area between the Pentadaktylos and Troodos Zones (Mesaoria), occurring also in the southern part of the island. They mainly comprise carbonate sediments as illustrated in Fig 3.2, which also details the main rocks and minerals of commercial interest.

Age Formation Lithology Economic minerals (Ma) Pleistocene Fanglomerate Conglomerates and sandstones 2 Apalos Calcarenite, sandstone, conglomerate Kakkaristra Pliocene AnthaIassa Sand for mortars and 5.2 Nicosia Marls, silts, muds, sandstone, conglomerate clay for bricks Kalavasos Evaporites Gypsum Upper Koronia Member Reefal and bioclastic limestone Aggregates Miocene Pelagic chalks, marts, calcarenites, Middle Pakhna conglomerates Dimension stone

23.3 Lower Terra Member Reefal and bioclastic limestone Aggregates 35.4 Oligocene Upper Lefkara Pelagic chalk and marls 56.5 Eocene Massive pelagic chalks Chalks for cement Middle Lefkara 65 Palaeocene Pelagic chalk, replacement chert production 74 Maastrichtian Lower Lefkara Pelagic chalks 83 Campanian Kannaviou Volcaniclastic sandstone, bentonitic clays Bentonite 90.4 Turonian Perepedhi Umbers and radiolarites Umber Stratigraphic break adapated from Gass I.G. et al 1994

Figure 2: The Autochthonous Sedimentary Rock

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2.2 Massive Sulphide Deposits 2.2.1 Origin of ore bodies Massive sulphides, inclusive of pyrite ore bodies, form in association with high-temperature black smokers and vent biota, as first recorded at the crest of the East Pacific Rise, confirming that the formation of new oceanic crust through seafloor spreading is intimately associated with the generation of metallic mineral deposits at the seafloor (Francheteau et al. 1979). Hydrothermal fluids discharging from the black smoker chimneys were observed to continuously precipitate metal sulphides, accumulating at and just below the seafloor, and potentially forming massive sulphide deposits.

The circulation of seawater through the oceanic crust is now recognised as the principal mechanism for the formation of these massive sulphide deposits. Seawater penetrates deeply into the oceanic crust at seafloor-spreading centres and is modified to a high temperature hydrothermal fluid with low pH, and low Eh, that is then capable of leaching and transporting metals and other elements; these are later precipitated as massive sulphides at the seafloor or as stockwork and replacement sulphides in the sub-seafloor (Herzig et al. 2002).

2.2.2 Ore Mineralisation Massive sulphide bodies are restricted to the Pillow Lavas (Fig 1), although disseminated mineralisation is widespread in the other members of the Ophiolite Series. The orebodies provided the primary mineral resource but sulphide was also recovered from associated stockwork. The orebodies, though now virtually exhausted, originally ranged in size from <50,000 tonnes to >20,000,000 tonnes and were worked for pyrite and copper; and occasionally gold, silver and zinc, which were also known to be present at approximately <0.2%.

2.2.3 Pyrite Pyrite mineralisation occurs in the Pillow Lava Series of the Troodos Ophiolite complex and is the main constituent of the Cypriot volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits. Optimum grade (40-50% sulphur) ore is located in the upper parts of the deposits (top 30m); grade diminishes at depth with potentially mineable grades extending generally down to a maximum depth of 100m.

2.2.4 Copper

Copper mineralisation largely occurred as chalcopyrite (CuFeS 2) in the

sulphide zone and malachite (Cu 2CO 3(OH) 2) and azurite (Cu 3(CO 3)2(OH) 2) in

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the oxide zone. Copper content in the ore generally varied from <0.3% to approximately 4.5%. Copper was historically exploited in Cyprus until November 2005 when Skouriotissa Mine closed.

2.3 Historical Mining Mining in Cyprus goes back to Roman and ancient Greek times and the Island was perhaps one of the earliest producers of copper derived by the smelting of sulphides.

Recent mineral prospecting started in 1882 but modern mining of copper and pyrite did not begin until 1914 and the first recorded production was in 1922, the same time as the discovery and first mining of chromite. All mining was undertaken by private companies, though mineral exploration was carried out by both the Mining Companies and also by the Geological Survey Department. Estimation of the ore reserves of discovered orebodies was carried out by the mining companies concerned.

Within the Troodos massif the sulphide, mineralisation is intimately associate with the Troodos Pillow Lavas and the Sheeted Intrusive Complex (see Section 3.0 on Geology). Mineralisation either occurs in the form of disseminated mineralisation of pyrite and chalcopyrite or as massive copper and iron pyrite deposits. Sporadic sulphide mineralisation is widespread within the Troodos pillow lavas, the diabase multiple dykes and dyke swarms.

The size of the pyrite ore bodies varies considerably, but they are small by world standards with the largest, Mavrovouni No.4 estimated to be approximately 16 million tonnes. Some contain a high proportion of copper, for example Mavrovouni at 3.5% and Skouriotissa at 2.3%, while others contain only traces of copper, such as Mathiatis at 0.2%. Between the massive ore, classified as more than 50% by volume pyrite or 38% sulphur, all gradations of ore are found.

The mineralogical composition of the sulphide deposits of Cyprus is dominantly pyrite and marcasite (in some areas) with small amounts of chalcopyrite and sphalerite and sparse galena, pyrrhotite, rutile and precious metals (gold and silver), the latter associated mainly with chalcopyrite; the ore is generally free of arsenic minerals. The main secondary minerals are chalcocite, covellite, bornite, digenite, vallerite, tenorite, magnesite and hematite. The common gangue minerals include quartz, chlorite and clay products.

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Most surface or near surface sulphide bodies have been weathered and oxidized resulting in the formation of gossans (chapeau de fer) generally less that 20m thick leached caps. With few exceptions these zones of supergene enrichment have been known to contain thin bands of “devil’s mud,” a grey earthy material carrying high gold and silver values.

Mining activities over the past 100 years have left more than 200 million tonnes of mining wastes concentrated around abandoned mines. The LIFE report (National Inventory of Potential Sources of Soil Contamination in Cyprus, 2007) commented in general on mining wastes in Cyprus and also provided data on specific mine waste deposits. The mining sites Amiandos, Kalavassos and Sha-Mathiatis were investigated in some detail and the results of chemical analyses on mine waste samples are reproduced in Table 1 below. It is thought likely that these results are indicative of mining waste throughout Cyprus. Further details are available in Volume 2 of the above Final Report. Amongst other things, they recommended that the mining waste dumps should be delineated, as they represented a potential source of soil and water contamination, and the tonnage of mining wastes should be estimated.

Table 1: Chemical composition of samples from different mining areas analysed by XRF (mg/kg)

Area As Co Cr Cu Ni Pb V Zn U Ba S

Amiandos

KaIavasos 3 - 229 39-187 46-268 139-17795 7-109 5-127

Analiondas 8 113 41 679 48 11 275 950

Kambia 2-182 55-153 18-63 29-639 9-49 2-71 8-284 24-1108

Kambia-West 18-141 89-167 19-45 125-1254 12-48 14-51 16-294 531-4173

Mathiatis 1-111 23-253 18-105 92-1801 23-47 4-59 6-300 85-1389

Sia 12-1250 36-172 31-88 155-47313 10-67 8-92 6-315 16-13271

Alestos 48.1-14 86-178 86-225 64-18070 36-64 2-4 147-291 29-65

Memi

Vizakia 3 112 85 193 29 1 234.00 623

Mitsero 3-56 50-106 19-134 72-7653 4-73 2-30 14-303 15-7553

Kalavassos Reservoir Seds.

The Cyprus sulphide deposits were largely mined by open pit methods, though there were also underground workings. Copper was extracted in Cyprus since the Bronze Age and, until the end of the Roman Empire, Cyprus remained the main producer of copper in the known world. Post-Roman Empire mining activity ceased until the end of the nineteenth century when

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pyrite (FeS 2) and chalcopyrite (CuFeS 2) were extracted predominantly for sulphur to be used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid with copper as a bi- product. Gold and silver were, also, occasionally produced. Mining of pyrite closely followed world demand and until around early 1960’s minerals accounted for approximately three fifths of all exports (Statisiches Bundesant, 1986). In the early 1970’s mining activity decreased, due to both the depletion of economic sulphide deposits, strong competition from overseas sources of sulphur and the political situation in Cyprus at the time.

Skouriotissa mine was the most recently worked, ceasing production in January 2005. Originally owned by the Hellenic Copper Mines (HCM), the mine was operated by Eastern Mediterranean Minerals (Cyprus) Ltd; a joint venture between Hellenic Mining Company Ltd (5%) and Oxiana Resources NL (95%). The operation utilised bio-leaching, solvent extraction and electrowinning (SX-EW) technology. In 2001 over 5000 tonnes of high purity copper were produced recovering copper from stockwork of the former massive orebody.

In 2004 the Government of Cyprus commissioned a project, supervised by the GSD, investigating the existing and potential sulphide mineralisation in Cyprus. Entitled “New methodologies for volcanic hosted copper sulphide mineralisation on Cyprus: A GIS–prospectivity analysis-based approach”, (Naden et al, 2006). The Naden report documents the results of a three-year collaborative research project between the British Geological Survey (BGS), The Natural History Museum, London (NHM) and the Geological Survey Department, Cyprus (GSD). It was funded by the Ministry of Agriculture Natural Resources and Environment, Cyprus. The objectives of the programme were to develop new methodologies for the exploration and exploitation of cupriferous sulphide ore and re-establish metalliferous mineral exploration research on Cyprus and within the GSD.

Almost all known commercial reserves of pyrite are now considered to be exhausted and it is thought that the potential for the discovery of major deposits is small.

The main mining areas and deposits are as follows (the mines which are not included in this project due to location and/or operational reasons are shown in italics in the following list):

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• Skouriotissa area including Skouriotissa, Mavrovouni, Apliki, Ambelikou . • Agrokipia (Tamassos) area including Agrokipia, Kokkinoyia, Memi, Alestos and Kokkinopezoula. • Kambia area including Kambia, Kapedhes, Peristerka, Pytharohoma, Mathiatis and Sha (Sia). • Kalavassos area including Mavridhia (A to E), Platies, Petra, Mavri Sykia, Landaria, and Mousoulos. • Limni area including Limni, Limni processing installations (Polis Chrysochous), Kinousa, Kinousa South (Uncle Charles Mine) and Evloimeni. • Isolated mines of Troulli, Mangaleni, Peravasa and Vretsia

An account of the mining industry and copper and iron mineralisation is given by Bear (1963) and mineralisation in the various areas mapped by the GSD is described in Bagnall (1960), Bear (1960) Bear & Morel (1960), Carr & Bear (1960), Gass (1960), Pantazis (1967) and Wilson & Ingham (1959). A more detailed account of massive sulphide deposits in the Southern Troodos Fault Zone is given by Gass et al. (1994) and description and notes on an excursion to massive sulphide deposits given by Xenophontos, & Malpas (1987). A reference list of data relating to specific mines and published in the GSD memoirs is given in Appendix I.

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3.0 MINE RESTORATION: INTERNATIONAL GOOD PRACTICE Current best practice and recommended procedures for mine restoration, that are appropriate to Cyprus mines, have been researched. Appropriate documents have been cited in the text and referenced in Appendix II.

3.1 Introduction In 1994, an International Conference on Development, Environment and Mining was co-sponsored by the World Bank, United Nations Environment programme (UNEP) and the International Council for Metals and the Environment (ICME). The purpose was to share ideas, perspectives, information and solutions with respect to the challenges surrounding sustainable mineral development. The key conclusion, inter alia, relating to mine closure was that ‘The objective of rehabilitation of mine sites should be to restore them to a self-sustaining ecosystem that is as close as practical to its original state prior to mining activity’. It is also considered that the objective of mine closure is to leave a mine site in a condition that is safe and mitigates further impact to the environment as well as restoring the ground so that alternative landuse can be applied.

In 1997, the UN Division of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA) and UNEP compiled Environmental Guidelines for Mining Operations, in which approaches to implementation, monitoring, enforcement and participation are discussed. In 1998, UNEP, in partnership with ICME, produced Case Studies on Tailings Management. UNEP also developed a training manual on Mine Rehabilitation for Environment and Health Protection: A Training Manual with the World Health Organization (WHO) to introduce mine personnel to new skills. In November 1999, a second Mining and Environment meeting was held in Berlin; this resulted in the Berlin II Guidelines, which include a major section on mine closure planning and rehabilitation involving three stages as follows:
The Planning stage where the rehabilitation plan is established as an integrated part of the site's environmental management plan and regularly updated;
the Active Care stage which follows the cessation of activity, ideally immediately but not in the case of abandoned mines; and
the Passive Care stage which covers the period of sampling and monitoring to ensure that the active care stage was sufficient to allow those originally responsible to "walk away", recognizing that in some cases that may never be possible.

The following publications aim to give specific guidelines on mine closure and rehabilitation planning including current good practice guidelines and best

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available techniques; the content of these have been outlined in more detail below:
MIRO 1999. A Technical Framework for Mine Closure Planning. Mineral Industry Research Organisation. Technical Review Series No.20.
European Commission - Reference Document on Best Available Techniques for Management of Tailings and Waste Rock in Mining Activities. July 2004.

3.2 MIRO: Technical Framework for Mine Closure Planning Chapter 1 of the MIRO guidance introduces the need for mine closure planning, the underlying philosophy of designing for closure and the fundamental aims of achieving site stability and safety in respect of the chosen afteruse. These ideas are reflected in Chapter 2 where the relative perspectives and requirements of all stakeholders involved are addressed, including the mine owner/operators (though landowners would apply in the case of the abandoned mines of Cyprus), regulators, local communities; as well as European location and legislation.

Chapter 3 introduces the sequence of events, the planning and management aspects and the financial input required for the development of a mine closure plan. The sequence would follow the three stages as outlined above; planning, active care and passive care stages, though the sites under study in this report are post-operational and, therefore, the conditions onsite are more fixed than an operational site that would involve ongoing evolution of the closure plan according to development. In the MIRO document the procedure is described as closure planning and closure plan implementation (these can be considered in the Cyprus context as rehabilitation plan and rehabilitation plan implementation since the operations have already closed). Closure planning deals with the process of developing the plan from a conceptual document through to a final closure plan, whilst closure plan implementation addresses with the practicalities such as decommissioning, post closure rehabilitation and monitoring, ultimately resulting in site release.

The technical, scientific and engineering principles that ultimately determine mine closure design and the details of the mine closure plan are covered in Chapter 4; these issues must be discussed in order to develop a comprehensive and competent closure plan. The principle concepts are applied in Chapter 5 where closure and rehabilitation activities are recommended for individual mine components. Each component in this section may be used as a standalone practical reference for individual mine closure projects. Monitoring requirements and the design of a monitoring

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programme, to be developed in conjunction with closure planning and implementation, are outlined in Chapter 6. Finally, the financial implications and aspects of mine closure are dealt with in Chapter 7. Here, advice is given on cost analyses and the provision of financial assurance and warranty. A number of closure case studies are outlined in Chapter 8.

A series of appendices provide checklists, which can be used for various aspects of closure and conclude with a short account of the regulatory requirements in a number of European countries and countries in the rest of the World. The guidance is not prescriptive, nor is it a compliance document. National, local and other relevant statutes and regulations must be consulted and adhered to where necessary when planning and implementing closure (see Section 5.0 for details of those relevant to Cyprus). The design criteria and technologies suggested, or given as examples, are not intended to restrict the use of alternative or potentially more appropriate for particular site circumstances in accordance with the principle of BATNEEC; best available technologies not exceeding excessive cost.

3.3 European Commission: Reference Document on Best Available Techniques The Reference Document on Best Available Techniques for Management of Tailings and Waste-Rock in Mining Activities was developed following the Communication from the Commission: Safe operation of mining activities: a follow up to recent mining accidents: October 2000. After the tailings dam failures in Aznalcóllar and Baia Mare, this Communication addressed the regulatory structure at the time and acknowledged that appropriate legislation needed to be developed; it proposed a plan of action, which included the production of the best available techniques (BAT) reference document referred to above based on an exchange of information between the European Union’s Member States and the mining industry. The reference document has been developed as a Commission initiative and will also support the implementation of the Mine Waste Directive in Member States (the deadline for transposition of which by law is 2012), which requires measures taken to be based on BAT (see Section 5.6).

The reference document addressed site rehabilitation and aftercare and is particularly applicable to the Cyprus abandoned sulphide mines as it addresses all of the key issues involved. It states that ‘When an operation comes to an end, the site needs to be prepared for its subsequent use. [....] in some cases, the aim will be to leave as little a footprint as possible, whereas in other cases a complete change of landscape may be aimed for. [.....] in

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every case, adverse environmental impacts need to be kept to a minimum’. The following highlights the parts of this publication that are relevant to good practice in mine closure and rehabilitation:

3.3.1 Common Processes and Techniques Chapter 2, Common Processes and Techniques, aims to provide background information in the management of tailings and waste rock. Section 2.6 deals with the mine closure aspect of this and is entitled Closure, Rehabilitation and After-care of Facility.

3.3.2 Applied Processes and Techniques Chapter 3, Applied Processes and Techniques, and in particular Section 3.1.2.3: Tailings Management, looks at the tailings management processes and techniques, applied to base metals (inc. lead and zinc) operations at different sites around the world. More specifically, Section 3.1.2.3.4: Closure and Aftercare, addresses these cases in context of the post-closure aspect of the operations.

3.3.3 Techniques to Consider in the Determination of BAT Chapter 4, Techniques to Consider in the Determination of BAT (Best Available Techniques), presents a number of techniques for the prevention or reduction of emission and techniques to prevent or mitigate accidents in accordance with Section 6.3 of Communication (COM(2000)664). Section 4.2.4: Closure and Aftercare Phase, focuses on sites within the scope of tailings/waste rock management facilities. It is standard practice that successive reclamation activities, which have been performed during the operational phase of the mine life, are evaluated before the final closure of the site.

Within Section 4.2.4, there are two subsections, which are 4.2.4.1: Long-term Closure Objectives and 4.2.4.2: Specific Closure Issues.

Section 4.2.4.1: Long-term Closure considers different classes of failure mechanisms to be accounted for in the design of long-term stable tailings and waste rock management facilities. This section will still be applicable to the abandoned sites that include tailings dams, such as Limni installations and Troulli, in terms of assessing their long term stability as they stand and will assist where any design modifications are required to ensure their long term stability. Examples of these mechanisms are slope failures, extreme events such as earthquakes, as do occur in Cyprus, and slow actions such as erosion.

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Section 4.2.4.2: Specific Closure Issues looks at potential issues that will be characteristic of a site such as heap stability and the potential problems and hazards associated with tailings ponds. These sections go into more depth than previously in the document and demonstrate detailed considerations to be made and guidelines to adhere to when dealing with the closure and after care aspect of an operation.

Section 4.3: Emission Prevention and Reduction, although not approaching the mine closure aspect directly, focuses on the methods of prevention of harmful emissions/releases such as acid mine/rock drainage (AMD/ARD). This is relevant not only throughout the operational stage of the mine but through to post-closure and aftercare of the facilities, which can potentially cause harm to the environment, such as the tailings facility. Different types of preventative, control and treatment measures are discussed in this section. Section 4.3.1.5: Decision Making for closure of ARD Generating Sites, points to various guidelines, for example A Technical Framework for Mine Closure Planning; Mineral Industry Research Organisation (see Section 4.2), for mine closure planning and presents a decision tree that is available for closure design of a potentially ARD generating tailings and waste rock deposit. Though not considered to be a major issue of concern with the sites under study in this report, some AMD was observed at 7 of the sites, including Kapedes and Mousoulos; this will need to be addressed within any mine rehabilitation programme.

Section 4.3.6: Progressive Restoration/Revegetation, illustrates the advantages of this process being employed throughout the operation. Though that is not applicable to the Cyprus study the section highlights the benefits to the closure plan stage of the site, including cost and time minimisation and implementation of successful techniques discovered through the operational stage. Seepage management, including prevention, reduction and control, is discussed in Section 4.3.10. Seepage management is an ongoing commitment throughout the operational stage but will more than likely remain through the closure stage. Section 4.3.11, Techniques to Reduce Emissions to Water has guidelines for the treatment of suspended solids and dissolved metals, acid waters, alkaline waters, permeable reactive barriers, xanthates, arsenic and cyanide emissions. Again, where present, these should be monitored closely during the post-closure stage. Similarly, 4.3.12, Groundwater Monitoring and 4.3.13, Aftercare, briefly touch on the groundwater quality and surface run-off from the tailings management facility.

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Section 4.7: Environmental Management Tools, states that ‘ the best environmental performance is usually achieved by the installation of the best technology and its operation in the most effective and efficient manner .’ This section highlights that this is recognised by the IPPC Directive definition of ‘techniques’ as ‘ both the technology used and the way in which the installation is designed, built, maintained, operated and decommissioned ’. The most applicable element here is the application of BAT to decommissioning and rehabilitation of the sites in question.

Chapter 5: Best Available Techniques for the Management of Tailings and Waste rock in Mining Activities, overviews the sections previously discussed and summarises the best available techniques for each aspect, including environmental management.

Chapter 6: Emerging Techniques for the Management of Tailings and Waste rock in Mining Activities, explains some techniques that are in the experimental stage of development but have been proven to display enough potential to become BAT in the near future, for example inhibiting the development and progress of AMD/ARD.

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4.0 LEGAL FRAMEWORK 4.1 Introduction Much of existing legislation governing the extractive industry in Europe relates to the control, and subsequent closure, of proposed or active mineral operations. Cypriot legislation pertaining to current mineral working may not apply to the abandoned sulphide mines under investigation as part of this project as they are not operative and are not under ownership of former operating companies, though all legislation has been addressed and summarised below. However, elements of current legislation may apply to potential remedial works to be carried out on abandoned sites, such as legislation for the control of nuisance and the impact of operations on the environment, as discussed below. An overview of relevant EU legislation, of which the Mine Waste Directive is probably the most applicable, is also included.

4.2 Cyprus Legislative Framework 4.2.1 Exploration: Prospecting Permits The Mines and Quarries (Regulation) Laws 1953 and 1956 and the Mines and Quarries Regulations 1958. require that a Prospecting Permit be obtained before any detailed mineral exploration can take place. The purpose of this permit is to exercise control over exploration and ensure quantification and identification of resources and reserves is systematic.

There are two class of Prospecting Permit as follows: • Class A Permits - including minerals consisting of or containing copper, iron, manganese, nickel, cobalt, chromium, zinc, lead, sulphur, cadmium, gold, silver, platinum, selenium, tellurium and asbestos. • Class B Permits - materials consisting of or containing umber and ochre, magnesite, sand, stone, slate, granite, gypsum, limestone, marble, marl or clay.

Applications for permits should be submitted to the Mines Service; the applicant is also required to submit any results of the investigation. The Director of the Mines Service is responsible for granting the permits. Applications are subject to a consultation process that includes the Town Planning Department, the Forest Department, the Environment Service, the Geological Survey Department, the Department of Agriculture and the local authorities. Subject to positive consultation responses, a Prospecting Permit is issued for one year and is renewable for successive six-month periods up

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to a maximum of three years for a Class A Permit and one year for a Class B Permit.

4.2.2 Site Planning and Authorisation The purpose of this legislation is to determine whether extraction should or should not go ahead.

The site planning and authorisation stage is considered the most time consuming and demanding on the mineral operator; applications need to be submitted for permits and licences to develop the mine or quarry. A review of the procedures adopted in Cyprus towards land use planning and environmental protection has formed an integral part of this research study.

In many European countries, mineral operations are controlled through separate mining or excavations laws while in the United Kingdom they are largely controlled through the Minerals Planning Authority. In Cyprus, regulation of mineral extraction is through a combination of mining law and planning law, applied in conjunction with other general legislation that controls the environmental and social impacts of operations. This is largely determined by historic factors in Cyprus. Prior to the Turkish occupation of Northern Cyprus in 1974, the Government of Cyprus controlled the quarrying and mining activity over the whole Island. Legislation governing the exploitation of minerals was based on law dating from the late 1950’s, at which time Cyprus was under British control, including The Mines and Quarries (Regulation) Laws 1953 and 1956 and the Mines and Quarries Regulations 1958. The Laws remain in force.

The above Laws and Regulations covered all stages of mining and quarrying activities and predominantly covered the permitting arrangements and obligations of operators prior to commencement of mineral extraction along with the powers of the government to control the operations thereafter.

The Laws (1953; 1956) governed the following key elements:
Tenure – mineral ownership, exclusions and royalties;
Prospecting – permits, rights and duties, mineral ownerships, cancellation of permits;
Mining – leases, rights, pollution of water, power of inspectors to enter land, powers to close a mine, requirement to produce mine plans on closure;
Quarrying – quarrying permits and licenses, powers to inspect or close quarries

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Miscellaneous – appointment of mine officers, offences and penalties.

The Regulations (1958) covered the obligations of the licence holder and procedures that should be adopted during prospecting or operating a mineral working as follows:
Applications for prospecting permits;
Prospecting – plans, blasting, felling of trees, construction of roads, retention of samples;
Mining and quarrying – plans, boundary markings, water usage, construction of buildings;
Rents, fees and royalties;
Safety regulations – machinery, explosives, slope stability and subsidence, underground safety, winding and shaft safety, personnel safety, hygiene and first aid, responsibilities, fire prevention, mine plans;
Accidents – notification;
Miscellaneous – prohibition of fires in forest areas, offences and penalties.

Following the events of 1974, there was a need for raw materials. This was prior to the enactment of the Town and Country Planning Law (1990) and quarrying activity took place on an ad hoc basis where suitable material was readily worked. Permits were issued by the Mines Service primarily on geological and economic criteria, depending on the availability of materials and minerals and on their importance to the development and building industry of Cyprus. A number of the quarries, formed in the mid 1970’s, became established and clusters of large quarries developed in favourable areas.

In 1990 the Town and Country Planning Law and new planning regime was introduced with additional controls over the mineral sector. Planning consents were required for mineral development and the presence of the clusters of quarries was endorsed with the introduction of Quarrying Zones as part of the Town and Country Planning Law . These preferred areas for mineral extraction, as suggested by the Geological Survey Department and the Mines Service, are evaluated by a committee whose recommendation is passed to the Minister of the Interior before being formally adopted into the Development Plans. The Quarrying Zones are revised on a five yearly cycle; new zones are based principally on geological criteria and demand.

In order to obtain planning permission to develop and work a site for mineral, a formal planning application must be submitted to the relevant planning

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authority including a minerals development proposal with the information concerning the development:
Name and address of applicant
Site location and characteristics, including a description of the development and the type of material to be quarried, available reserves, planned production output, anticipated life, area of quarrying activity, number of employees and vehicle generation.
Description of any building or mechanical installations needed for the quarrying activity.
Description of the restoration methods to be used.
Proposed mitigation measures for avoiding water, air or noise pollution.
Existing land use and nature of proposed access to the quarry area.

Planning permits are issued usually for a period of two years after which they have to be renewed and are subject to conditions covering the following areas:
The excavation should be as shallow as possible so as to minimise any adverse effect on the landscape (although this is not applicable to diabase quarries).
The cutting of trees, the creation of waste or any other kind of impact on the surrounding area should be kept to a minimum.
The area and especially the access road should be sprayed with water regularly so as to avoid dust formation.
In certain cases explosives are not allowed; where allowed, these should be controlled and conducted at specific times.
Excavation shall have a minimum stand-off distance of 4m from the borders of adjacent plots. Operational faces can be vertical but the overall slope of the excavation, taking into account intervening benches, shall not exceed 45 degrees.
A separate planning application is required for any buildings or fixed plant or machinery.
The operation of the quarry cannot start before the approval of the Environmental Impact Study (EIS) or Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (EISA) and the acquisition of a quarry license.
A phased restoration plan should be submitted to the relevant planning authority for approval.

Mineral developments outside the Quarrying Zones are controlled through the provision of published Development Plan designations and detailed policies; mining and quarrying activities are not generally allowed in the areas designated for alternative uses in the Local Plans.

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The Statement of Policy for the Countryside regulates planning and development control in the rural areas and comprises maps identifying various designated planning zones and other protected areas and also detailed policies that minerals applications are marked against. Issues identified in the policies include, amongst others, the following:

Potential loss of forest areas, agricultural land, other designated areas and effects on other land uses.
Visual intrusion.
Adverse effects on community welfare.
Effects on employment.
Disruption to traffic and increased traffic loading.
Noise and vibration.
Potential disturbance/pollution of watercourses/aquifers.
Damage to nature conservation interests.
Effects on archaeology and other cultural resources.
Potential for air pollution.

The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) procedure ensures that environmental consequences of projects are identified and assessed before authorisation is given. Procedures have been in place in Cyprus for the approval of development projects since 2001 when Law 57(I)/2001 on the Assessment of the Impacts on the Environment from Certain Projects came into force. This has been replaced by Law 140(I)/2005 which now fully satisfies the public participation requirements outlined in the Aarhus convention (adopted in 1998 and coming into force in 2001).

The Environmental Planning Law 140(I)/2005 requires that either a preliminary EIA ( ) or a more detailed EIA ( ) must be submitted with applications for the following developments:
Open mines and installations.
Underground mines.
Mining from rivers or the sea
Quarries. (Quarries with an area greater than 2 hectares require a detailed EIA. Proposals for quarries of less than 2 hectares are required to submit a preliminary EIA).

A detailed list of the type of project/development that requires an Environmental Impact Assessment can be found in Annex I and Annex II of Law 140(I)/2005.

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An Environmental Impact Assessments are the primary means of controlling the impacts of the mineral industry. The submissions must include a detailed description of the processes and procedures proposed, including any related or secondary onsite processing, and the intended restoration methods. The EIA must be approved by the relevant local authority and the Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and the Environment. The Planning Authority may impose strict planning conditions regarding the quarry operation and restoration. This process is repeated every 2 years upon renewal of the planning (and licensing) permits; EIA requirements are discussed in greater detail in the following chapter.

4.2.3 Other legislation The Law for the Removal, Minimization and Control of Water and Soil Pollution 2002 provides the framework for the controlled release of pollutants to the environment. It unifies previous environmental protection laws and provides water quality standards, classification of water resources, testing methods and defines protected areas. The Law for the Protection of Potable Water Resource similarly provides of potable water resources, though this was under review.

Law for the Removal, Minimization and Control of Air Pollution from Industrial Sources 2002 integrates previous laws and regulations regarding the protection of the environment from atmospheric pollution. The Law prescribes emission levels and monitoring and reporting mechanisms and also defines procedures for emission permit applications; implementation, monitoring and enforcement are the responsibility of the Ministry of Labour and Social Insurance. The law applies to specified industries including the production of plaster (from gypsum), cement and bricks but not quarrying and mining processes.

With regard to noise pollution, the Cyprus Ministry of Labour and Social Insurance has set a maximum level of 90 dB for noise in work environments but neither Cyprus nor EU legislation set maximum levels for environmental noise. There are, however, generally accepted guidelines on noise limits, such as those from the World Health Organisation (WHO), based on the following:

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Levels above 35 – 45dB cause sleep disturbance.
Noise levels above 55dB during the daytime cause disturbances in oral communication and psychological aggravation; 55dB is .
Noise levels above 65dB during the daytime may produce psychological stress and hypertension, amongst other things.

The flora and fauna are protected through a number of laws as well as conventions ratified by the Cypriot Government. Relevant regulations include the Forests Law , the Mines and Quarries Regulations , the Bern Convention (Convention on the protection of wildlife) and the Rio Convention (for the protection of Biodiversity).

Operational quarries are required to pay an Environment Levy , which provides significant funds for use in environmental protection and restoration activities. Of the total money raised, 75% is allocated to the local communities affected by the quarrying or mining activity, which must be used for development projects in the area. The remaining 25% of the funds are used for environmental projects and currently most of the money raised is used for the rehabilitation of the Amiandos Asbestos mine by and revegetation (see Section 7.2).

4.2.4 Health and Safety Framework Law This Law forms the basis of regulations for the control of working and health and safety conditions in the workplace. It covers personnel as well as third parties. The regulations require that businesses undertake the management of health and safety and more specifically businesses are required to:
Prepare a Risk Assessment Report.
Design measures for the management of risk.
Provide the necessary expert personnel in-house or through the use of consultants.
Maintain Health and Safety records. Businesses employing more than 10 people are also required to have a Health and Safety committee. Specific regulations pertaining to the quarry industry are prescribed in Directive 89/391/ EC in section “minimum requirements for Health and Safety in open and underground quarrying industries”

At present Health and Safety in Quarries and Mines is controlled both through the Mines Law, the implementation of which is the responsibility of the Mines Department, and the Health and Safety Law. In accordance with the new Health and Safety Regulations all health and safety responsibilities will be

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transferred to the Labour Inspection Department and health and safety will not be covered in the new Mines Laws.

The Labour Inspection Department is responsible for the enforcement of the Health and Safety regulations and undertakes regular inspections through personnel in its district offices. Additional inspections are made in cases of reported accidents. Inspections are also made without notice. Due to the high risk associated with quarrying, a minimum number of visits is set specifically for mines and quarries. The department cooperates closely with the Mines Department and inspectors from both departments coordinate visits and recommendations.

Non-conformances found during an inspection may lead to the application of a series of enforcement actions depending on the severity of the non- conformance: 1) Issuance of an informal letter. This is informative and prescribes measures to be taken as well as a schedule of implementation. Non- conformance is not considered a criminal action. 2) Issuance of improvement notice. The notice includes specific measures to be taken and sets schedule for implementation. Non – Conformance is considered a criminal action. 3) Prohibition Notice. This is a more severe action and requires the discontinuance of activities until the prescribed measures are taken. Non – conformance is a criminal action. 4) Court Order. This is also a prohibition order, in which non - conformance is punishable by imprisonment.

The Department of Inspection of Labour is also responsible for enforcing the law for the protection of the quality of the atmosphere. Facilities that produce discharges to air, controlled through this Law, must apply for a permit from the Department, which has the authority to decline or withdraw a permit on the basis of non-conformance to permit terms or significant impacts on air quality.

4.3 European Union: Environmental Legislation All European environmental law and legislation is primarily under the jurisdiction of the EC Treaty. Not all Directives constitute legislation directly governing mining activities; there are many legislative instruments that must be adhered to where the content is applicable. These are regulations, decisions, international agreements and case law of the European Court and the Court of First Instance.

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The following are legally binding sources of EC environmental Law:
EC Treaty
Directives
Decisions
International agreements
Case law of the European Court and Court of First Instance

The sources of mining related environmental law and legislation are further detailed below followed by a summary of the key pieces of European legislation governing the environment.

4.3.1 EC Treaty Most environmental laws are adopted under the EC Treaty (The Treaty of

Rome) and are, therefore, European Community laws (Gillies, 1999). Amendments to the EC Treaty include Articles 130r, 130s, 130t specifically addressing the environment. Article 130r states that ‘the EC objectives and outlines the fundamental principles of prevention as opposed to cure; damage should be dealt with at the source and the polluter should pay’ (Gillies,1999). This is the precautionary principle and, although there is no set definition, Gillies interprets it as being cautious prior to the provision that an action or substance could cause damage to the environment. Article 130s profiles the framework for the adoption of EC environmental laws. Article 130t allows for the fact that member states are not only able merely to comply with the EC legislation but can take it a step further and adopt a more stringent attitude.

4.3.2 Directives Directives are essentially instructions issued to one or more member states that are required by law to achieve the specified results (Oxford Dictionary of Law, 1997). These are implemented through the national law within a certain time constraint of usually two years, known as the Date of Transposition,

though transposal can take place ahead of deadline (Gillies, 1999). This must be done even in cases where the state already complies with the standards set and categorically these standards at least must be attained. Monitoring and auditing of the outcomes must be undertaken and submitted to the EC so they can verify that the conditions of the directive have been met. It is not sufficient to simply claim to have ‘taken all practical steps to comply with those standards ’ as was the case with the noncompliance of the UK with the Drinking Water Directive (Case C-337/89 Commission v United Kingdom [1992] ECR 6103). However, the way in which the results are achieved is the choice of the member state. Once the legal amendments have been made according to the directive, the domestic statute creates rights for the citizens

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thereby allowing those affected to rely on national law. By the Principle of Direct Effect, those rights conferred to the citizens can be upheld by EC law in the case of failed state execution. Where discrepancy occurs, the principle of supremacy is applied and EC law prevails over national law (Krämer, 1997).

4.3.3 Regulations Regulations comprise legislation that is effected in the EC and is legally binding to all member states. Domestic law need not be altered as the Regulations are transposed immediately. The Regulations are not necessarily a restrictive or compliant measure. For example Reg. 93/1836 allows the voluntary participation of companies in an eco-management and audit system (EMAS).

4.3.4 Decisions Decisions are legally binding and made by the Commission or the Council; they are applicable to member states or persons. The Commission or the Council also makes recommendations and issues opinions and notices, although these are not legally binding. Decisions are seldom used to implement environmental law (Gillies, 1999).

4.3.5 International Agreements Gillies (1999) explains that, once entered into, the legislation of the agreement becomes part of EC law. The organisations involved can create laws that then become part of Community law, the application of which becomes the jurisdiction of the European Court.

4.3.6 Case Law of European Courts and the Court of First Instance The Court of First Instance is the first court of appeal against decisions of the European Commission and judgments are made within these courts upon the application and compliance with EC environmental law; it is only here that decision on this law can be made and sentence issued.

4.4 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) The Directive, Assessment of effects of public and private projects on the environment (Directive 85/337/EEC) requires environmental impacts to be ascertained, stated and considered prior to the issue of licences and permits. The Directive outlines the practice of assessment and stipulates that the EIA must address the discrete and interrelated effects on the following:
Flora;
Fauna;
Soil;

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Water;
Air;
Climate;
Landscape;
Anthropogenics (including threats to cultural heritage and material assets).

Both primary and secondary effects are to be addressed in the EIA and proposals for remediation are requested, although they are not mandatory, (Gillies, 1999). All Interested and Affected Parties (I&APs) must have access to the EIA and be given the opportunity to comment in accordance with Directive 90/313/EEC Freedom of access to information. An EIA is not compulsory for some operations; the annexes of the Directive list the categories. Annex I contains those projects that will clearly have a direct impact on the environment such as Tailings Management Facilities (TMFs). Operations listed in Annex II must carry out an EIA if they will have ‘ significant effects on the environment ’. A proposed open pit mine in a Special Area of Conservation (SAC) would be an example, (though highly sensitive areas are, as a rule, excluded from available exploration licences and mining concessions). Although the decision on the necessity of EIAs for Annex II projects is bestowed to the member states, it is generally widely accepted that an EIA is required prior to development of any mineral operation.

The EIA is the most widely cited legal instrument relating to the environment. It is also technically and scientifically relied upon throughout the life of the respective project. It is therefore imperative that the EIA is unambiguous and reliable. The European Commission proposed amendments to the Directive 85/337/EEC in 1996 due to loopholes that became evident in facilitating improper application of the EIA process by national authorities. The aim of this proposal was to incorporate environmental considerations into the preparation and adoption of instruments setting the context for future projects (Directive 97/11/EC).

The amended Directive contains clarification of the procedures and obligatory

standards (Article 5) following complaints about the inadequacy of EIAs particularly with respect to indirect effects. It was also highlighted that recommendations following the assessment of the EIA were not heeded, including those of public enquiries. Additions of projects to Annex I and an improvement of the vetting process to determine if projects in Annex II require an EIA have blocked potential bypass routes. Due to the site-specific

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knowledge required, it was proposed that verification of any infringements to be the responsibility of national courts.

4.5 Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) The IPPC Directive (Dir. 97/11/EC) approaches environmental protection and management in a holistic manner and the aim is to prevent, where practical, or minimise emissions of potentially polluting substances, vibrations, heat and noise to air, water, soil, and at the same time, to take waste management into account (Gillies, 1999). This system is designed to prevent the transfer of pollutants from one medium to another as it addresses the environment as a whole. The licence also encourages foresight promoting the axiom ‘prevention is better than cure’. IPPC is directed at the following industries:
Energy
Production and processing of metals
Mineral industries
Chemical industries
Waste management

This Directive is highly applicable to the extractive industry and a licence is required for each operation, for which the following obligations must adhered to:
All appropriate preventative measures are taken against pollution, in particular through the application of BAT, though Article 16(2) ensures that Member States are unable to dictate the use of particular technologies or techniques;
No significant pollution is caused.
Waste production is avoided; where waste is produced it should be recovered or, where that is technically and economically impossible, disposed of while avoiding or reducing any impact on the environment.
Energy is used efficiently.
Necessary measures are taken to prevent accidents and limit their impacts.
When activity stops or industry closes, necessary measures are taken to avoid pollution risk and the site of operation returns to a satisfactory state.

The date of transposition applicable to new operations was October 1999 and for operations installed prior to the Directive’s implementation, transposal should have been achieved by October 2007. The commission has also acknowledged that not all states have the necessary legislation and agencies to complete the transposal in one go. Therefore they have allowed for it to

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occur in stages and a group of experts advised on this process in the year prior to transposal deadline.

In the case of alteration or additions to the original proposal, the authorities must be notified and, if necessary, a new application must be submitted accounting for the changes. As with EIAs, all interested and affected parties must be notified of, and have access to the application in accordance with Directive 90/313/EEC on the freedom of access to information on the environment, which has been further reinforced by the signing of the Convention of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters.

Regulation 93/1836 allowing voluntary participation by companies in the industrial sector in a Community eco-management and audit scheme (EMAS) facilitates regulation and assessment of company performance in relation to the environment. All companies commit to preparing and maintaining a record of all activities, regular monitoring and recording of the extraction results. Reg. 761/2001 amended Reg. 93/1836 with the objective of promoting ‘improvements in environmental management performance of organisation’. Companies are required to produce and make available to the public periodic environmental statements.

4.6 The Mine Waste Directive “Mining produces very large volumes of waste, so decisions about where and how to dispose of it are often virtually irreversible. Facilities designed to contain this waste are among the largest structures ever built. The long-term impacts of the options for waste disposal are among the most important in the minerals cycle ” ( Breaking new ground: the report of the Mining, Minerals, and Sustainable Development Project , May 2002).

The EU has adopted a Directive on the management of wastes from the extractive industry, referred to as the Mine Waste Directive , which came into force on 1 May 2006 (Dir 2006/21/EC). This Directive seeks to provide a regulatory framework, supplementary to the Waste Framework Directive that reflects the risks of environmental harm and/or human health arising from the management of waste from the extractive industries. The proposal followed environmental disasters involving extractive wastes such as Aberfan (Wales) in 1966, Stava (Italy) in 1985, Aznalcóllar (Spain) in 1998 and more recently Baia Mare and Baia Borsa both in Romania in 2000.

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The Directive covers waste coming from all sectors of the extractive industry that are likely to cause the most significant environmental and health hazards or accidents. Some of these wastes are inert and, therefore, not likely to represent a significant pollutant threat to the environment aside from smothering of river beds and possible collapse if stored in large quantities. However, other fractions, in particular those generated by the non-ferrous metal mining industry, may contain large quantities of dangerous substances, such as heavy metals. Through the extraction and subsequent mineral processing, metals and metal compounds tend to become chemically more available, which can result in the generation of acid or alkaline drainage. Moreover, the management of tailings is a chemically complicated activity, commonly involving residual processing chemicals and elevated levels of metals. In many cases, tailings are stored on heaps or in large ponds, where they are contained by engineered dams. The collapse of dams or heaps may have serious impacts on environment and human health and safety.

The Directive excludes from its scope, waste with a low environmental risk, such as unpolluted soil and waste from the exploration of mineral resources. The Directive in general encompasses the following:
Operational issues of waste management.
Prevention of soil and water pollution.
Ensuring stability of waste management facilities.

The Directive contains the following:
Conditions to be attached to operating permits.
An obligation to characterise waste before disposing of it or treating it.
Measures to ensure the safety of waste management facilities.
A requirement to draw up closure plans for waste management facilities.
An obligation to provide for an appropriate level of financial security.

The Directive recognises that likely significant impacts relate to the physical footprints of waste disposal facilities and resulting loss of land productivity, effects on ecosystems, dust and erosion. These impacts can have lasting environmental and socio-economic consequences and can be difficult and costly to address through remedial measures. Wastes from the extractive industries have, therefore, to be properly managed in order to ensure, in particular, the long-term stability of disposal facilities and to prevent or minimise any water and soil pollution arising from acid or alkaline drainage and leaching of heavy metals.

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The Directive is primarily concerned with the control of mineral wastes arising from active operations but, importantly, certain articles relate to the management of historical waste . Articles 20 and 21 are of particular note in relation to this project, as they require member states to make an inventory of all closed sites as detailed below. Article 20 (Inventory of closed waste facilities) states that:

Member States shall ensure that an inventory of closed waste facilities, including abandoned waste facilities, located on their territory which cause serious negative environmental impacts or have the potential of becoming in the medium or short term a serious threat to human health or the environment is drawn up and periodically updated. Such an inventory, to be made available to the public, shall be carried out by 1 May 2012, taking into account the methodologies as referred to in Article 21, if available.

Article 21 (Exchange of information) states that:

1. The Commission, assisted by the Committee referred to in Article 23, shall ensure that there is an appropriate exchange of technical and scientific information between Member States, with a view to developing methodologies relating to: (a) the implementation of Article 20; (b) the rehabilitation of those closed waste facilities identified under Article 20 in order to satisfy the requirements of Article 4. Such methodologies shall allow for the establishment of the most appropriate risk assessment procedures and remedial actions having regard to the variation of geological, hydrogeological and climatological characteristics across Europe. 2. Member States shall ensure that the competent authority follows or is informed of developments in best available techniques. 3. The Commission shall organise an exchange of information between Member States and the organisations concerned on best available techniques, associated monitoring and developments in them. The Commission shall publish the results of the exchange of information.

A comprehensive framework for the safe management of waste from extractive industries at EU level is therefore now in place comprising the following key pieces of legislation and guidance:
Directive 2006/21/EC on the management of waste from the extractive industries (the mining waste directive);

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Reference Document on Best Available Techniques for the Management of Tailings and Waste-Rock in Mining Activities (2004); and
Directive Seveso II (Dir 96/82/EC): EU major accident reporting system amending Directive Seveso I (Dir 82/501), covering major accident planning and notification procedures, to include in its scope mineral processing of ores and, in particular, tailings ponds or dams used in connection with such mineral processing.

4.7 Water pollution legislation Existing Legal Framework in Cyprus The legal framework in Cyprus has been enacted during the colonial era and still remains in force by virtue of the provisions of Article 188 of the Constitution. Additions and modifications were made to the legislation since then to take account of changes, new developments and trends, but these were very limited.

Water Pollution Control Law (Law No 69/91) The law provides for the abolition or reduction and control of water pollution in Cyprus, for the best protection of the natural water resources and the health and well being of the population. It also provides for the protection and improvement of the environment and the animal and plant life in water. It defines "what is waste" and vests power to the Minister of Agriculture Natural Resources and the Environment to control the disposal of water into the water environment, surface or underground and on the ground or underground. For this purpose a Technical Committee is established which will advise the Minister on quality standards. The law contains provisions for the protection of the natural water sources from the disposal of wastes and the pollution of water from industrial and domestic sources of pollution and wastewater treatment plants.

EU Water Framework Directive The EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) came into force in December 2000 and has subsequently been transposed into the individual laws of each EU country. It applies to all surface freshwater bodies (including lakes, streams and rivers), groundwaters, estuaries and coastal waters.

• The Water Framework Directive aims to: • Improve the ecological health of inland and coastal waters and prevent further deterioration, especially by protecting against diffuse pollution in urban and rural areas through better land management.

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There is a requirement for nearly all inland and coastal waters to achieve ‘good status’ by 2015. • Drive wiser, sustainable use of water as a natural resource; • Create better habitats for wildlife that lives in and around water, for example by improving the chemical quality of water; • Progressively reduce or phase out discharges, emissions and losses of priority substances and priority hazardous substances; • Progressively reduce the pollution of groundwater; • Contribute to mitigating the effects of floods and droughts.

Water Protection and Management Law of 2004 The WFD has been transposed through a separate Water Framework Law (No. 13 (I)/2004).

Water and Soil Pollution Control Law {106(I)/2002, 160(I)/2005, 76(I)/2006} The Water and Soil Pollution Control Law incorporates many of the EU directives and environmental law in the water sector as well as some in the waste sector. These EU laws and directives have been transposed through Ministerial Orders and Council of Ministers Regulations under the Water and Soil Pollution Control Law of 2002.

These include, but not limited to, the directives dealing with nitrates, urban wastewater treatment, dangerous substances, bathing water, water for abstraction for drinking, protection of freshwater supporting fish life and sludge use in agriculture.

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5.0 SITE ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ASSESSMENT AND PILOT SITE SELECTION PROCEDURE 5.1 Background Field walkover surveys of all the mine sites and installations were completed by Wardell Armstrong personnel as of 6th March. The only site where access was not possible was the Sia mine that, at the time of survey, was being used for training by the army; comments on the Sia mine are therefore derived from satellite data, archive research and previous site visits by Wardell Armstrong personnel in 2003. There was however also restricted access to some of the mines in the Kalavassos area that are also occupied by the military. These are noted in the field notes as appropriate.

The detailed findings of the field survey, undertaken in February and March 2008, are presented as field sheets and plans in the accompanying Appendices 3 and 4. Appendix 3 includes a detailed description of each mine, based on the field survey and include environmental concerns and mining heritage information, where appropriate. Appendix 4 includes plans which contain field note observations, planning zones and preliminary land ownership information for each mine and surrounding area. The land ownership information received from the GSD may not be up to date and may be inaccurate in parts. The ownership information for each mine can only be finalised when the Department of Lands and Surveys officially provides the competed and updated information to the GSD . These data are supplemented by a bibliographical research. As far as practicable all published or unpublished data on each mine site was sought and relevant details extracted and summarised; these data are included in the Appendices along with the field notes.

Most of background information on the mines sites was abstracted from the published Memoirs and Bulletins of the Geological Survey Department; in addition there are a few published scientific papers and conference proceedings that included information of relevance. A number of unpublished reports held by the Geological Survey Department were also reviewed. A few sites however remain with little or no relevant recorded information.

The readily available data gathered concerning the current conditions at each site included, amongst others, the following key points:

Location and access/road network.
General site description including identification of despoiled areas, voids, mines dumps, slope stability issues etc.

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Description of void including height of faces, slope stability, areal extent.
Description of mine wastes and estimates of quantities, areal extent etc.
Description of mine entries.
Landscape character and surrounding land uses.
Visual impact.
Water impacts including run-off, erosion and contamination (both internal and external).
Air pollution.
Any observed restoration and remediation.
Mining Heritage
Land ownership within the lease area divided into 3 categories: (1) Private owned land, (2) Government owned land, and (3) Forest land.

5.2 The Impact Matrix and Site Selection

Table 2 summarises assessments of the size of the sites and the associated open pit and mine waste components. For each site, the areal extents of open pit voids, waste dumps and tailings deposits have been assessed from field records. In addition the area of land adjoining the open pit void and ground affected by mine waste that lies within the mine site, has been estimated. The size and gradients of the open pit slopes are also identified based on visual estimation.

Where N/A is shown in Table 3 under 'estimated face heights and gradients', this is either because there is no open pit at the site in question, or because access could not be gained to inspect the open pits.

In order to assess the severity of the environmental impact at each site each site the following essential environmental parameters affecting each of the sites visited was noted during the field survey:

Site size
An appraisal of the proximity of the site to settlements and the relative size of those settlements; this was utilised to proved an indication of the overall impact of each site on communities by way of dust and visual intrusion.
Accessibility from public highways
Security - whether any attempt had been made to prevent unauthorised access
Visual impact (generally from settlements and locations with public access)

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Slope stability of voids (where present)
Slope stability of spoil heaps and/or tailings dams
Impact on the water environment
Existing use
A preliminary appraisal of the relative extent and cost of the relative extent and cost of remediation based on the above parameters.

Each of the above parameters was given a score of 1 to 5 indicating the severity of the identified issues. Following consultation with the Geological Survey Department various different weighting factors were applied to parameters that were considered of greater importance. The scores have then been summed and the sites with the highest scores were considered to be those that require the most immediate action. The impact Matrix is shown in Table 3.

It was not always possible to identify a score for all of the issues. For example, where the army use the site, there is no need to score 'proximity to dwellings', and where there is no open pit, then 'slope stability of voids' is not an issue. In these situations, ‘none’, ‘army’, ‘no access’ or ‘N/A’ is shown on the table. The results should therefore be regarded as preliminary in nature.

This technique identifies which sites should be given priority for restoration. The Kokkinopezoula mine has the highest rank. The Limni and Agrokipia Mines are second and third respectively. It is proposed that the Kokkinopezoula mine be the subject of the Pilot Programme as discussed in the following Chapter. It should be noted however that significant environmental problems were identified at the Polis (Limni installations) site which require priority actions. This site is also included in the mine restoration programme, but the design of remedial measures are outside the scope of this report.

A selection of photographs that illustrate the situation at the Kokkinopezoula mine site are attached in Appendix 5. The photographs show the typical steep open pit slopes and mine waste dumps which are affected by surface erosion problems. Revegetation of the slopes has met with varied success.

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Table 2 %age of Approximate Un- adjoining Total area 2 Areas of Tailings additional area Estimated face height Site Void (m ) 2 contaminated 2 surface area despoiled 2 Spoil (m ) 2 (m ) affected by 2 spoil (m ) despoiled - (m ) and gradients (m ) operations spoil not void. Memi 89,394 199,564 0.05 9,978 298,937 >50m to water level & c.1:1 24,445 21,844 0.05 1,092 47,381 10m to 20m and steeper Alestos than 1:1 Kokkinopezoula 163,788 308,209 0.00 0 471,997 c. 100m at 1:1 12,311 32,696 9,082 15,230 69,319 20 to 40m - near vertical Kokkinoyia back wall Agrokipia 36,194 90,753 0.05 4,538 131,485 c. 20m to water level Mitsero installations 373,452 0.25 93,363 466,816 N/A Kapedhes 6,474 20,243 1,885 0.05 1,012 29,615 >20m at c.1:1 Kokkinonero (Kambia) 23,884 83,538 0.05 4,177 111,598 up to c. 80m at c.1:1 Pedristerka-Pitharihoma 40,454 172,412 0.05 8,621 221,487 c. 70m at c.1:1 Mathiatis 104,334 168,827 0.10 16,883 290,043 c.60m at c.1:1 Sha 28,340 78,222 0.00 0 106,561 N/A Troulli 12,299 32,520 8,157 0.40 13,008 65,983 c. 20m and steeper than 1:1 7,767 3,714 0.10 371 11,852 Vertical walls to glory hole Platies. >20m deep Petra 4,783 0.00 0 4,783 N/A Mavri Sykia 36,565 0.00 0 36,565 N/A Landaria N/A 0 N/A N/A 69,017 131,388 21,733 0.00 0 222,137 >50m and steeper than 1:1 Mavridhia except where landslipped Kalavasos-Mousoulos N/A 0 N/A N/A Vasiliko Installations N/A N/A N/A Magkaleni N/A N/A N/A 337,771 611,336 0.00 0 949,108 >100m. Near-vertical locally Limni and <1:2 in landslip areas Kinousa underground 5,609 0.05 280 5,890 N/A Kinousa opencast (Uncle 2,631 7,496 0.05 375 10,502 c.5m at c.1:1 Charles) Evlogimeni 74,231 0.05 3,712 77,942 N/A Polis (Limni installations) 7,496 355,683 0.10 750 363,929 N/A 23,004 37,990 0.15 5,698 66,692 Back wall >50m and Vretcha (Vretsia) steeper than 1:1

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Slope Size/proximity Slope stabilty of Potential Impact Cost and degree to dwellings Accessibility Security Visual Existing Size stability of spoil on of remediation Table 3 – Impact matrix or of site of site impact use voids heaps/ water/environment required settlements lagoons

1-5 (1 1-5 (5 being 1-5 (5 1-5 (5 1-5 (5 1-5 (5 being most 1-5 (5 Rated Low, close to large 1-5 (5 being being being being being 1-10 (10 being well used being Score Ranking Medium, High number of easiest) least most most most most severe) and little largest) and Very High dwellings) secure) severe) unstable) unstable) remediation required) Kokkinopezoula 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 8 4 46 1 Very High Limni 5 3 3 4 5 5 5 8 5 43 2 Very High Agrokipia 4 4 5 5 4 4 4 8 4 42 3 High Mathiatis 4 4 5 5 4 3 3 8 4 40 4 High Polis Chrysochous (Limni installations) 5 4 4 4 5 None 5 8 5 40 5 Very High Kokkinonero (Kambia) 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 8 3 38 6 High Memi 4 3 4 5 4 3 4 6 4 37 7 High Sha 4 4 4 3 3 4 4 8 3 37 8 High Kalavasos (main mine site) 5 2 4 5 3 5 5 8 Army 37 9 Very High Kokkinoyia 4 2 4 4 3 4 4 6 4 35 10 High Mitsero installations 5 2 5 3 3 None 5 10 2 35 11 Very High Vretcha (Vretsia) 2 1 2 5 3 4 4 8 5 34 12 Medium Kapedes 2 2 4 4 3 4 4 8 3 34 13 Medium Kinousa opencast (Uncle Charles) 1 3 4 5 3 3 3 6 5 33 14 Medium Platies (surface and underground?) 2 3 4 3 2 4 3 6 5 32 15 Medium Evlogimeni 4 1 3 5 3 None 5 6 5 32 16 High Pedristerka-Pitharihoma 5 2 5 1 3 4 4 6 2 32 17 Under restoration Troulli 3 3 1 1 3 4 4 8 3 30 18 Medium Alestos 2 2 2 4 2 2 4 4 4 26 19 Medium Petra (underground) 1 2 4 5 3 None 2 4 3 24 20 Low Vasiliko Installations 1 2 5 2 3 None N/A 6 5 24 21 Medium Kinousa underground 1 1 3 5 2 None 4 4 3 23 22 Medium Maghaleni 4 3 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 21 23 Restored Mavridhia (underground) 1 2 4 5 1 None None 6 1 20 24 Low Mavri Sykia (surface/underground) 3 Army 5 1 3 No Access No Access No Access Army 12 25 No Access Landaria 1 Army 4 N/A 1 N/A N/A Unknown Army 6 26 Low OS10047 49 September 2008 Republic of Cyprus, Geological Survey Department Study of the restoration of abandoned sulphide mines

6.0 MINE RESTORATION METHODOLOGY 6.1 Introduction The current study provides desk study and initial field assessment information that is the necessary precursor to the investigation, design and implementation of restoration activities at the former sulphide mine sites.

The methodology has been developed to be in accordance with current best practice and relevant legislative requirements. In the following sections, reference is made to the appropriate legislative framework directing the methodology.

It should be noted that the scope of work associated with the restoration of old mine sites can vary significantly. The Mine Waste Directive draws a distinction between sites that do not contain substances that are hazardous to the environment, where the scope of restoration works may be relatively straightforward, and those that contain potentially harmful substances, which require special treatment measures to provide chemical and physical stability. It is common practice to carry out technical assessments in stages in order that investigations can be targeted to suit the restoration objectives. Monitoring is an important aspect of the reclamation process.

The data from the investigations would be used to design the restoration works and the scope of investigation should therefore be in accordance with the objectives of each site, which should be established first before proceeding with a restoration programme. It is likely that various technical assessments would be carried out using this information as part of the design process. Typical assessments are elaborated in the following paragraphs.

The aim of the pilot programme arising out of this study is to carry out field trials of relevant restoration works that can be applied to the other sites as part of a larger restoration programme, and the proposed pilot study activities are presented in Section 7.

6.2 Proposed Generic Restoration Methodology This section presents a proposed generic methodology for implementing a programme of restoration for mine sites. The main objective of the programme is to determine the most efficient means of securing the safe and sustainable reinstatement of land despoiled by past mining. It does not include commentary on the detailed reinstatement of the mine infrastructure or associated plant or what specific aspects of the mine should be conserved. These would be considered separately and as part of the restoration programme. Consideration of heritage conservation was made as part of the “Sustainable Mining Project” and is not covered by this report.

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In order to progress the restoration project in a logical manner it is proposed that any work effort should be divided into three phases:-
Phase 1 - Assessment of environmental impacts.
Phase 2 - Preparation of reclamation principles and identification of applicable reclamation options, laboratory and field trials to assess reclamation techniques and optimise parameters.
Phase 3 - Reporting on trials and the preparation of a reclamation strategy, detailed design of works and budget costings.

6.3 Phase 1: Assessment of Environmental Impacts The provision of an EIA is required for major projects having an impact on the environment. Depending on the anticipated scope of work associated with the restoration activities at each site, an EIA may be needed. In the following paragraphs reference is made to detailed site investigations and the collation of baseline information against which potential impacts can be measured. For relatively small restoration projects, where an EIA is not required, it would however be best practice to obtain baseline information relevant to the restoration objectives.

Phase 1 would consist of a detailed assessment of environmental impacts associated with the abandoned mine site. It would comprise a comprehensive site investigation that is likely to include aspects of the following checklist, subject to the requirements of the restoration programme: -
Surface sampling of tip areas and analyses of spoil tip material, examination of pH, soil nutrients (NPK) and essential minerals.
Boreholes through abandoned spoil tips.
Boreholes in solid strata adjacent to open pit voids.
Analysis of spoil material – identification of a weathering zone.
ABA (acid base accounting) and leachate testing on spoil samples.
Surface water sampling (e.g. from discharges, open pits and nearby streams).
Sampling from wells.
Installation of groundwater standpipes.
Sampling and monitoring of groundwater.
Leachate samples.
Permeability testing of tips and adjoining land.
Sediment sampling from streams.
Surface sampling of adjacent agricultural land.
Biological monitoring of downstream watercourses.
Dust monitoring – (airborne and dust deposition gauges).
Geotechnical testing on waste samples – and natural strata.

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A geotechnical analysis of the stability of the tip slopes and void walls would be undertaken as required to identify and, where applicable, evaluate the risk of mass instability.

At some sites, groundwater investigations would be needed. The investigations may have to be carried out extend beyond the immediate site boundaries to establish groundwater movement and determine background levels of potential contaminants (principally heavy metals). The investigation would lead to the following:
An establishment of the site water balance.
A hydrogeological model of the site and its impact on the surrounding hydrogeological regime.
Acid rock drainage (ARD) assessment.
Groundwater contamination assessment.
Surface water contamination assessment.
Contamination risk assessment – risk to human and animal health.

Additional investigations, in particular to examine the environmental assets of the site, would include: -
A detailed geological mapping of the site and immediate surroundings to determine the geological setting of the site and identify any features worthy of retention or preservation.
Baseline ecological survey to identify the plant species that are most successful at recolonising the particular local habitat and specifically identifying any possible metalophytes i.e. plants that have developed and are thriving on the soils where high levels of metallic contamination is present. Locations that merit conservation would also be identified.
Archaeological studies to identify what features should be preserved as part of any restoration proposal.

Any other issues identified during the investigation and considered of importance would be recorded and reported to the Client for further consideration and investigation.

6.4 Phase 2: Preparation of Reclamation Principles (as listed in the Annexes of Law 140 (1)/2005) This Phase will establish the principles behind an appropriate and applicable reclamation strategy and identify options and techniques for undertaking a successful reclamation scheme; laboratory and field trials will be undertaken to assess optimum reclamation techniques and parameters.

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Detailed discussions would need to be had at an early stage between the Client and other interested parties to establish a reclamation strategy and the long-term land-use objectives for the site. Site owners and adjoining land owner(s) will need to be consulted and the reclamation objective broadly agreed at an early stage during Phase 2 to ensure that appropriate techniques are researched.

The principles of the reclamation strategy will determine the most appropriate restoration options that will then need to be site specifically researched. However, there are three main objectives that need to be established for any long-term restoration of the site. These are:
Dependent on the findings of Phase 1: assess the requirements for containment of contaminants within the site and reduction of external environmental impact on the surrounding area to an acceptable minimum.
Identify techniques required to stabilise the site and the site surface to avoid mass instability in the tips or host rock and minimise surface erosion.
Identify the most effective measures to re-establish vegetation and return the site to habitats consistent with the landscape character of the surrounding area.

The reduction of pollution external to the site is considered at this stage to be primarily the control of erosion of surface materials and the prevention of carriage of contaminated fines by surface water run-off or wind erosion away from the site. At present, the extent of groundwater contamination and/or the generation of acid rock drainage (ARD) on the mine sites is not fully known. The extent of this would be ascertained during Phase 1 and appropriate strategies for remediation would be considered in detail during this phase if required. The control of airborne contaminants will largely be achieved by the measures adopted for surface stabilisation discussed below. Options for the reduction of escape of contaminants from site could however include, amongst others: -
Isolation/encapsulation of waste material (although this is likely to be costly and impractical)
Minimisation of infiltration
by capping
by vegetation using direct seeding or other techniques (discussed below)
Treatment of polluted discharges

There is evidence of instability at many of the mine sites particularly in the high walls of the former open pit workings. Geotechnical investigations, carried out in Phase 1, would identify areas of concern and calculations can be made, based on the geotechnical parameters of the in situ materials, to determine slope gradients that would provide an acceptable factor of safety; where practical and appropriate remodelling of the site topography would be advocated. The stability of the spoil tips

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would be assessed, both on a macro scale and with regards to localised erosion. Methods would be examined to ensure the long term physical stability of the tips and various options proposed for further study. Slope profiles and landforms would be proposed taking into account the following issues: -
Ease of construction
Stability
Requirements for reinforcement
Size
Gradients
Landscape character and visual impact
Requirement for local erosion control such as the use of gabions.

The revegetation of the site surface is the key element in providing acceptable site restoration. Satisfactory plant growth on the site surface will to a great extent ameliorate the majority of the environmental problems associated with the abandoned mines. In the absence of any preferred restoration options it is assumed that the restoration of the tips area, and any adjoining areas despoiled by mining, will be back to the original habitats that could include to garigue, maquis or to woodland or forest.

In order to build on the experience of previous studies a literature search would be undertaken to identify successful methods used in other countries; these would include various bodies and programmes carried out by US EPA, Canadian MEND programme and the Australia EPA. The experience of the Cyprus Forestry Department will be sought and in particular the success or otherwise of previous vegetation trials in Cyprus will be discussed with the appropriate departments.

The ability of the spoil to support plant growth will be determined and the pH, plant nutrient (NPK) and essential minerals will be assessed from the results of the Phase 1 investigations. Species that have naturally re-colonised mine sites will have been identified during the ecological study in Phase 1 together with any specific soil conditions or micro-climate factors that have encouraged this. Literature searches and experience of previous trials will assist in establishing the most successful trees, shrub and wildflower species that are likely to be drought resistant and metal tolerant and which could act as pioneer species in any field trials.

An essential element of Phase 2 would be field trials to assess reclamation techniques and establish design parameters to encourage successful reclamation. Such trials would seek to address a number of issues and would include: -
Plant growth experiments
Erosion control measures
Soil cover/growing medium and the use of soil ameliorants

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Issues that need to be addressed, as part of the field trials programme would include: -
The use of vegetation to encourage slope and soil stability and moisture retention
The take-up of rainfall by vegetation enabling a reduction of infiltration through the tip material and hence a reduced leachate production.
Methods of generating sufficient nutrients for plant growth which will include the use of fertilisers, the addition of organic matter and the value of legumes as nitrogen fixers
The potential for liming soils with a pH of less than 5.5 to relieve acidity and reduce availability and release to solution of heavy metals.
Plant growth experiments would include small scale plot trials, to field-test establishment techniques, followed by medium to large-scale field trials to optimise techniques. Two to three growing seasons would be necessary for the vegetation trials. The effects of various parameters on plant growth and establishment would be examined such as: -
Soil chemistry
Soil nutrition (including ameliorants)
Soil texture - moisture retention
Compaction
Gradient – erosion/drainage
Aspect – temperature
Species type.

The trials will examine the effects of various soil ameliorants such as lime, chalk (or crushed limestone), organic material and fertilisers. The use of a variety of existing or imported soil cover and growing media will be investigated that will include the use of weathered lava overburden, imported soils and the use of soil forming materials. The success or otherwise of the various trials would be measured in terms of: -
Degree of cover established
Plant vigour
Water uptake
Metals content in herbage
Root penetration and spread
Self propagation abilities.

From these studies suitable species mix and preferred soil characteristics will be determined. Other field studies will include the testing of a variety of erosion control measures including: -
Use of terracing

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Regrading of slopes to reduced surface gradients
The use of natural and synthetic geotextiles. Other techniques may also be investigated such as the benefits that might be gained from enhanced leaching to reduce acidity and pyrite content.

A monitoring regime would be an essential element of any research programme. Effective monitoring routines will be implemented to establish and measure the effectiveness of the experimental trials. The effectiveness of all remediation measures researched will be measured against cost and practicality.

6.4.1 Phase 3: Reporting and Preliminary Scheme Design Phase 3 will comprise reporting on the trials, preparation of a finalised reclamation strategy, and preliminary scheme design. The final report will provide a definitive way forward for the reclamation of copper/pyrite mine sites in general and the trial site in particular. The details of any final strategy would need to be agreed between the various parties involved and in terms of the agreed afteruse for the site.

The design of the reclamation scheme would be undertaken to such a stage that detailed budget costings could be prepared. This would enable an assessment to be made as to the most effective method of funding the works. An assessment of the various funding options could be made, including external bodies such as the European Union.

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7.0 PROPOSED PILOT STUDY 7.1 Introduction The typical mine layout at the sites inspected comprises waste dumps sited around the open pit(s). The presence of steep unvegetated waste dump slopes and open pit excavations cause stability and safety concerns. The slopes have not been designed or constructed with restoration in mind and represent temporary works situation associated with the mining operations. With the closure of the mines, slopes may with time eventually revegetate and stabilise themselves, but otherwise in the years after closure the slopes represent a potential hazard to site users and nearby land owners, are visually intrusive, and are a potential source of air and water-bourne pollution.

Typically there are both engineering and environmental problems associated with the slopes. The stability of the slopes against rotational slippage is uncertain, and it is likely that many slopes lie at or close to limiting equilibrium and in a loose state of compaction. Surface erosion from run-off gives rise to slope instability and to environmental problems of siltation and impeded drainage of water courses. In addition, for some slopes there is also the problem of long term acid rock drainage generation due to the sulphide content of the materials, which impacts on the quality of surface and groundwaters in the vicinity of the mine site. In a general way, the risk of failure - and the associated environmental problems - is greater for waste dumps, which can impact on surrounding land, than for the open pit excavations, where failure is contained within the site confines.

Slope restoration methods are many and varied, and range from major projects involving hard engineering methods to soft engineering combined with landscaping and drainage measures. The appropriate restoration method for each site will also vary depending upon non-engineering factors such as ownership, planning and other site constraints which require the formation of an overall restoration strategy for each site.

The level of engineering works – intervention – at each site should be appropriate to the risk presented by the slopes. The level of intervention will increase for higher risk slopes where greater certainty is required over the long term stability of the engineering works, but the scope and cost of the works will also be greater.

Pilot studies can help with the selection of restoration options and it is considered that the most useful studies for the sulphide mines would be slope restoration trials on the waste dumps. Given the very large quantities of waste materials involved with the abandoned sulphide mine sites, it would be appropriate from economic and sustainability considerations, to set up trials that minimise the quantities of earthworks

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and civil engineering works, maximise the use of soft landscaping using local materials and available expertise and experience in country.

The additional potential constraints associated with land ownership and planning issues can also give rise delays and additional costs while access problems are resolved and permits obtained for the works. The adoption of restoration strategies at these sites that can either be contained within the site ownership boundary or at least cause minimal disruption to the surrounding land would help to expedite the restoration process. By keeping the engineering works to a minimum, it is also likely that the permitting and EIA process would be simplified.

Soft engineering approaches utilise bioengineering techniques, such as the placement of coir matting/logs to provide temporary stability, while introducing nutrients and appropriate seed mixes or planting to encourage regrowth of vegetation on slopes. Notwithstanding the need to minimise the earthworks quantities, it is clear that many slopes are too high and steep to support vegetation and some regarding works will be needed to find slopes that can be engineered to support regrowth, and benching for access.

The pilot study would be aimed at providing solutions for the low risk situation; the objective would be to maximise the use of on site or local materials and vegetation.

There would be an ongoing maintenance commitment associated with such an approach, so that die back and erosion problems in the short term can be rectified. With these problems in mind, it is proposed that the pilot project also include trials for reuse of acid mine drainage water that has accumulated in the base of the open pit. The trials would include the construction of a pilot water treatment facility on site it required following initial testwork, the construction of associated effluent disposal points, pipework for delivery of water to the slopes, and an irrigation system on the slope areas.

7.2 Case Study: Amiandos Asbestos Mine Restoration of the Amiandos asbestos mine provides a good case study for general mine restoration works in Cyprus. The restoration programme commenced in 1996 and includes stabilisation and reclamation of the debris as well as revegetation and reforestation. Priority was given to the piles of waste which could, under certain circumstances, impose dangers to the properties situated below the mine. The works are expected to be complete before the year 2015.

For reforestation purposes, 30 different species of plants are being used including, perennial herbs, shrub and trees. The seeds are collected from the surrounding

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forests in order to create mixed forest plant communities similar to the natural vegetation of the surrounding area. For reforestation, fertile soil shall need to be transported and laid (approximately one million cubic meters to cover the whole mine area). Works are to be funded by the annual state budget.

In addition to the reclamation works being carried out, the competent state services are considering future development of the mine area for recreation purposes, tourism and environmental education. These plans are expected to start development when reclamation works are nearly completed.

7.3 Proposed pilot study site - Kokkinopezoula mine It is proposed that the Kokkinopezoula mine is used as the site of the pilot study. The mine site scores the highest on the environmental ranking system and displays the range of problems commonly associated with the restoration of mine waste deposits on the other sites belonging to this study.

At the Kokkinopezoula site, there is a large open pit void surrounding by steep and unvegetated mine pyrite-bearing waste deposits (Figure 3). There are signs of instability in the slopes in the form of gullying and surface erosion, and acid mine drainage problems have been identified at the waste dumps and in the open pit. Land adjacent to the mine waste deposits comprises fields and a small drainage route on the eastern side of the site, and has been affected by surface run-off and sediment contamination. The visual impact on the surrounding land is severe.

The planning status is mixed; comprising ‘Protected Area Zone Z3’ across the northern half of the site, ‘Rural/Agricultural Zone L3’ across the southern half of the site and on land adjacent to the southern half, and ‘Residential Zone H2’ across land to the north-west and north-east of the site (Figure 31).

There are restrictions on access to the site due to army usage, and boundary constraints around the margins. According to the records, the land is largely in private ownership (Figure 46).

7.3.1 Pilot study aims and objectives

The study would be organised along the following lines: • Geotechnical slope stability and reforming of landscape. • Regeneration of a suitable soil profile for successful planting of trees/shrubs. • Remediation of acidic ground waters in the excavation void for reuse as irrigation.

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It is proposed that the aim of the pilot study should be to identify the optimum combinations of engineering and landscaping solutions that could be used to address these three controlling factors at the Kokkinopezoula waste dumps.

The objectives of the study would then be to carry out a selection of field trials to restore slopes of different slope angles and heights, using different soil profiles and irrigation systems. The time period for the study should extend for say two years to allow for the restored slopes to be monitored.

With mine closure, it is common to think in terms of approaches that involve ‘Active Care’ – where regular operations, monitoring and maintenance are required, ‘Passive care’ - where minimal monitoring and maintenance to non critical structures is undertaken, and ‘Walk away’ - where no additional monitoring or maintenance measures are needed. The objectives of closure may vary at different sites, and it would be beneficial to identify what category of closure is suited to the methods used in the restoration trials.

It would be appropriate to take into account the results of the work successfully completed at the Amiandos Asbestos mine, and the study should include a review of the techniques employed successfully on that site and an assessment of their usage on the Kokkinopezoula situation.

Phasing of the Pilot Study The pilot study comprises the following works, which have been phased in accordance with the procedure identified in Section 6:

Phase 1 • Water quality testwork and laboratory trials to reduce acidity for reuse of water on site in revegetation trials. • Slope investigations and laboratory testwork, involving the following tasks: • Design of investigations – limited to trial pitting for surface samples, laboratory testwork and monitoring installations. • Procurement of investigation works. • Site supervision of works. • Scheduling of laboratory testing. • Undertaking slope stability assessment and provision of recommendations for slope design work. • Production of factual and interpretative reports. • Procurement of additional topographic survey information, as required. • Further consultations with specialist subcontractors that provide bioengineering materials (geotextiles, seed mixes etc) regarding the suitability

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of their proprietary methods and products for use on the pilot study site, and the availability and cost implications of using these products in the pilot study programme. • Final selection of pilot study trial location, and production of preliminary method statements, outline designs and budget costings. • Initial consultations with regulatory bodies that can authorize the works, and negotiations/notifications as required with local inhabitants and owners of adjacent land, other interested parties (e.g. the Army). • Submission of planning or permitting applications to gain approvals for work, including EIA (optimise the scale of works to simplify approval process). • Detailed engineering design. • Ongoing monitoring of installations constructed by site investigations, including preparation of periodic reports on the results.

Phase 2 • Preparation of specifications, engineering drawings, and bill of quantities for the works. • Further negotiations with specialist contractors if required, and site visits with contractors interested in tendering for the works. • Tendering the works, involving selection contractors for tender list, and analysis of completed tenders, recommendations for client. • Construction of water treatment plant and effluent disposal facility. • Trial slope construction works, involving the following activities(subject to the results of site investigations): • Earthworks to form access to the pilot trial area. • Benching / Slope regarding / Ground improvement if needed. • Placement of geotextiles for erosion control and soil stabilisation. • Drainage construction. • Slope irrigation system • Procurement of local soil forming materials, nutrients and ameliorants to improve quality and promote growth. This could include locally won weathered pillow lavas or limestone waste from nearby quarries; weathered lavas are being used successfully at Peristerka-Pitharohoma Mine and limestone tailing are being used at Mitsero installations by Vasilico to reduce soil acidity. • Revegetation trials with appropriate bioengineering materials and seed mixes.

Phase 3 • Preparation of reports on the pilot study.

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7.3.2 Methodology Previous attempts to restore the mine waste deposits have only been partially effective in reducing gully erosion on the slopes. Revegetation of the slopes has similarly met with limited success, but there has been some success in revegetating natural slopes in the pillow lavas exposed in the open pit. It appears that past attempts at restoring the mine waste dump slopes has been hampered by boundary constraints, which prevent regrading of the slopes to a more stable angle that would permit revegetation.

It is considered that area of study could comprise the north-eastern slopes of the waste dump, and preferably along the east-facing slopes which are steep and constrained by land ownership at the toe, thereby presenting particularly challenging conditions for restoration.

Before any designs for remediation/regeneration are put forward, several important pieces of information are needed: • Geotechnical parameters of the mine waste materials and underlying natural strata. • Physico-chemical characteristics of waters and soils/spoil/rock including expected length of duration of ARD/AMD – it will be important to identify which data will be important. A minimum of 4 chemical data sets would be best, to build up a picture of contaminant behaviour/variability with time and to be statistically viable. • Identification of environmental goals regarding human health and ecological receptors, discharge standards, compliance points.

Once the baseline/background data have been collected, then possible solutions can be assessed on the basis of factual data rather than the qualitative visual assessments carried out for this study. The information will be used for the proper identification of applicable remediation/regeneration strategies.

Based on current information, the scope of work that is envisaged for the pilot study is discussed further in the following sections.

7.3.2.1 Geotechnical Slope Stability and Reforming of Landscape Factors controlling the stability of the mine waste slopes include the geomechanical properties of the mine waste materials and founding strata, as well as the groundwater pressures operating at the slope. These conditions will vary from site to site, and in some cases may require that more elaborate engineering interventions would be needed for stability. The geotechnical factors assessed by the pilot study would be those relevant for the assessment of restored slopes, which would extend

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to the near surface materials and proposed cover systems, but should take into account global factors at the specific locations of the tests.

The scope of site investigations will depend on the results of a site selection process. The pilot study areas should include slopes formed at different heights and slope angles, different benching configurations, and geotextile slope reinforcement and support systems. Accordingly it is envisaged that the investigations would comprise a combination of machine or hand dug trial excavations, and drilling equipment suitable to restricted access (such as windowless sampling rigs). Geomechanical properties would be determined by laboratory testing on samples or by in situ testwork. The laboratory tests on the waste materials and proposed cover soils would include tests to provide relevant index and shear strength parameters. Geochemical testing, for example into pozzalonic properties which could assist with stability, could also provide useful supporting information for the design of the pilot study.

The use of geotextiles in slope engineering is well established. The pilot study should include the use of low cost geotextile systems, such as coir logs for example, which protect the root systems in the short term against erosion and allow vegetation to become established. Coir logs comprise coir fibres packed into a tubular unit with preformed holes for planting, held in place by fixing pins. Some systems can be supplied with pre-planted seed mixes to suit the restoration requirements.

Greater security can also be provided for steeper slope sections systems by the construction of wrap around anchored slope faces. Geogrid reinforcement systems can be used to create stable steep slopes in conjunction with biodegradable wrap around matting at the face to support vegetation. Alternatively, gabion wall facing systems can be used in conjunction with geogrid reinforcement to form stable slopes.

7.3.2.2 Regeneration of a Suitable Soil Profile for Successful Planting of Trees/Shrubs From visual observation the soil appears to be very sulphidic and is therefore likely to be highly acidic. It would be necessary for the pilot study to identify the available resources are there in terms of alkalinity producing materials, for example lime, slag, paper crumb etc, that could be used for soil amelioration.

In terms of soil profile (re)generation then material would either need to be imported, so that the current surface could be capped then planted – this is likely to be expensive and difficult to source enough material – or a profile could be created using as much on-site material as possible (especially the non-sulphidic overburden), blended with an alkaline material (if available), plus some sort of composted material,

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which might include sewage sludge or alternative source of capping material. Weathered pillow lavas are usually present near to mine sites and many mines adjoin limestone country or in the case of the Mitsero mines limestone waste from nearby quarries could be made available.

If a soil profile could be successfully implemented in this manner, then this would have a benefit not only ecologically and through increased geotechnical stability, but also in reducing the potential for AMD generation by effectively capping off the sulphide generating source materials.

A pilot study should look at chemical and nutrient status, water holding capacity, bulk density and penetration resistance (and any relevant geotechnical tests) of on-site soil forming materials (SFMs), waste SFMs from off-site which would add alkalinity and possibly water holding capacity, plus an organic C amendment with nutrient availability at appropriate levels for the indigenous plants.

Obviously some knowledge of what planting would be appropriate is needed, and this is where the experience from the restoration of the site at the Amiandos Asbestos mine could benefit the study.

The next considerations would be the composition of blends of SFMs, the design of soil profile based on plant and geotechnical requirements, following which the design of the pilot trials, comprising (in triplicate for statistical significance) plots with different SFM blends plus different soil profiles, would be undertaken.

Some thought needs to be given to how, by what mechanical means, a soil profile would be put in place, as minimal compaction is required for plants to grow.

7.3.2.3 Remediation of Acidic Rock/Void Waters for Reuse as Irrigation The treatment of the water needs careful consideration given the arid/semi arid climate. Although there is evidence that the water quality is some of the pits may be acceptable (see Appendix 3) the water in many of the voids is most likely to be net acidic given the dark red colour indicating ochre precipitation (which generates proton acidity). It is likely to have a high metal content (redox state unknown), and possibly a high sulphate concentration. Evaporation is likely to concentrate the contaminants, so water quality may be worse than would otherwise be in a temperate climate.

Possible remediation strategies will depend on water chemistry, volume of water to treat, climate, amount of money available for treatment, perceived treatment

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duration, aftercare and maintenance requirements. It will be necessary to determine if the open pit water is in hydraulic connectivity with ground water.

One route for possible treatment is to use a passive treatment method as much as possible, but it is possible also that a hybrid system may be the optimum solution.

One possible idea for a pilot treatment system would be to pump the open pit void water up to a header tank, outside the confines of the mine void. Depending on the pH of the water, it may be necessary at this point to dose the water with alkali, which could be fed in with the water. The water would then be fed to a reactor vessel at a fixed flow rate.

The reactor vessel would contain a mixture of an organic carbon substrate (manure, compost) plus an alkali generating material (lime, slag, other locally sourced material).

The water should percolate through the substrate in the reactor vessel. Microbes (sulphate reducers) in the manure/compost will convert sulphate to sulphide, generating alkalinity in the process. Both Fe and SO42-/S2- would be removed from solution. Other metals will also be removed, through sulphide precipitation, cation exchange and adsorption to organic matter and any clay particles present in the substrate.

The water quality of the effluent water should be improved, with a raised pH, increased alkalinity and reduced metal content. At the final effluent the water could be used to irrigate the soil profile trial plots. It may be a good idea to store the remediated water in a tank prior to irrigation, as the water flow rate may be slow coming out of the reactors.

For a system like this to work, consideration will also need to be given to the head of water in the reactor vessel; a constant head should be maintained if possible.

There will need to be gas release valves on the vessels. The temperature will be warm resulting in increased rates of microbial activity. Since this remediation technique is anaerobic we can expect the generation of H2S (most of which will be converted to precipitated sulphides) and CH4 from methanogenic reactions. The feasibility of storing and reusing the gas for powering pump motors could be assessed, but in any event, gas venting will need to be frequent in the warm climate. It might be a good idea to shelter the vessels from direct sunlight; a simple open sided wooden shelter would suffice.

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The key advantages to piloting this type of system are:

• Reduced evaporation of water during treatment • Capital costs of setting up the pilot treatment system should be manageable – costs of plastic vessels, piping, pump and hosing, minimal earthworks, vessel shelter, alkali dosing, substrate materials. • Well constrained system – water chemistry, flow rate, temperature, reactive volume of material will be known or measurable.

7.3.3 Reporting The pilot study should end with the reporting stage that details the methods used and results obtained, and compares the effectiveness of the different approaches to restoration.

7.3.4 Policy and permits required for study to proceed Following discussions with the Client regarding the selection of the Kokkinopezoula mine for the pilot trials, it is understood that the open pit area is used as an army training base. It will be necessary to take into account any restrictions or precautionary measures required by the army as part of the pilot programme of works.

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8.0 CONCLUSION The twenty five abandoned mine sites are located across Cyprus in four main areas of Agrokipia Kambia, Kalavassos, and Limni, as well as in other isolated areas. The sulphide mines are found in ore bodies that occur in the Troodos Ophiolite sequence of Upper Cretaceous age. The ore bodies are complex structures and are very varied in size. They were mined for sulphur (from pyrite) and copper, although gold, silver and zinc were also worked but in much lesser quantities.

The sulphide deposits were largely mined by open pit methods in the latter half of the twentieth century, which has left a legacy of large open pits and extensive mine waste deposits comprising mainly overburden material and low grade ore. The ore was either processed on site or transported to separate installations, three of which (Mitsero, Vasiliko and Limni – Polis Chrysochous – installations) are included in this study, for processing, resulting in fine process waste being discarded in tailings lagoons.

Guidance on the restoration of abandoned mines is contained most recently in the EU reference documents of Best Available Techniques (BAT) for the management of mine waste. There are EU directories relevant to the study, such as the Environmental Impact Assessment, Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control, the Mine Waste, and the Water Framework directive.

The abandoned sulphide mines have mainly been left at closure in a derelict condition that, it is considered, would not comply with the aims of international best practice. Only one site (Mangaleni) has been completely restored and is now in use as a sports and equestrian recreation centre. On the remaining sites, programmes of revegetation and ditching have been instigated with varying degrees of success, and surface structures demolished or removed. On the whole, however the main mine components of open pits and waste dumps are still easily recognisable and the sites have yet to be restored.

The desk study researches and site inspection visits have been collated into a comprehensive database and plan record of the factors and criteria affecting the restoration of these sites. These findings are preliminary, and subject to restoration objectives at individual sites, should be supported by further tests and investigations. The collection of data in this manor complies with the requirements under EU Directives for individual member states to form inventories of abandoned mine sites.

According to EU Directives, there is also a requirement to identify more hazardous sites and provide emergency action plans. The Polis (Limni installations) site is considered to be potentially such a site, according to available information, and should be a priority restoration site. The problems at this site however, are not found at most of the other sites.

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Evaluation criteria have been complied in order to identify the sites which require priority actions by scoring the criteria for each site. The highest ranking site is Kokkinopezoula, where there are significant impacts from the large open pit and extensive waste dumps. This site has therefore been identified for a pilot restoration project.

A generic restoration programme methodology has been compiled. The scope of work required to restore any ore mine site will depend on the restoration objectives, such as future land usage, and the budget constraints, which are at present unknown. A phased approach is recommended however, as a matter of good practice. The methodology has been followed for the pilot study, the objectives of which are to carry out field trials to stabilise and revegetate waste dump slopes using a combination of methods.

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APPENDIX 1: MINES INCLUDED IN THE STUDY

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List of Mines included in the Study as defined by ToR

Name of the Area Company Method of extraction Time of Operation- Condition NICOSIA DISTRICT Mathiatis EME Surface 1965-1984 Kokkinopezoula EME Surface 1953-1966 Kokkinoyia EME Underground 1973-1979 Agrokipia A,B EME Surface/underground 1952-1971 Memi EME Surface 1954-1990 Alestos EME Surface 1971-1972 Kokkinonero EME Surface 1953-1960 Kapedes EME Surface 1955-1958 Shia EME Surface/underground 1950-1059 Peristerka- KM Surface 1970-1977 Pitharihoma Mitsero EME Installations 1950-to date Vretsia Maconda Surface 1988 LARNACA DISTRICT Troulli Berdy Surface 1955-1974 (in Buffer Zone) Kalavasos- EME Underground 1937-1976 Mousoulos Petra EME Underground 1953-1957 Vasiliko EME Installations 1937-1992 LIMASSOL DISTRICT Mavridia EME Surface 1971-1977 Mavri Sykia EME Surface/underground 1954-1977 Landaria EME Underground 1963-1964 Platies EME Surface 1955-1958 Mangaleni EME Surface 1976-1977 Restored PAPHOS DISTRICT Limni CSCC Surface 1937-1979 Kinousa CSCC Surface/underground 1952-1960 Evloimeni CSCC Surface 1970-1971 Polis Chrysochous CSCC Installations 1937-1979

CMC - Cyprus Mines Corporation

EME - Greek Mining Company

Berdy - Berdy Mining Company

CSCC - Cyprus Sulphur and Copper Corporation

Maconda - Maconda Mining Company

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APPENDIX 2: REFERENCES

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Geological Survey Department Publications BEAR (L. M.) – The Mineral Resources and Mining Industry of Cyprus. G.S.D. Bulletin No 1. Nicosia, 1963. BEAR (L. M.) – The Geology and Mineral Resources of the Akaki-Lythrodondha Area. G.S.D. Memoir No 3. Nicosia, 1960. Reprinted 1975. Pp. 97-99. CARR (J. M.), BEAR (L. M.) – The Geology and Mineral Resources of the Peristerona- Lagoudhera Area. G.S.D. Memoir No 2. Nicosia, 1960. Pp. 45-46. GASS (I. G.) – The Geology and Mineral Resources of the Dhali Area. G.S.D. Memoir No 4. Nicosia, 1960. Pp. 95-96, 101-102. GASS (I. G.) & al. – The Geology of the Southern Troodos Transform Fault Zone. G.S.D. Memoir No 9. Nicosia, 1994. Pp. 188-192. PANTAZIS (Th. M.) – The Geology and Mineral Resources of the Pharmakas-Kalavasos Area. G.S.D. Memoir No 8. Nicosia, 1967. Pp. 148-151. WILSON (R. A. M.), INGHAM (F. T.) – The Geology of the Xeros-Troodos Area. With an Account of the Mineral Resources. G.S.D. Memoir No 1. Nicosia, 1959. Reprinted 1971. XENOPHONTOS (C.), MALPAS (J. G.) – Field Excursion Guidebook. Symposium Troodos 87 Ophiolites and Oceanic Lithosphere. Nicosia, Cyprus, 4-10 October, 1987..

Unpublished reports held by the Geological Survey Department and reviewed in April 2008.

Limni Exploration Campaign, 18 th March 1965 to 18 th December 1965 (includes various small reports)

The Limni West Area – A brief report on the Geological Mapping by N.G. Adamides, B.Sc, F.G.S

Summary Report: Limni by the Consultant Geologist for the period May 1972 to January 1973

Cyprus Sulphur and Copper Company Limited Limni Mines – Cyprus – Uncle Charles

Cyprus Sulphur and Copper Company Limited – The Limni Orebody – An Interim Report By J. Gordon – Smith, B.Sc., A.R.S.M, A.M.I.M.M., Geologist to the Company

Cyprus Sulphur and Copper Company Limited – Geological Report on the Limni Opencast Mine By N.G. Adamides, B.Sc., Mining Geologist

Cyprus Sulphur and Copper Company Limited – Geological Report on the Limni Opencast Mine By D. L. Searle, M.Sc. (Lond.), Ph.D. (Lond.), F.R.G.S., F.G.S.

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United Nations Special Fund Project Groundwater and Mineral Resources Survey – The Project at Mavri, Kambia – F. M. Vokes, Mining Geologist

United Nations Special Fund Project Cyprus – Churn – Drilling at North Magounda, Limni Concession, Cyprus Sulphur and Copper Company Limited – Progress Report Mid – May 1964 – F.M. Vokes, Mining Geologist

Report on the Kokkinovounaros Surveys (A Geophysical Case History) by J.P Neophytou, M.A., M.Sc. (U.W.O.), A.G.U., S.E.G., A.G.I. Geophysicist (includes maps)

Report on Mavri, Kambia Area, Project No. 524 by Dr. K. Louca, M.Sc., (Hons), Ph.D., M.I.N.M. Field Exploration Geologist

The Geophysical Surveys of Kampia – Analiondas by J.P. Neophytou, M.A., M.Sc. (U.W.O.), A.G.U., S.E.G. A.G.I., Geophysicist

The Magnetic Surveys of Kalavasos – Asgata by J.P. Neophytou, M.A., M.Sc. (U.W.O.), A.G.U., S.E.G. A.G.I., Geophysicist

The Geology Of The Kalavasos Mining District By D.L. Searle, M.Sc. (Lond.), Ph.D. (Lond.), F.R.G.S., F.G.S. (U.N. Geologist) With Notes On The Underground Geology Of Mousoulos Orebody By G. Constantinou, D.I.C. (Geologist, Geological Survey Of Cyprus) (Mostly Maps)

Noranda Exploration (Cyprus) Ltd, Report On Alestos, Project No.522 By Dr. K. Louca, M.Sc., (Hons), Ph.D., M.I.M.M., January 1978

Memo, Orientation Survey – Kokkinoyia, 26 November 1979

United Nations Special Fund Project Groundwater And Mineral Resources Survey, The Geology And Mineralization Of The Agrokipia Area By D.L. Searle, Ph.D. (Lond.), (U.N. Geologist) – June 1965

Oligocene Miocene Biostratigraphy Of The Agrokipia Area (Kottaphi Hill) By Michael Mantis, Geologist – Micropalaentologist

Geophysical Report On The Agrokipia South Survey By J.P. Neophytou, M.A., M.Sc. (U.W.O.), A.G.U., S.E.G. A.G.I., Geophysicist

Frequency Domain Induced Polarization Surveys For The Unrfnre – Cyprus Project – In The Areas Of Mathiatis North, Strongyli – Sha, Chakilina – Pyros, Limni North, Double Seven,

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Magounda, Kinousa South, Larmou, North Vrecha And Ayios Kyriakos (Panayia) By S. Kramvis M.Sc. Geophysicist – Volume I + Volume Ii - March 1981 (Mostly Maps)

Description Of The Field Geology Of The Tamasos Mining Area (Agrokipia, Kinoyia, Kokkinopezoula) By D.L. Searle And G. Constantinou – May 1968

Report Of A Gravity Survey Of The Vrecha Prospecting Permit Area (Includes Maps)

Report On Vrecha – Project Numbers 541 And 542 By Dr. K. Louca And Mr. J. C. Coyne

Geological Report On Vrecha – Mala Property Paphos District By S. G. Themistocleous (B.Sc., M.Sc., Facc) Exploration Geologist - June 1983

Report On Vrecha Area Prospecting Permits 2822 And 2795 – Andreas Shathas, Geologist, May 1982

The Memi Mine

Preliminary Report On The Vrecha Mineral Prospect (Hephaestus Mining Company Limited) By D. L. Searle

Geophysical Report On The Troulli Prospects Around Ayios Neophytos By J.P. Neophytou, M.A., M.Sc. (U.W.O.), A.G.U., S.E.G. A.G.I., Geophysicist

Geology Of The Troulli Area, Cyprus By The Assistant Water Engineer Dr. David J. Burdon – Based On The Field – Work Carried Out In 1950 – 51, December 1951

Ministry Of Commerce & Industry Geological Survey Department – Ore Reserve Calculations Of Troulli Mine By A. Panayiotou – June 1969.

U.N. Special Fund Project – Groundwater And Mineral Resources Survey Cyprus – Ore Reserves Calculations – Troulli Area

Analysis Of The Economic Potential Of The Troulli Mine Cyprus, Checchi And Company, Washington D.C.

Kokkinopetra

Geophysical Report On The Turam Survey Of Gourdelorahos By J.P. Neophytou, M.A., M.Sc. (U.W.O.), A.G.U., S.E.G. A.G.I., Geophysicist, 1967 (Includes Maps)

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U.N. Special Fund Project Groundwater And Mineral Resources Survey Cyprus, The Gossan Area At Ayios Evtykhios, Sha. F.M. Vokes Mining Geologist

The Geology Of The Sha – Mathiati Area Part I. Regional Geology And N. Mathiati Mine By D. L. Searle & A. Panayiotou Part Ii. The Sha Mine By A. Panayiotou

Geophysical Report On Four Prospects Around Sha By J.P. Neophytou, M.A., M.Sc. (U.W.O.), A.G.U., S.E.G. A.G.I., Geophysicist (Includes Maps)

The Geophysical Surveys Of Armenokhorio By J.P. Neophytou, M.A., M.Sc. (U.W.O.), A.G.U., S.E.G. A.G.I., Geophysicist, 1968 (Includes Maps)

Noranda Exploration (Cyprus) Ltd. Report On Armenochorio Prospect Project Nos. 530, 531 By Dr. K. Louca, M.Sc. (Hons), Ph.D., M.I.M.M. Field Exploration Geologist, November 1977

Memo To File – Kokkinoyia Interstitial Sampling, May 1981 (Includes: Orientation Survey And Field Notes (Un)).

Memo – Orientation Survey – Kokkinoyia, November 1979

Troulli East

Strongyli – Gossans Sampling By A. Shathas, February 1981

Published documentation ADAMIDES, N.G. 1980. The form and environment of formation of the Kalavasos ore deposits - Cyprus. In: Panayiotou, A. (ed.), Ophiolites, Proc. Inter. Oph. Symp. Cyprus 1979. Cyprus Geol. Surv. Dept., 117—127. ADAMIDES, N.G. 1984. Cyprus volcanogenic suiphide deposits in relation to their environment of formation. Unpubi. Ph.D. thesis, University of Leicester, 383pp. ADAMIDES, N.G. 1987. Diverse modes of occurrences of Cyprus sulphide deposits and comparison with recent analogues. In: Robinson, P.T., Gibson, I.L. & Panayiotou, A. (eds), Cyprus Crustal Study Project Initial Report, Holes CY-2 and CY-2a. Geol. Surv. Canada, Paper 85—29.

Federal Republic of Germany, Statisiches Bundesant, Länderbericht Zypern, 1986 , Wiesbaden, 1986, 10 Moores and Vine, 1971 MacLeod (1988)

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Mousoulos (1957), Bear (1963), Gordon-Smith (unpublished report, 1963) Adamides N.G. 1987 Culls and Edge (1927) Searle V and Panayiotou A. 1966 Moores and Vine, 1971 Adamides, 1980 J. Francheteau, H.D et al 1979 Gass I.G. et al 1994 Herzig P.M. et al 2002 J Naden, RJ Herrington, SM Jowitt, FM McEvoy, JP Williamson, AJ Monhemius; 2006 A. Charalambides, M. Lisandrou and P. Kloze Bear, L.M. (1963, pp. 19-35 and pp. 36-104) Bagnall P.S. (1960, pp. 93-96), Bear, L.M. (1960, pp. 88-105) Bear, L.M. and Morel, S.W. (1960 pp. 47-50 and pp. 78-80), Carr, J.M. and Bear, L.M. (1960, pp. 43-46), Gass I.G. (1960, pp. 92-102), Pantazis, Th.M. (1967, pp. 141-159) and Wilson, R.A.M. and Ingham, F.T (1959, pp. 140-158).

A more detailed account of massive sulphide deposits in the southern Troodos Fault Zone is given by Gass, I.G. et al, (1994, pp. 187-197) and description and notes on an excursion to massive sulphide deposits given by Xenophontos, C. and Malpas J.G. (1987 pp. 87-113 and pp. 17-18). Reference Document on Best Available Techniques for the Management of Tailings and Waste-Rock in Mining Activities ” July 2004; European Commission Directorate General JRC Joint Research Centre) Gillies 1999 Krämer, 1997 LIFE Report National Inventory of Potential Sources of Soil Contamination in Cyprus

J Naden et al , RJ Herrington, SM Jowitt, FM McEvoy, JP Williamson, AJ Monhemius; British Geological Survey, 2006 Environmental Geology in some Mine Sites of Cyprus (1996) by Iwan Djuarsa. International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences (ITC), 58 pp.

Varnavas, S.P. (2000). Environmental impact of mining activities in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, in: Balopoulos, E.T. et al. (Ed.) (2000). International conference. Oceanography of the eastern Mediterranean and Black Sea. Similarities and differences of two interconnected basins, Zappeion international conference Centre, Athens, Greece, 23 to 26 February 1999. pp. 412-413.

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APPENDIX 3: STUDY FIELD CHECKLIST

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Abandoned Mines Study Field Checklist. ID and Co-ordinates Former operator's name, ownership status including the extent of license boundaries etc available from the Mines Service Type of mineral Site name History Location and access/road network General site description including estimation of despoiled areas, voids, mines dumps, slope stability etc Geology Description of void including height of faces, slope stability, area. Description of mine wastes and estimates of quantities, aerial extent etc Description of mine entries Landscape character and surrounding land uses Planning status and also that of surrounding land Visual impact Water impacts including run-off, erosion, contamination internal and external Air pollution Restoration and remediation Mining Heritage Other comments Data sources (bibliography) Personnel involved Date of survey

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

This section includes information gathered form the field inspections that took place in February and March 2008. In addition information on land-use planning zones (received from the Dept. of Town Planning and Housing) and ownership information (received from the GSD). The plans associated with the field inspections are presented in a separate booklet as Appendix 4.

1.1 Environmental Concerns

The areas of spoil have been characterised on the plans as contaminated material, uncontaminated material and tailings. Almost all the spoil was to some degree contaminated except for small volumes at Kokkinoyia, Kokkinonero and Kalavassos main mine site; these areas are marked on the maps and in the GIS submission. At Kokkinoyia and Kalavasos the identified uncontaminated spoil comprised of limestone overburden; a small volume of uncontaminated pillow lavas is found at Kokkinonero. There are patches of uncontaminated spoil at the Troulli site that appear to have arisen from the excavation of an access road cutting but they are contiguous with contaminated spoil and have not been separately identified.

At all other sites, with the exception of the restored Mangaleni site, the spoil surface exhibited varying quantities of pyrite. At none of the sites however could any of the spoil heaps be classified unambiguously as comprising low grade ore that could be identified separately and delineated on the maps. At two sites pyrite was notably abundant, albeit locally; these were Memi and Vretcha; this is noted on the maps and in the text below.

The various environmental concerns at each site are covered within the impact matrix table (Table 3) and the individual site descriptions below.

There are, however, three major problems associated with all the sites:

1. The steep unstable slopes on the spoil heaps gives rise to extensive surface scouring and sediment run-off; the sediment is in turn transported into the local streams or as sheet wash onto adjoining land. 2. The excessively acidic soils prevent natural re-colonisation of the spoil surface and hence prohibit soil stabilisation. 3. Acid mine drainage was observed as an issue at some of the sites but the lack of rainfall over recent years may have given the false impression that this is not a significant problem.

A potential after-use for each of the sites is discussed as appropriate and potential remediation/restoration measures are commented on or can be inferred. However to some degree potential remedial measures that might be adopted are common to all sites; almost all problems could be resolved by regrading the sites, dressing the

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surface with limestone (to reduce the acidity) and providing a cover of suitable soil making materials that would encourage plant growth. In almost all cases however, the cost implications arising from land acquisition and necessary regrading/earth moving make this solution prohibitively expensive. The primary purpose of the pilot study is to find appropriate and cost effective remediation measures that might then be applied to all sites. It is believed that the provision of any detailed remediation measures, arising from identified site specific environmental problems, would be premature.

1.2 Mining Heritage

With regard to mining heritage the majority of mine sites have little remaining to offer with the exception of the Kalavasos area and Kokkinoyia.

The Kalavasos area has examples of the various methods of mining that historically took place on Cyprus including large open pit, underground mine and glory hole. Some of the surface installations are still extant although few mine buildings remain. The area also has a variety of geology interesting features and exposures. The preservation of mining heritage at Kalavassos is being actively pursued by the local community, some restoration works have been undertaken and some of the former mine engines and other equipment saved. Several of the mines are identified on-site by small plaques.

The underground mine at Kokkinoyia was of particular interest a few years ago but the sites has been significantly degraded from a mining heritage viewpoint. The mine headgear is still present but parts of the structural steelwork have recently been removed in the winding shed and this may now be in a dangerous condition. The mine engines and tubs are no longer present and the switch gear has been removed. A previously-present large shed has been removed and others are now falling into disrepair. However the mine entries are still open and in particular the ventilation shaft seems to be in good repair.

Of potential interest is the processing plant at Mitsero currently in the hands of Vasilico. All the equipment previously used to process pyrite is still intact and capable of being reinstated if a new mineral reserve is discovered. If no new resource is found some of this equipment could be of future heritage interest.

Evidence of ancient mineral and smelting operations is present at several of the mine sites but no attempt was made to record these occurrences in detail; where they were noted mention is made of them in the text below or on the plans. Similarly many features of geological interest are to be found in the excavation and exposed areas associated with the mines although none were considered of outstanding geological merit. Features of interest are noted below but any attempt to describe or catalogue these in detail is believed to be outside of the scope of this project.

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1.3 Land Use Zoning Information

Land-use zoning information can be seen in the plans included in Appendix 4 together with the land-use zoning table listing the appropriate information for each zone. Land ownership information can also be seen in the plans included in Appendix 4.

It should be noted that the land ownership information received from GSD may not be up-to-date and could be partially inaccurate. The ownership information for each mine can only be finalised when the Department of Lands and Surveys officially provides the completed and updated information to the GSD.

1.4 The Mine Districts

The mines listed in this section are divided in districts and mining areas as follows:

NICOSIA DISTRICT

• Memi and Alestos Area : Memi and Alestos

• Agrokipia and Mitsero Area : Kokkinopezoula, Kokkinoyia, Agrokipia Open Pit, Agrokipia Underground Mine and Mitsero

• Kambia - Kapedhes Area : Kapedhes, Kokkinonero (Kambia), Peristerka- Pitharohoma, Mathiatis (with Stroggylo) and Sha (or Sia).

• Vretsia Area : Vretsia Mine

LARNACA AND LIMASSOL DISTRICT

• Kalavasos Mining Area : Mavridhia - Landaria, Platies, Petra, Mavri Sykia and Kalavasos – Mousoulos

• Troulli Area : Troulli Mine

• Vasiliko Area : Vasiliko Installations

• Armenohori – Pareklisia Area: Mangaleni Mine

PAPHOS DISTRICT

• Paphos Area : Kinousa Open Pit, Kinousa South Underground (Uncle Charles), Evloimeni, Limni and Polis Chrysochous.

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2.0 NICOSIA DISTRICT MINES

2.1 Memi and Alestos Area

2.1.1 Memi MIne

This is a large mine with a substantial void area and large contaminated spoils heaps.

The water in the void is of reasonable quality in-so-far as it supported reeds and ducks were also noted. There is a history of landslip and collapse of the void walls which historically has led to the loss of an adjoining minor road; this has now been reinstated.

The spoil heaps are locally high in pyrite giving rise to very low surface pH over much of the spoil heap area precluding natural vegetation regeneration. The spoil mounds are typically steep sided and subject to severe surface erosion and gullying further preventing natural regeneration. There is some local woodland regeneration on the more stable and slopes and those with lower contamination levels.

There are patches of uncontaminated spoil but the extent and proximity of contaminated spoil would make it impractical to separately identify these areas. The visual impact of the site is locally severe but distant views are limited.

The adjoining land use is predominantly agricultural, dominated by orchards, and with a number of scattered dwellings. The planning land-use designation of the mining site (as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside) consists of an Animal Husbandry Zone ( 1) which covers part of the mine and a Rural/Agricultural Zone (3) covering the rest of the mine area. Nature Protection Zones (Z1 and Z3) can be found south and west of the mine area respectively. The protection zone which is west of the mine area has been designated for the protection of a river/stream. Further south of the mine area, (around 500-700 m) there are the residential zones of the Xyliatou community. The Adelphi Forest is located 1 km south of the mine area. Development Planning Zones for the mine and the surrounding area can be seen in Figure 30.

The land ownership information for Memi Mine can be seen in the plans in Appendix 4. The plots taken up by the Memi site are generally private owned plots. Two government owned plots exist at the south and west borders of the site as well as a church owned plot located just west of the Memi spoil area. Ownership information for the mine and the surrounding area can be seen in Figure 45.

To reduce the effects of contaminated surface run-off onto agricultural land perimeter ditches have been constructed around parts of the spoil areas leading to settling ponds and/or sediment areas. The impact of AMD and sediment run-off could be further ameliorated by a more systematic and planned drainage of the site perimeter. There has also been significant earth moving around the mine area and within the

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spoil heaps as a result of recent improvement works to the local road network. This, however, has probably exacerbated the adverse environmental effect of the mine workings; no attempts seem to have been made to stabilise the cut slopes adjoining the refurbished roads.

A high sulphide content (locally very high) was noted in the spoil heaps but there was no evidence of any significant copper mineralisation; the potential for commercial reworking of the spoil heaps is therefore limited.

The restoration of the site would ideally be to agriculture, reflecting the adjoining dominant land use, although this is precluded by the steep side-slopes of the spoil mounds. To allow restoration of the spoil heaps, and hence reduce the impact of the contaminated run-of, side slope gradients would need to be reduced. This however would most likely lead to encroachment onto adjoining land that may be difficult or unacceptable to adjoining land owners.

Patches of ancient slag were noted in the south-west of the site but otherwise there was nothing observed on-site of historical or geological merit.

2.1.2 Alestos Mine

This is a small mine on a hilltop location with a water filled void and contaminated spoil heaps spread down steep hill sides. From a brief inspection, the water in the void would appear to be of reasonable quality although this would need to be confirmed. The spoil heaps to the north and east are contaminated. They are also steep sided and subject to surface erosion and gullying preventing natural regeneration. The spoil head to the north, within the forest area, has substantial covering of natural forest re-growth.

The mine working are visible from distant viewpoints but the modest site size reduces overall visual impact.

There are patches of uncontaminated spoil but the extent and proximity of contaminated spoil would make it impractical to separately identify these areas.

The planning land-use designation of the mining site (as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside) is mostly Animal Husbandry Zone ( 1). The north section of the mine and the north spoil heaps, lie within a general rural area not covered by any zoning. This area, although forest land does not have a forest land- use designation due to the fact that it is primarily private land. The Adelphi official forest is located around I km south of the mine area. The residential zone of the Ayios Georgios community is situated at around 500 m west of the mine area. Development Planning Zones for the mine and the surrounding area can be seen in Figure 30. Access to the site is poor along a steep, rough track.

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There is sediment run-off from the surface of the mine spoil but there are no other significant environmental effects arising from the workings apart from long distance visual intrusion of the mine spoil heaps. The restoration of the site would be back to forest and this is likely to happen naturally over the next few decades; it is doubtful whether any remedial works to speed up restoration could be usefully implemented. Nothing was noted on-site of historical merit or particular geological interest.

The land ownership information for Alestos Mine can be seen in the plans in Appendix 4. The plots taken up by the Alestos site are a mix of private owned and government owned plots as seen in Figure 45.

2.2 Mitsero and Agrokipia Area

The licensed mining area of the Mitsero and Aggrokipia Mines is quite large and includes a number of zones (as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside) including Protected Area Zones, Rural/Agricultural Area Zones and Residential Zones from the villages of Agrokipia and Mitsero. Field notes each of the mines and more detailed land-use zoning information are shown below.

2.2.1 Kokkinopezoula Mine

This is a large mine with a substantial void area and large contaminated spoils heaps.

The water in the void appears to be contaminated with a low pH. There is evidence of significant landslip and collapse of the void walls.

The spoil heaps are locally high in pyrite giving rise to very low pH surface soils precluding natural vegetation regeneration. The spoil mounds are typically steep sided and subject to severe surface erosion and gullying further preventing natural regeneration.

The visual impact of the site is severe both locally and also from some distant views. Access to the site is good from adjoining major roads.

The adjoining land use is predominantly agricultural with horticulture, orchards and general cultivation. There are a number of scattered nearby dwellings and the site is close to the village of Mitsero. The planning land-use designation (as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside) is Rural/Agricultural zone ( 3) and Protected Area Zone (Z3) designated to protect a green forest area. The spoil heaps of the mine adjoin the Residential Zone (H2) of Mitsero village which is located north east of the mine. Development Planning Zones for the mine and the surrounding area can be seen in Figure 31.

The land ownership information for Kokkinopezoula Mine and the surrounding area can be seen in the plans in Appendix 4. The plots taken up by the Kokkinopezoula site are generally private owned plots although a very small number of government

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owned plots also exist as can be seen in Figure 46. A plot with missing data exists just to the north west of the mine void.

There is evidence of considerable contaminated sediment run-off from the mine spoil heaps adversely affecting adjoining agricultural land and water courses. To reduce these effects perimeter ditches have been constructed around parts of the spoil areas, but these do not appear to be particularly effective and some immediately adjoining fields appear to have been abandoned. There has been an attempt to reduce gulley erosion on the spoil heaps, by excavating ditches following the contours of the slopes, but this would appear to have had a negative effect and exacerbated side slope erosion. Natural regeneration is occurring on areas of uncontaminated natural ground, for example on the pillow lavas exposed in the void walls. There has been some planting on the spoil mounds but with variable and generally limited success.

Locally high sulphide content was noted in the spoil heaps but there was no evidence of any significant copper mineralisation; the potential for commercial reworking of the spoil heaps is therefore thought to be unlikely.

It is proposed that this site is adopted as a pilot project to determine the most effective methods of mine restoration that could adopted at other sites on the Island. The restoration of the site would ideally be to some form of amenity use for the adjoining community. In order to allow restoration of the spoil heaps, and hence reduce the impact of the contaminated run-off, side slope gradients need to be reduced. This however would most likely lead to encroachment onto adjoining land that may be difficult or unacceptable to adjoining land owners. The site is used as a firing range by the Army and it is understood that this function would need to be retained.

Although evidence of ancient mining has been noted in the Mitsero area nothing was observed during the field study. The accessibility of the site and the general condition of the void makes it a good example of an open pit mine operation but otherwise there is little of historical merit remaining on the site.

Of geological interest is a good example of a landslip in the southern face of the void and there is a gossan area in the north face.

2.2.2 Kokkinoyia Mine

This is a medium-sized mine site with small void area and also underground mine installations, mine head gear and several mine entries. There are a number of relatively small, adjoining, contaminated spoils heaps and the land around the operations is also high in disseminated pyrite.

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The water in the void would appear to be seasonal and contaminated with AMD.

The contaminated spoil heaps are locally high in pyrite giving rise to very low pH surface soils over much of the spoil heap area precluding natural vegetation regeneration. They are typically steep sided and subject to severe surface erosion and gullying further preventing natural regeneration. There are mounds of uncontaminated spoil on the upper slopes of the mine site that are being re-colonised by adjoining scrub flora. Although there is some transport of sediment onto adjoining land the main environmental/ contamination problems are retained within the site confines.

The visual impact of the site is modest. The planting of trees, probably while the site was being operated, minimises visual impact from distant views and the site is not readily visible from nearby locations.

The adjoining land use is predominantly scrub which is used for grazing and a smallholding with goat enclosures adjoins the site to the north. The site is close to Mitsero and has good access via a track from the main road. There are a few isolated industrial units adjoining the access road to the site and a small number of dwellings in the surrounding area. There is informal rubbish tipping into the void. The planning land-use designation of the mine site (as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside) is primarily Animal Husbandry Zone ( 2). A small part of the south section of the site lies within Rural/Agricultural Zone ( 3). A Protected Area Zone (Z3) can be found approximately 300m north east from the mine. Development Planning Zones for the mine and the surrounding area can be seen in Figure 31.

The land ownership information for Kokkinoyia Mine and the surrounding area can be seen in the plans in Appendix 4. The plots taken up by the mine are a mix of private owned plots and government owned plots as can be seen in Figure 47.

A high sulphide content (locally very high) was noted in the spoil heaps and there was minor copper mineralisation although it is unlikely that there is any remaining mineral that would allow the re-working of the site

As discussed previously, the restoration of the site would, ideally, have been for heritage use as it was one of the few examples of underground mines in Cyprus where, until recently, the surface installations were still intact. However the original mine infrastructure is being removed and much of the original interest, such as underground engines compressors, generators and winding gear, has now gone or is in the process of being dismantled. Nothing was noted on site of archaeological interest.

The open pit is accessible and shows good exposures of the ore host-rock and the northern face shows the pillow lavas overlain by younger sediments although the face

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is very steep and inaccessible. The site is actively being used for waste disposal that will degrade its possible value as a geological exposure.

2.2.3 Agrokipia Mines

The Agrokipia mines now effect three separate areas. There is a large open pit and associated mine spoil mound between the towns of Mitsero and Agrokipia and also a nearby separate mine spoil heap arising from the underground Agrokipia mine. There are the remnants of surface entrance installations, to the Agrokipia underground mine, immediately to the north of Mitsero village.

The land ownership information for the Agrokipia Mines and the surrounding area can be seen in the plans in Appendix 4. The plots taken up by these mines are a mix of private owned plots and government owned plots as can be seen in Figure 48.

(a) Agrokipia Open Pit

The Agrokipia open pit mine has a substantial water-filled void and large contaminated spoils heaps. The water in the void is of reasonable quality in-so-far as it supports reed beds.

The spoil heaps are locally high in pyrite giving rise to very low pH surface soils over much of the spoil heap area precluding natural vegetation regeneration. The spoil mounds are typically steep sided and subject to locally severe surface erosion and gullying further preventing natural regeneration.

The visual impact of the site is locally severe and it is a prominent landscape feature in views from Agrokipia and associated approach roads.

The adjoining land use is agriculture and scrub land and there are a number of nearby dwellings. The planning land-use designation (as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside) is mostly Rural/Agricultural zone ( 3). On the south side of the mine installations, the mine spoils overlap the Residential Zone (H4) of the village of Agrokipia. Development Planning Zones for the mine and the surrounding area can be seen in Figure 32.

There is evidence of significant surface wash of sediment into adjoining agricultural areas to the east. To reduce these effects perimeter ditches have been constructed around parts of the spoil areas and these could be enhanced to further mitigate the effects of contaminated sediment run-off. There is also a current restoration project and there has been tree planting on the top and sides of the main spoil mound. There also appear to be some experimental areas where different tree and shrub species are being trialled.

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The restoration of the site to amenity/public access use would appear to be in hand and presumably the preferred future use of the site.

A high sulphide content (locally very high) was noted in the spoil heaps but there was no evidence of any significant copper mineralisation; the potential for commercial reworking of the spoil heaps is therefore limited.

(b) Agrokipia Underground Mine

The spoil heap from the underground mine is located to the north of the open pit; the mine entrance in no longer evident. The spoil heap is located within predominantly limestone scrub-land with lower pillow lave scrub and fields to the east. It appears to have been historically regraded and there is little natural regeneration of the surface or side slopes. The heap is locally high in pyrite giving rise to very low pH surface soils precluding natural vegetation regeneration. The spoil mounds are steep sided and subject to locally severe surface erosion and gullying further preventing natural regeneration. The upper surface of the mound is also subject to significant erosion and gullying.

A high sulphide content (locally very high) was noted in the spoil heaps but there was no evidence of any significant copper mineralisation; the potential for commercial reworking of the spoil heaps is therefore limited.

The preferred restoration of the site to would be to absorb the site into the adjoining scrub land. However the contrasting substrates are likely to make this option difficult to achieve. Soils on the adjoining limestone are very thin and vegetation is sparse. There is the potential to dress the mine spoil with limestone from adjoining land, to raise the pH and promote natural plant growth, but this may in its self be damaging to the landscape. Planting on the spoil mound will be limited by the free draining nature of adjoining land and the availability of water for irrigation.

West of the underground mine are the remnants of an old gold processing plant. The entrance to the underground mine is to be found on the north part of the site. The concrete structures have been demolished and only the foundations remain. The mine entrance is no longer visible. There are small quantities of heavily contaminated mine spoil down-slope from the former installation and these have a very high pyrite content. Adjoining land-use is scrub and in the valley bottom is cultivated. The impact of the site is small but there is some contaminated run-off onto adjoining land. To reduce the impact of the high level of pyrite the surface could be dressed with fragmented limestone that is locally available.

The planning land-use designation (as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside) is Rural/Agricultural zone ( 3). To the west of the mine is a Protected

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Zone Area ( 3) designated to protect a tributary from the River Serraghis which flows through Mitsero Village located to the south of the mine. Development Planning Zones for the mine and the surrounding area can be seen in Figure 32.

There was nothing observed on any of the Agrokipia workings of historical or geological merit.

2.2.4 Mitsero Installation

This site is currently occupied by Vasilico and therefore is not strictly abandoned or derelict. Vasilico utilise the existing mine settling lagoon for process water and settling out of limestone fines from the processing plant. The former settling lagoon surfaces are used for storage and bentonite processing.

There has been historic break-outs from the tailings lagoons and this has to be considered as a future hazard as the lagoon is still in use. There is considerable AMD contaminated run-off from the former stock piles of pyrite into nearby streams. The walls of the tailings dams are subject to significant and locally severe surface erosion and transport of sediment onto adjoining land.

Control of the existing facilities and the future use and restoration of the site would have to be discussed between the current owners and the appropriate government departments. The potential environmental hazards at the site are significant and could give rise to serious environmental damage. However since the site is operational and the operator is aware of the site circumstances any further observations are believed to be outside the scope of this study.

The planning land-use designation (as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside) is Rural/Agricultural zone ( 3) to the north of the site and Quarry Zone ( ) to the south. Protected Area Zones (Z3) also exist within the license area designated to protect river streams located within the license area. The mine installation and spoils adjoin a Rural Area without Zoning to the west of the site. Development Planning Zones for the mine and the surrounding area can be seen in Figure 33.

The land ownership information for Mitsero Mine and the surrounding area can be seen in the plans in Appendix 4. The plots taken up by the mine are government owned plots as can be seen in Figure 49.

As mentioned previously the equipment previously used for the processing of ore is still present in the Mitsero Installations workshops. It is understood to be in working order and could be reinstated should a new resource of economic ore be found on the Island. It could be considered as of value as a feature of modern mining heritage.

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2.3 Kambia-Kapedhes Area

2.3.1 Kokkinonero (Kambia) Mine

This is a large mine with a substantial void area and large contaminated spoils heaps.

The void is water filled but inaccessible; no comment is offered on water quality.

The spoil heaps are locally high in pyrite giving rise to very low surface pH over much of the spoil heap area precluding natural vegetation regeneration. The spoil mounds are typically steep sided and subject to severe surface erosion and gullying further preventing natural regeneration. There is significant transport of sediment into the streams particularly in the south-east where there has been some attempts to reduce its impact on adjoining fields. There is some surface regeneration on the spoil heap to the south-west of the void. Elsewhere surface regeneration is sparse.

The visual impact of the site is locally severe but distant views are limited and it is not close to major roads.

The adjoining land use is predominantly agricultural, dominated by fields and also some orchards; there are areas of scrub to the north west of the void and to the south. There are a small number of scattered dwellings in the vicinity. The planning land-use designation (as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside) covering the mine area consists of an Animal Husbandry Zone ( 1) and a Rural Agricultural zone ( 3). Within the mining lease area and east of the mine there is also a Rural Area with no designated zone. Development Planning Zones for the mine and the surrounding area can be seen in Figure 34.

The land ownership information for Kokkinonero Mine and the surrounding area can be seen in the plans in Appendix 4. The plots taken up by the mine are private owned plots. A small number of government owned plots exist in the surrounding area as can be seen in Figure 50.

A high sulphide content was noted in the spoil heaps but there was no evidence of any significant copper mineralisation; the potential for commercial reworking of the spoil heaps is therefore limited.

The restoration of some of the more subdued spoil heaps could be to agriculture reflecting the adjoining dominant land use; this could be achieved by regrading and a surface covering of uncontaminated soils or weathered sub-soils that may be locally available. The steep side-slopes of the large spoil mounds limits the restoration options . To allow restoration of the spoil heaps, and hence reduce the impact of the contaminated run-of, side slope gradients would need to be reduced. This however would most likely lead to encroachment onto adjoining land that may be difficult or unacceptable to adjoining land owners. Restoration would be to agriculture, woodland or scrub. The evident run-off of contaminated sediment into local watercourses could

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be more effectively controlled by the increased use of perimeter ditches and settling ponds.

There was nothing of historic or geological merit noted on the site.

2.3.2 Kapedhes Mine

This is a small site to the north-east of the village of Kapedhes. There is a water filled void that appears to be contaminated with AMD and also with waste that is being deposited in the void.

The spoil heaps are locally high in pyrite giving rise to very low pH surface soils over much of the spoil heap area precluding natural vegetation regeneration. The spoil mounds are typically steep sided and subject to severe surface erosion and gullying further preventing natural regeneration. There is locally severe gullying and run-off of sediment into the adjoining stream. There are areas of uncontaminated spoil to the north of the main spoil heap.

The site is located within a steep sided valley and visual impact is small with limited distant views.

The adjoining land use is woodland and cultivation on terraced valley slopes. There are a small number of scattered dwellings nearby. The planning land-use designation (as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside) for the mine site is Rural/Agricultural zone ( 3). Approximately 500m south of the mine site, the land use designation includes Residential Zones (H1, H2, H3 and H5) from Kapedhes village and a Protected Area Zone (Z1). Development Planning Zones for the mine and the surrounding area can be seen in Figure 34.

The land ownership information for Kapedhes Mine and the surrounding area can be seen in the plans in Appendix 4. The plots taken up by the mine are a mix of private owned plots and government owned plots as can be seen in Figure 51.

Pyrite was not observed on the surface of the spoil heaps, although the lack of vegetation would indicate that the pH is low, and there was no evidence of any significant copper mineralisation.

The site is currently in use as a waste tip and restoration of the site by waste infill is an option. Otherwise restoration to forest would probably be the preferred option. To allow restoration of the spoil heaps, and hence reduce the impact of the contaminated run-of, side slope gradients would need to be reduced and this could be achieved by remodelling the site although there would be necessarily an encroachment onto adjoining land that may be unacceptable. There is some uncontaminated spoil that could be utilised for surface dressing of contaminated materials.

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There is an ancillary spoil tip on the valley some 300 metres to the north of the mine. It is subject to severe gully erosion and there is sediment run-off into the adjoining stream. Natural regrowth on the spoil surface is minimal suggesting a low pH. There is evident and substantial sediment run-off from both sites into the local watercourse. This could be controlled by the used of perimeter ditches and settling ponds although the topography would make this difficult particularly in regard to the small ancillary site to the north.

The site is adjoined by agriculture land, scrub-land and forest. Restoration options are limited however by access and topography but the site is relatively small.

There is a small area of oxidised rock in the centre of the site that may represent an original gossan although it is difficult to determine to what extent the material is in situ. No other historic or geological features of interest were noted.

2.3.3 Peristerka-Pitharohoma Mine

This is a large mine with a substantial void area and large contaminated spoils heaps. The site is in private ownership and is secure and with access by permission only. It is being developed as a hotel and leisure/holiday complex.

The water in the void is of reasonable quality in-so-far as it supported reeds and ducks have been introduced to the site.

In the Pitharohoma area (on the west part of the site) the spoil heaps are locally high in pyrite giving rise to very low surface pH and precluding natural vegetation regeneration. The small void contains AMD.

Restoration on the Peristerka area (east part of the site) has obscured any evidence of pyrite within the spoil. The spoil mounds on the main spoil heap to the north of the void are typically steep sided and subject to severe surface erosion and gullying preventing natural regeneration. There is sediment run-off into the adjoining stream. There is some minor natural woodland regeneration. The visual impact of the main spoil heap is locally severe but the site is relatively remote.

The adjoining land-use is forest to the south and predominantly scrub to the north with scattered pockets of cultivation. There are a number of dwellings on the approach road. The planning land-use designation of the mining site (as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside) is predominantly Rural/Agricultural Zone ( 3) with small areas of Protected Area Zone (Z3) to the east of the site. An Animal Husbandry Zone ( 1) is located approximately 300m south of the site. Development Planning Zones for the mine and the surrounding area can be seen in Figure 34.

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The land ownership information for Peristerka-Pitharohoma Mine and the surrounding area can be seen in the plans in Appendix 4. The plots taken up by the mine are predominantly private owned plots with a few sparse government owned plots as can be seen in Figure 52. The private land to the east of the mine is due to the location of the river. There is missing data to the north of the site which will be completed as soon as this information is received from the Land Surveys Department.

The current owner has embarked on an ambitious programme of restoration and redevelopment and has already constructed a modest holiday apartment complex. His restoration procedures for the mine spoil areas have been low-cost and effective. Where practical there has been some relocation or regrading of the mine spoil. The surface is then covered with about 0.5 metres of excavated weathered pillow lavas excavated from adjoining ground. This is then planted with a variety of trees and shrubs which are irrigated. The losses are low and the plant growth would appear to be good.

No historic or geological features were noted in regard to the mine operations but a small diabase quarry is of note to the south.

2.3.4 Mathiatis Mine

This is a large mine with a substantial void area and large contaminated spoils heaps.

The water in the void is of reasonable quality and it understood to have been utilised for the irrigation of adjoining fields.

The spoil heaps are locally high in pyrite giving rise to very low surface pH precluding natural vegetation regeneration. This is notable in the area between the void and the main spoil mounds and on the north facing slopes of the void. The spoil mounds are typically steep sided and subject to severe surface erosion and gullying preventing natural regeneration particularly to the south and east. There is considerable woodland regeneration on the top of the mine spoil heaps and the more stable slopes particularly those to the north. There are also patches of uncontaminated spoil but the extent and proximity of contaminated spoil would make it impractical to separately identify these areas. There is evidence of contaminated sediment washing off onto adjoining agricultural land although it does not appear to be causing significant environmental problems. Most environmental problems are within the confines of the site.

The visual impact of the site is locally severe and the site is prominent from the town of Mathiatis to the north.

The adjoining land use is predominantly agricultural, dominated by olive groves and field and with a number of scattered dwellings. The planning land-use designation for the mine (as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside) is

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Rural/Agricultural Zone ( 3). The land use designation for the licensed area for the mine is Rural/Agricultural Zone ( 3) and Husbandry Zone ( 1) located to the south east of the licensed area and adjoining the spoil mounds. Development Planning Zones for the mine and the surrounding area can be seen in Figure 35.

The land ownership information for Mathiatis Mine and the surrounding area can be seen in the plans in Appendix 4. The plots taken up by the mine are predominantly private owned plots with a few sparse government owned plots as can be seen in Figure 53.

The town of Mathiatis is close to the north.

Locally high sulphide content was noted but there was no evidence of any significant copper mineralisation; the potential for commercial reworking of the spoil heaps is therefore limited.

There are two electricity pylons constructed on the mine spoil heaps that limit the potential for any remedial earthworks although the eastern side of the spoil mound would benefit from regrading and slope reduction and the adjoining land is scrub or of low agricultural value. Woodland would be the obvious future land use for the site. The site has been used for army training.

Nothing of particularly historic of geological merit was noted on site.

2.3.5 Sha (or Sia) Mine

Access to the site was not possible at the time of survey as it was in use by the army. Comments are therefore based on previous visits to the site.

This is a large mine with a substantial void area and large contaminated spoil heaps. The water in the void is of uncertain quality but appear to be highly acidic.

The spoil mounds are typically steep sided and subject to surface erosion and gullying further natural regeneration. It is assumed that there is a low surface pH. There is some local woodland regeneration but most of the spoil area are barren.

The visual impact of the site is locally severe and spoil mounds adjoin the main road to the north.

There is a subsidiary area of mine spoil to the south of the main site and adjoining the Sha diabase quarry operations. Its surface is barren and there is evidence of significant sediment run-off into the adjoining stream.

There is evident and substantial sediment run-off onto adjoining land and into the local watercourse. This could be controlled by the used of perimeter ditches and settling ponds. Topography and volumes of water in the stream would make this difficult in regard to the small ancillary site to the south where specific solutions would

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need to be considered that are outside of the scope of this study. There could also be a contribution to the sediment load by the adjoining diabase quarry.

The adjoining land uses are forest to the north and west and orchards and fields to the south. The area is used regularly as a training ground by the army. The planning land-use designation of the mine (as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside) is Rural/Agricultural Zone ( 3). The licence area is mainly Rural/Agricultural Zone ( 3) with a small section of Animal Husbandry ( 1) at the north east section of the licensed area. The mine spoil to the south of the licensed area adjoins a Quarry Zone ( ) which is located outside the designated licensed area. Development Planning Zones for the mine and the surrounding area can be seen in Figure 36.

The land ownership information for Sia Mine and the surrounding area can be seen in the plans in Appendix 4. The plots taken up by the mine are predominantly private owned plots although a government owned plot adjoins the site area to the north as can be seen in Figure 54. The east mine installations are also on private owned land. The surrounding area is made up of a mix of private and government owned plots although a single plot with missing data exists south east of the site.

The restoration of the site would appropriately be to forest and or amenity. It is presumed that for the immediate future it will be retained as a formal army training area.

2.4 Vretsia Area

2.4.1 Vretsia Mine

This is a medium size mine with a modest void area and associated contaminated spoils heaps.

The water in the void is of reasonable quality in-so-far as it supported reeds. There is evident landslip and collapse of the void walls .

The spoil heaps are high in pyrite (locally very high) giving rise to very low surface pH over much of the spoil heap area precluding natural vegetation regeneration. The spoil mounds are typically steep sided and subject to severe surface erosion and gullying further preventing natural regeneration. There is substantial run-off of sediment into the stream to the south of the site.

The site, although within the Nicosia District, is within the Paphos Forest as seen in Figure 55 in the plans in Appendix 4. and there is woodland regeneration on the more stable slopes and those with lower contamination levels. The visual impact of the site is low due to its location within the forest and its difficulty of access. The planning land-use designation (as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside)

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is a Protected Area ( .) designated for Paphos forest. Development Planning Zones for the mine and the surrounding area can be seen in Figure 37.

High sulphide content was noted in the spoil heaps but there was no evidence of any significant copper mineralisation. The site was close abruptly when sales of pyrite collapsed and there are stocks small piles of processed pyrite remaining on site; however the potential for commercial reworking of the spoil heaps or remaining mineral is limited as the majority of reserves have been won and the site is remote and has a poor access.

The site is likely to regenerate naturally and become absorbed into the adjoining forest.

There is evident and substantial sediment run-off onto adjoining land and into the local watercourse. This could be controlled by the use of perimeter ditches and settling ponds. However, bearing in mind its remote location it is doubtful whether such remedial works could be justified.

Although the area has a history of ancient mining, none was noted on site. There were no observed features of particular geological merit or examples of recent mining heritage.

3.0 LARNACA AND LIMASSOL DISTRICT MINES

3.1 Kalavassos Mining District

Kalavasos mining district consist of Mavridhia - Landaria, Platies, Petra, Mavri Sykia and Kalavasos – Mousoulos. The licensed area which incorporates these mines has the following land use planning designation (as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside): Protected Area Zone (Z3) (forest area) to the north of the licensed area and Rural/Agricultural Zone ( 3). To the east of the licensed area the zones have been designated as Protected Area Zones (Z1 and Z2). Small areas of Residential Zones (H4) from Asgata village are also located within the licensed area as well as a small section of a Protected Zone (H4) on the south boundary of the licensed area. Development Planning Zones for the mine and the surrounding area can be seen in Figure 38.

On the west part of the licensed area, surrounding Platies Mine, there is a circular area designated as Protected Areas (Z1, Z2 and Z3), likely to be an army base. The Statement of Policy for the Countryside also labels this area as A (internal circle) and B (external circle) and states that for circular area (A & B) any proposed development can only be developed after the approval of the Director of the Ministry of Defence. Additionally, for the area A (internal circle) a relevant fire safety license must be granted by the Fire Department.

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The land ownership information for the Kalavasos Area can be seen in the plans in Appendix 4. The plots in this area and therefore the plots taken up by the mine sites in this area are a mix of private and government owned land as can be seen in Figure 56.

3.1.1 Mavridhia and Landaria MInes

There are three operations that appear to have been located about 1 km to the south of the Kalavassos dam. They are the Mavridhia open pit and underground mines and the Landaria underground mine. The site is regularly used by the army for training and a shooting range has been constructed on land adjoining the mine and close to the former mine entrance.

The Landaria vertical mine shaft and the Mavridhia inclined mine entry have little impact on the environment although there are safety issues as both are open and accessible. Any mine spoil arising from these mines is not distinguished from mine spoil arising from the open pit.

The Mavridhia open pit is is a large mine with a substantial void area and large contaminated spoils heaps. The void is excavated into the hill side and is dry. There is evidence of significant landslip and collapse of the void walls.

The spoil heaps are locally high in pyrite giving rise to very low surface pH over much of the spoil heap area precluding natural vegetation regeneration. The spoil mounds are typically steep sided and subject to severe surface erosion and gullying further preventing natural regeneration. There is some local woodland regeneration on the more stable and slopes and those with lower contamination levels.

There are areas of uncontaminated spoil comprising mainly calcareous/limestone overburden located in the south-east of the void; parts of these areas have been restored as fields. The visual impact of the site is locally severe but distant views are limited.

The adjoining land use is predominantly scrub with some low grade agricultural land. The planning land-use designation of the mine (as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside) is Rural Agricultural Zone ( 3). The mine also adjoins the forest area to the north (Protected Area Zone Z3). The area generally is also used by the army.

Locally high sulphide content was noted in the spoil heaps but there was no evidence of any significant copper mineralisation; the potential for commercial reworking of the spoil heaps is therefore limited.

The site is likely to form part of the heritage conservation scheme being implemented by the local community. They is also the the established use by the army which is likely to be retained.

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3.1.2 Platies

Platies is a small mine operated as a “Glory Hole”.

Mine entrance is still accessible where there is a small quantity of mine spoil. The mine spoil heap adjoins fields and some run-off is noted into the stream and the fields. The collapsed “Glory Hole” to the north of the mine entrance adjoins a military facility.

The environmental risks associated with Platies are small. The Glory Hole might be considered as danger as it is unfenced and has steep and unstable faces; some security is however provided by the proximity of the military property. The mine spoil heaps could be regraded will little effort although it is anticipated that the site may be included in the mining heritage project. The planning land-use designation of the mine (as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside) is Protected Area Zone (Z1, Z2 & Z3). Any proposed development on this area is likely to require special licences from the Ministry of Defence and the Fire Department.

3.1.3 Petra

Petra is a small underground mine close to the road between Kalavassos village and the Kalavassos dam. Trees are beginning to become established on the spoil heaps near to the mine entrance. There is a large collapse area 100 metres to the west of the mine entrance. No restoration measures are proposed except in-so-far as the area is being developed as a mining heritage site. The collapse structure could be considered as a risk but it is not easy to access. The planning land-use designation of the mine (as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside) is Protected Area Zone (Z3) although it also adjoins Protected Area (Z1) to the south.

3.1.4 Mavri Sykia

The Mavri Sykia pit is occupied by the army and building and barracks have been constructed on the site of the mine. The road serving the area is constructed along the perimeter of the former mine spoil heap.

The Mavri Sykia underground mine is located to the north of the army barracks. It comprises a small mine spoil tip which carried a railway from the mine entrance to a small, now derelict, loading gantry. The former mine entrance has collapse but AMD is issuing from the ground. There is a small sign identifying the mine and it is presumed that it will form part of the mining heritage restoration project. The planning land-use designation of the mine (as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside) is Protected Area (Z3) on the north part of the mine and Rural/Agricultural Zone ( 3) on the south part of the mine.

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3.1.5 Kalavassos - Mousoulos

The Kalavassos Mousoulos mine entrance is being restored by the community as part of a mining heritage programme. The mining infrastructure, including railway and loading bays, are in the process of refurbishment. The planning land-use designation of the mine (as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside) is Protected Area (Z3).

Environmental problems associated with the Kalavassos area do not appear to be severe considering the levels of historic mining activity. AMD from some of the underground mines is noted but does not appear to be causing significant problems. The AMD drainage from the entrance to the Mousoulos mine, that was contaminating the adjoining stream, is being controlled to some extent as part of the restoration programme by the local community and does not appear to be as severe as on previous visits although this could be a result of low rainfall over the past few years. There is some minor sediment run-off from the spoil heaps associated with other mines but much of the adjoining land is scrub where the impact does not appear to be consequential.

The area has probably the best potential for conservation of ancient and modern mining heritage now that the Kokkinoyia site is in the process of being dismantled.

The Kalavassos area has examples of the various methods of mining that historically took place on Cyprus including a large open pit, an underground mine and glory hole. Some of the surface installations are still extant although few mine buildings remain. The area also has a variety of geologically interesting features and exposures. This is recognised by the local community who are actively promoting the area and endeavouring to retain and reinstate some of the more interesting artefacts. Some restoration works have been undertaken and some of the former mine engines and other equipment saved. Several of the mines are identified on-site by small plaques. There is evidence of ancient operations in the form of numerous slag heaps; the detailed appraisal of these is outside of the scope of this study.

3.2 Troulli Area

3.2.1 Troulli Mine

Troulli is a medium size mine located within the buffer zone. There is a small water filled void and areas of contaminated spoils heaps. There is also a former tailings lagoon.

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The water in the void is of uncertain quality. The spoil heaps are locally high in pyrite giving rise to very low surface pH over much of the spoil heap area precluding natural vegetation regeneration. The spoil mounds are typically steep sided and subject to severe surface erosion and gullying further preventing natural regeneration. There is some local scrub regeneration on the tops and slopes with lower contamination levels notably in the north of the site where there are mounds of relatively uncontaminated spoil. The tailing dam is barren and still retains water after rain. The visual impact of the site is modest.

The immediate adjoining land is scrub with predominantly agricultural land beyond dominated by fields with olive trees. There is a new housing development close to the site to the south west. The planning land-use designation of the mine (as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside) is Rural/Agricultural Zone ( 3). The area covered by the mining lease consists mainly of Rural/Agricultural Zone ( 3), an nimal usbandry one ( 1) to the south west of Troulli Village and an Industrial Workshop one ( 1) approximately 3km south of the mine. There are also two small Protected Area Zones (Z4), one located approximately 2km south of Troulli Village and one just to the west of the Troulli residential area. The residential zones of Troulli village (H1, H2 & H3) also lie just to the west of Troulli mine. Residential Zone H3 is located at a very short distance from the Troulli Mine (<100m). Development Planning Zones for the mine and the surrounding area can be seen in Figure 39.

The land ownership information for Troulli Mine and the surrounding area can be seen in the plans in Appendix 4. The plots in the area are a combination of private and government owned plots as can be seen in Figure 57.

A local high sulphide content was noted in the spoil heaps but there was no evidence of any significant copper mineralisation; the potential for commercial reworking of the spoil heaps is therefore limited. It is understood that the mine closed because it was uneconomic.

The site was originally located within an area of scrub and it will naturally revert to this over time. The tailing lagoon is small and unlikely to cause any significant threat; there are no nearby dwellings although there is a building close to and below the tailings dam. There is evidence of surface run-off of sediment onto adjoining land, particularly from the tailing dam and operational area to the east but this does not appear to be causing any significant problems. There is little opportunity at present to undertake any remedial works as the site is within the buffer zone.

There were no features of particular geological merit or examples of recent mining heritage worthy of note.

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3.3 Vasiliko Area

3.3.1 Vasiliko Installations

The former installations at Vasiliko are now derelict. The primary crusher, ball mills, thickener tanks etc. have been removed and only the concrete foundations remain. The site processed pyrite from the underground mines, prior to dispatch overseas, and there was little waste. The small settling lagoon that was on the site has now been incorporated into adjoining fields and is largely overgrown. There is some AMD issuing from pipework that is set into the concrete foundations. The site is part of the larger industrial area of the Vasiliko Cement Works and other industries and is generally secure. It is likely that it will be developed incorporated into the adjoining industrial area.

The planning land-use designation of the mine (as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside) is Industrial Zone (B2). The surrounding mining lease area includes Industrial Zoning (B2) to the west with Rural/ Agricultural Zone ( 3) to the east. A Protected Zone (Z3) area located east of the mine has been designated for the protection of the Vasilikos River which flows into the sea approximately 400m east of the mine. Development Planning Zones for the mine and the surrounding area can be seen in Figure 40.

The land ownership information for the Vasiliko Installations and the surrounding area can be seen in the plans in Appendix 4. The plots taken up by the mine are predominantly private owned plots although a narrow strip of private owned land exists at the south of the site as can be seen in Figure 58.

3.4 Armenohori – Pareklishia Area

3.4.1 Mangaleni Mine

The former Mangaleni mine is now restored to a sports and equestrian recreation centre. Apart from the evident mine void the site is hardly recognisable as a mine site. The methods use in the restoration of the site might well be instructive for the restoration of other mine sites. The planning land-use designation of the mining site (as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside) is Rural Agricultural Zone ( 3) and Husbandry Zone ( 1). Approximately 500m to the north west of the site, is a protected Area Zone (Z3) designated to protect a river. Development Planning Zones for the mine and the surrounding area can be seen in Figure 41.

The land ownership information for Mangaleni Mine and the surrounding area can be seen in the plans in Appendix 4. The plots taken up by the mine are predominantly

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private owned plots with a few sparse government owned plots as can be seen in Figure 59.

4.0 PAPHOS DISTRICT MINES

4.1 Pafos Area

The Pafos District Mines, include the mines of Kinousa Open Pit, Kinousa Underground (Uncle Charles), Evloimeni, Limni and Polis Chrysochous.

4.1.1 Kinousa Open Pit Mine

This is a small mine with a small water filled void and minor contaminated spoils heaps. The water in the void is of reasonable quality in-so-far as it supports reeds. The spoil heaps are not visually high in pyrite although plant colonisation of the spoil is weak presumably due to low surface pH. The spoil mounds are typically steep sided and subject to surface erosion and gullying further but their location in the forest area has resulted in significant natural regeneration by trees.

The visual impact of the site is small.

The adjoining land use is forest and fields. The centre of the village of Kinousa is approximately 500 m to the west; there are no nearby dwellings. The planning zone within which the pit is located is a Rural/Agricultural Zone ( 3) with a low plot ratio. The Paphos forest which is a protected area with a Protection Planning Zone (Z3), lies to the east and is almost adjacent to the pit. The residential planning zones (H1, H3 and H4) of the Kinousa Village, are at a distance of around 200m north west of the pit. Development Planning Zones for the mine and the surrounding area can be seen in Figure 42.

The land ownership information for Kinousa Mine and the surrounding area can be seen in the plans in Appendix 4. The plots taken up by the mine are private owned plots although a small number of government owned plot exist in the surrounding area as can be seen in Figure 60.

There is some sediment run-off into adjoining land but this does not appear to be having a significant impact. The site has been restored to an informal car parking area and picnic site. No further action is considered necessary. There were no observed features of particular geological merit or examples of recent or ancient mining heritage.

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4.1.2 Kinousa Underground Mine (Uncle Charles)

Kinousa underground mine is located about 0.5 kilometres to the south of the open pit mine. The mine entrance is no longer accessible. The spoil heap is comparatively small. A spoil bund had been constructed from the mine entrance a to the edge of a steep side valley where it was end-tipped down the valley side.

The spoil heaps are locally high in pyrite giving rise to very low surface pH over much of the spoil heap area precluding natural vegetation regeneration. The spoil mound down the hillside is very steep sided and subject to severe surface erosion and gullying preventing natural regeneration and sending quantities of sediment into the stream below.

The visual impact of the site is locally severe but the site is small and remote. There are no nearby dwellings. There is a minor and inconsequential collapse feature near to the mine entrance.

The adjoining land use to the west is agricultural, dominated by orchards, and fields and to the east forest. The underground mine is situated within a rural/agricultural zone 300 m south of the Residential Zones (H1, H2 and H3) of the Kinousa Village and almost bordering with the Paphos Forest Protection Zone (Z3) to the east. Development Planning Zones for the mine and the surrounding area can be seen in Figure 42.

There is little that could be reasonably achieved to assist in restoring the site. Natural regeneration will eventually absorb the site into the adjoining forest. Sediment discharge into the stream is severe but any works to ameliorate this would be difficult, expensive and probably unjustifiable. The site is remote and does not pose any particular risk. There were no observed features of particular geological merit or examples of recent or ancient mining heritage.

4.1.3 Evloimeni Mine

This is a large mine with large contaminated spoils heaps. There is no void; mineral was either extracted by excavating into the hillside or the void had been back filled; there has been substantial earthworks over the spoil areas that appear to have taken place after the mine was closed.

The spoil heaps are locally high in pyrite giving rise to very low surface pH over much of the spoil heap area precluding natural vegetation regeneration. The spoil mounds are typically steep sided and subject to very severe surface erosion and gullying further preventing natural regeneration. There is severe run-off of sediment from the spoil heaps into the nearby stream. A large part of the sediment and contamination load in this stream might well be contributed by Evloimeni rather than Limni mine even though Limni is by far the larger.

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There has been some conifer planting on spoil slopes and on the tops of the spoil mounds that has been successful on the more stable and slopes.

The visual impact of the site is locally severe but the site is remote from habitation.

The adjoining land use is agricultural (Zone 3), mainly orchards and meadows, forest and some scrub land. Part of the mine is covered by a protection zone (Z3) which covers a river/stream and the rest of the area is covered by a rural/agricultural area zone ( 3) with a low plot ratio and by a rural area with no planning zones designation. Development Planning Zones for the mine and the surrounding area can be seen in Figure 43.

The land ownership information for Evloimeni Mine and the surrounding area can be seen in the plans in Appendix 4. The plots taken up by the mine are predominantly private owned plots although single government owned plot also exists within the mine site. A combination of private and government owned plots exist in the surrounding area as can be seen in Figure 61.

A high sulphide content (locally very high) was noted in the spoil heaps and there is local evidence of copper mineralisation; the potential for commercial reworking of the spoil heaps is however thought to be minimal.

The restoration of the site would be to forest. The erosion of the main spoil heap is severe but it is difficult to envisage how this could be ameliorated without resulting to substantial earth works. The flatter areas, where low pH is preventing growth, could be improved by dressing the site with 0.5 metres of locally won weathered sub-soils prior to planting. There were no observed features of particular geological merit or examples of recent or ancient mining heritage.

4.1.4 Limni Mine

This is a large mine with a substantial void area and large contaminated spoils heaps.

The water in the void appears is supporting reed beds and may be of relatively good quality. There is evidence of significant landslip and collapse of the void walls particularly along the northern and western void slopes.

The spoil heaps are locally high in pyrite giving rise to very low pH surface soils precluding natural vegetation regeneration. The spoil mounds are typically steep sided and subject to severe surface erosion and gullying further preventing natural regeneration.

The visual impact of the site is severe both locally and also from some distant views. Access to the site is moderate from an unsurfaced road from Mavroli.

The adjoining land use is agricultural, with orchards, olive groves and general cultivation and scrub-land. There are a no dwellings in the immediate vicinity. Most of

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the area of the mine is situated in a rural area of the village Pelathousa with no planning zones designation. The planning land use designation, as designated by the Statement of Policy for the Countryside, on the north part of the mine (and north of the Rural Area without Zone) is Rural/Agricultural Zone ( 3). On a narrow section north east of the mine is a narrow Protection Zone (Z3) protecting the Limni River. Development Planning Zones for the mine and the surrounding area can be seen in Figure 43.

The land ownership information for Limni Mine and the surrounding area can be seen in the plans in Appendix 4. The plots taken up by the mine are predominantly private owned plots although single government owned plot also exists within the mine site. A combination of private and government owned plots exist in the surrounding area as can be seen in Figure 61.

Natural regeneration is occurring on areas of uncontaminated natural ground and there has been some planting on the tops of the spoil mounds with limited success. Planting on the northern and eastern slopes has been effective in reducing visual impact and in time will reduce slope scouring. The western slopes are however barren and surface erosion is severe.

A locally high sulphide content was noted in the spoil heaps and there is local evidence of copper mineralisation affecting seepages from the spoil to the north and entering the stream to the north west; the potential for commercial reworking of the spoil heaps is however thought to be minimal.

Restoration of the site to woodland and scrub has commenced with the reasonably effective planting on the north-eastern slopes. There is the potential to regrade some of the spoil slopes to the north-west relocating some mine spoil onto the adjoining scrub-land and thereby reducing the slope gradients; this however would be a major undertaking as the spoil mounds in this area are of the order of 80 metres high.

The void is accessible and is geomorphologically interesting in so far as it exhibits a large number of various collapse and landslip features. Pillow lavas are well exposed in the eastern walls of the void. There were no features of recent or ancient mining heritage of particular merit noted on site.

4.1.5 Polis Chrysochous (installations)

Polis Chrysochous, also known as Limni Installations, is a large site, located approximately 2.5km WNW of the town of Polis, encompassing a decommissioned processing plant, two tailings management facilities and a derelict loading point at the coast. These originally served the large Limni Mine (see Section 4.1.4), Kinousa Underground Mine (see Section 4.1.2), Kinousa Openpit Mine (see Section 4.1.1) and Evlogimeni (see Section 4.1.3) between 1937 and 1979.

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The site is situated on a low lying coastal plain extending from sea level at the loading point to 50m ASL inland; elevation rises rapidly to the east from the edge of Limni Mine. The surrounding land to the NE, SE and SW is predominantly agricultural with fruit and olive groves along with an electricity substation; the NW boundary is a coastal boundary. The installations are located within the district boundary of Polis Chrysochous along a coastal zone which is gradually being developed with tourist, residential (second homes) and commercial uses. The current planning land use designation is agricultural zoning ( 4) with a low plot ratio. To the east and south east of the site the planning zones consist of Protection Zones (Z1 and Z3) covering the course of the Limni River and its adjacent land. A Pr tected Area Zone ( 2) protecting the road dissects the north west part of the mine installations. Development Planning Zones for the mine and the surrounding area can be seen in Figure 44

The site has been bought by a big development company and it will be developed into a very high luxury golf resort. The intention of the developer is to move the tailings into the large open pit of Limni mine. The final planning approval for the development has not yet been given. Natural vegetation is predominantly self-seeded olive and gum trees along with hardy shrubs and grasses. Owning to the size of the site, low lying area and close proximity to the coast, the visual impact of the site is high.

The land ownership information for Polis Mine and the surrounding area can be seen in the plans in Appendix 4. The plots taken up by the mine are private owned plots. A combination of private and government owned plots exist in the surrounding area as can be seen in Figure 62.

The processing plant, hopper and ore points remain on site in a derelict condition and with some original equipment removed, though part of the plant building appears to be in use for the storage of lime. There are also several large warehouses, one of which was seen to be in use as a vehicle workshop, and former store/office buildings that appear to be boarded up and not currently in use. The site has reportedly been purchased for redevelopment into a tourist resort, though there was no evidence of this onsite.

The ore was transported via a loading point at the coast comprising a jetty that has now been dismantled and replaced, and would originally have had docking facitlities and ore loading via small cable rail. There are associated derelict, unboarded buildings and redundant jetty structure remains on the shoreline. There is some evidence of acid mine drainage along the beach, though the iron has not come out of solution at the point where the stream feeds into the sea.

There are two tailings ponds; the largest one to the east of the processing plant and the smaller, half the size of the larger, to the west of the plant. Neither ponds have been properly covered; the upper surfaces of each are barren, crustiform, and iron

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rich, locally rich in pyrite particularly where the surface comprises finer, less consolidated sediment.

There is evidence onsite of significant historic break-outs from the main tailings lagoon, though it is not clear if this was the result of one large failure event or a series of smaller events. In addition, there is evidence of ongoing seepage of fines and fluid released to the surrounding areas, including into what appears to be a former stream adjacent to the smaller tailings pond, through the base of the walls of both tailings dams with severe gulleying observed. Further failure, particularly of the large tailings dam where the tailings wall will have been considerably weakened, must be considered as a future hazard. There is considerable AMD contaminated run off from the former stock piles of pyrite into nearby streams. The walls of the tailings dams are subject to significant and locally severe surface erosion and transport of sediment onto adjoining land.

To reduce the effects of contaminated surface run-off onto agricultural land perimeter ditches have been constructed around parts of the tailing ponds leading to sediment filled ditches. There has also been some bunding of the outflow of the main tailings failure, though this may not hold potential significant future break outs.

There is a significant hazard of future tailings wall failure and seepage of contaminants through the base of the tailings walls; therefore investigation and/or remediation measures are recommended as soon as possible. To allow restoration of the tailings ponds, and hence reduce the risk of seepage and break-outs, it is possible that significant engineering works, involving for example, the construction of new buttressing to the existing embankments and capping over the tailings ponds, as well as in ground barriers to prevent seepage migration, may be required. The scope of remedial measures is beyond the current project and should be determined following detailed investigation and monitoring activities.

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APPENDIX 4: MINE PLANS AND FIGURES (SEE SEPARATE BOOKLET)

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APPENDIX 5: PHOTOGRAPHS OF KOKKINOPEZOULA

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1) View northwards of flooded open pit bounded by Mine 2) View of mine waste dumps on east side of mine site waste dump

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3) Open pit slopes, flooded at base 4) Vegetation on open pit slopes

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5) Surface erosion gullies on mine waste 6) Erosion gullies on mine waste dump slopes, with benching measures to control surface run off.

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APPENDIX 6: FORESTRY DEPARTMENT RESPONSE (FLORA AND FAUNA INFORMATION OF THE ABANDONED MINE AREAS)

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NOTE: The following is a translation from the official Forestry Department Response, dated 6 August 2008, regarding information requested on the Fauna and Fauna of areas surrounding the abandoned mines. A copy of the original response in Greek can be seen at the end of this Appendix.

. FAUNA

As far as the fauna of the mines is concerned, the Forestry Department has stated (see Letter at the end of this Appendix) that this is not of particular interest apart from the mines which include adits which must be protected since these include bat shelters.

B. FLORA and threatened species around the abandoned mines.

The flora surrounding the mines as well as the types of habitats according to the directive 92/43/EC has been identified by the Forestry department and is hereby presented. A description of the flora for all mines in Greek can be seen in the Forestry Department’s Letter included at the end of this Appendix. The habitats which were identified in the areas of the abandoned mines, can be seen in Table 1 below. In total six habitats of Appendix I of the Directive were identified and one habitat not included in the Appendix.

Code Habitat Name Habitats Appendix , Directive 92/43/ C 5330 Thermo-Mediterranean and pre-desert scrub 5420 Sarcopoterium spinosum phryganas (Cisto-Micromerietea ) 9320 Olea and Ceratonia forests 92C0 Platanus orientalis and Liquidambar orientalis woods (Platanion orientalis) 92D0 Southern riparian galleries and thickets (Nerio-Tamaricetea and Securinegion tinctoriae) 9540 Mediterranean pine forests with endemic Mesogean pines

Habitats not included in Appendix I of the Directive CY02 Reeds and Reed beds ( Phragmition australis, Scirpion maritimi ) Table 1: Types of habitats which were identified in the areas surrounding the abandoned mines.

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Paphos District

1. Cyprus Sulphur Tailings (Polis) This is located between Polis Chrisochous and Argaka on the Makounta Road. In the surrounding area there is cultivation, phrygana brushwood (Habitat Type 5420), along Limni river there are reeds (Habitat Type CY02) and communities of reeds (Habitat type CY02) and Southern riparian galleries and thickets (Habitat Type 92D).

2. Limni Limni Is located 1 km north of Pelathousa. In the mine area, there are growths of Pinus pinea and possibly other alien growths (acacias and eucalyptus), as well as brushwood growth (Habitat Type 5420) located in clutters. In the surrounding area there are pine forests (Habitat Type 9540) and scrubs (Habitat Type 5330). Along streams there is hydrophilic growth, with reeds (Habitat Type CY02) and riparian galleries and thickets Nerio- Tamaricetea (Habitat Type 92D).

3. Evloimeni The mine is located south of the the Pelathousas-Lysou road by a tributary of th eLimni River. The area seems not to have been affected by mining works. In the surrounding area there exist pine forests (Habitat Type 9320), scrubs (Habitat Type 5330) and brushwood growth (Habitat Type 5420).

4. Kinousa Kinousa Mine is located 350m south east of Kinousa, near the border of Pafos forest. In the surrounding area, there exist pine forests (Habitat type 9540), olive and carob forests (Habitat Type 9320), scrubs (Habitat Type 5330) and brushwood growth (Habitat Type 5420.

5. Vretsia Vretsia is located 3.6km north east of Vretsia and 4km east of Panayia. The growth in the surrounding area consists mainly of Pine forests (Habitat Type 9540), brushwood growth (Habitat Type 5420) with Cistus plants (Cistus spp. ). The gorwoth may also include olive and carob forests (Habitat Type 9320). At a distance of 150m, west of the mine there is there is habitation of the endemic Phlomis cypria subsp. occidentalis , which is listed as vulnerable in the Red Book of Flora of Cyprus . Additionally, it is listed as a priority species in Appendices II and IV in the Habitats Directive 92/43/EC and Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Berne Convention).

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Nicosia District

6. Alestos Alestos Mine Is located on top of the mount Alestos and 1.2km east of Agios Georgios Kafkalou. Due to the location of the mine and previous disturbances, screes have been created on the slopes due to the deposition of rubble. The growth in the surrounding area includes Pine forests (Habitat Type 9540), brushwood growth (Habitat Type 5420) with Cistus Plants ( Cistus spp. ) and thickets (Habitat Type 9320).

7. Memi Memi mine is located between Xyliatou, Agios Georgios Kafkalu and Agia Marina. The growth is surrounding area consists of sylvan areas and dry farming in tufts with pine trees (Habitat Type 9540), brushwood growth (Habitat Type 5420) and possibly thickets (Habitat Type 9320). Along the river, there are reeds (Habitat Type CY02), riparian galleries and thickets Nerio-Tamaricetea (Habitat Type 92D) and occasionally Platanus (Habitat Type 92C).

8. Kokkinoyia Kokkinoyia is located 1.5km north west of Mitsero. The growth is the surrounding area consists of dry farming, scattered tufts of pines (Habitat Type 9540), brushwood growth (Habitat Type 5420) and thickets (Habitat Type 9320). In addition, locally, there are Acacias (Acacia saligna ) and Cypress trees ( Cupressus sempervirens ).

9. Kokkinopezoula Kokkinopezoula, is located 0.7 km south west of Mitsero. The growth of the surrounding area consists of dry farming, Pine Forests (Habitat Type 9540), brushwood growth (Habitat Type 5420) and thickets (Habitat Type 9320). In the two stream that exist in the area there exist reeds (Habitat Type CY02) and riparian galleries and thickets - Nerio-Tamaricetea – (Habitat Type 92D). in addition, in the area there exist plantations with Acacia trees ( Acacia saligna ).

10. Agrokipia Agrokipia mine is located 0.5km north west of Agrokipia village and approximately 300m form the border of Natura Area CY2000003: Mitsero. The growth in the surrounding area consists of dry farming and tree growths, reforestations with Pines, mainly brushwoods (Habitat Type 5420) with ( Sarcopoterium spinosum) and Thyme ( Coridothymus capitatus ), thickets (Habitat Type 9320), olive trees and grasslands. In addition, in the area, there are Acacia growths (Acacia saligna ). At a distance of approximately 400m west of the mine, there is a habitation of Aethionema arabicum , which is listed as vulnerable in the Red Book of Flora of Cyprus .

11. Mitsero

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Mitsero Mine is located north of Mitsero Village and is surrounded by the Natura Region CY2000003: Mitsero. The growth in the surrounding area consists of dry farming, brushwoods (Habitat Type 5420), thorny burnet ( Sarcopoterium spinosum ), Thyme (Coridothymus capitatus ), thickets (Habitat Type 9320), mainly with olive trees ( Olea europaea ), reeds (Habitat Type CY02) and riparian galleries and thickets - Nerio- Tamaricetea – (Habitat Type 92D). In the area there are also plantations of Acacias (Acacia saligna ). West of the mine there is a planation of the endemic Orchid ( Ophrys kotschyi) which is listed as vulnerable in the Red Book of Flora of Cyprus . In addition, it is listed as a priority species in the Appendices II and IV in the Habitats Directive 92/43/EC and Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Berne Convention).

12. Kapedes Kapethes mine is located 1.5km north of Kapethes village. The growth in the surrounding area consists of brushwoods (Habitat Type 5420), pine forests (Habitat Type 9540), thickets (Habitat Type 9320), reeds (Habitat Type CY02) and riparian galleries and thickets - Nerio- Tamaricetea – (Habitat Type 92D).

13. Kokkinonero Kokkinonero mine is located between the villages of Kampia and Analionta. The flora consists of dry and sylvan areas, brushwoods (Habitat Type 5420), grasslands, reeds (Habitat Type CY02) and riparian galleries and thickets - Nerio-Tamaricetea – (Habitat Type 92D).

14. Mathiatis (south) Mathiatis (South) mine is located between the villages of Agia Varvara and Mathiatis. The growth in the surrounding area consists of dry farming and sylvan areas, brushwoods (Habitat Type 5420), scattered pines, grasslands and reeds (Habitat Type CY02).

15. Sia Sia mine is located 1.3 km south west of Sia Village. The flora in the surrounding area consists of dry farming and sylvan plantations (Habitat Type 9540), brushwoods (Habitat Type 5420), grasslands, reeds (Habitat Type CY02) riparian galleries and thickets - Nerio- Tamaricetea – (Habitat Type 92D). Additionally, there are thickets with terebinths (Pistacia terebinthus ) and medlar trees ( Crataegus azarolus ) so their classification to a Habitat Type according to the Directive 92/43/EC will require a site visit.

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Larnaka District

16. Petra Petra is located 1.5 km, south east of Kalavasos dam. The growth in the surrounding area consists of isolated plantations, Pine Trees (Habitat Type 9540), brushwoods (Habitat Type 5420), scrubs (Habitat Type 5330), whereas on the river bed there are reeds (Habitat Type CY02) and riparian galleries and thickets - Nerio-Tamaricetea – (Habitat Type 92D). A large section of the river bed is covered in Acacias (Acacia saligna ) which grew from planting near the top of Kalavasos Dam. The species Aethionema arabicum which is listed as vulnerable in the Red Book of Flora of Cyprus, can be found at the perimeter of the mine.

17. Troulloi Troulloi mine is located approximately 1 km south east of Troulloi village. The growth in the surrounding area consists of dry and isolated sylvan areas, brushwoods (Habitat Type 5420) and grasslands.

Limassol District

18-21. Mavridia, Mavri Sykia, Lantaria and Plateies The Mines Mavridia, Mavri Sykia, Lantaria and Plateies are located between 1 and 2.3km north of Asgata Village. The growth in the area consists of scrubs (Habitat Type 5330), brushwoods (Habitat Type 5420), thickets (Habitat Type 9320), Pine Trees (Habitat Type 9540), as well as tree and dry growths. The surrounding area was recently destroyed in a fire.

22. Maggaleni Maggaleni mine is located, 1.4k north of Armenochori village. According to the GSD the area has been restored. The growth in th surrounding area consists of tree and dry plantations, pine forest (Habitat type 9320) and brushwoods (Habitat type 5420).

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______

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ιι ι ( ι ι 92/43/ ) 22 ι ι ι ι ι , Κόκκινο Βιβλίο της Χλωρίδας της Κύπρου . ι , ιι ιι ι ι 2000 ιι ’ .

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ι ι ι ιι ι ι ι ( 1).

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1: ι ι ι

υ , 92/43/ 5330 -ι ι -ι 5420 Sarcopoterium spinosum ( Cisto-Micromerietea ) 9320 ι ι ι 92C0 ι ( Platanion orientalis ) 92D0 ι ι ( Nerio-Tamaricetea ) 9540 ι ι

CY02 ι ι ( Phragmition australis, Scirpion maritimi )

υ

1. Cyprus Sulphur Tailings ( υ )

ι ι ι . ι ιι , ( ι 5420), ( ι CY02) ι ι ι –Nerio-Tamaricetea – ( ι 92D).

2.

ι 1 Km ι . Pinus pinea ι ι ι ( ι ι ), ι ( ι 5420) ι ι . ι ( ι 9540) ι ι ( ι 5330). ι ι ι , ( ι CY02) ι ι ι –Nerio-Tamaricetea – ( ι 92D).

3. υ

ι - , ι . ι ι ι ι . ι ι ( ι 9540), ι ι ι ( ι 9320), ι ( ι 5330) ι ( ι 5420).

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4.

ι 350 m ιι ι , ι . ι ι ( ι 9540), ι ι ι ( ι 9320), ι ( ι 5330) ι ( ι 5420).

5.

ι 3,6 Km ιι ι ι 4 Km ι ι . ι ι ( ι 9540) ι ( ι 5420) ιι ( Cistus spp.). , ι ι ι ι ( ι 9320). 150 m ι ι ι ι Phlomis cypria subsp. occidentalis , Κόκκινο Βιβλίο της Χλωρίδας της Κύπρου ι (Vulnerable). ι , ιι ι IV ι 92/43/ ι ι ι ι ι ι ι ( ).

υ

6.

ι , 1,2 Km ι . ι ι ι (screes) ι ι ι ι . ι ι ( ι 9540), ( ι 5420) ιι ( Cisius spp.) ι ( ι 9320).

7.

ι ι , . ι . ι ι ι ι ι ιι ι ι ( ι 9540), ( ι 5420) ι ι ( ι 9320). ( ι CY02), ι ι –Nerio-Tamaricetea – ( ι 92D) ι ι ι ( ι 92C)).

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8.

ι 1,5 Km ιι ι . ι ι ι ιι , ι ι ( ι 9540), ( ι 5420), ( ι 9320) ι . , ι ( Acacia saligna ) ι ι ( Cupressus sempervirens ).

9.

ι 0,7 Km ιι ι . ι ι ι ιι , ( ι 9540), ( ι 5420) ι ( ι 9320). ι ιι ι ( ι CY02), ι ι ι –Nerio-Tamaricetea – ( ι 92D). , ι ( Acacia saligna ).

10.

ι 0,5 Km ιι ι , 300 m ι ι Natura CY2000003: ι ι . ι ι ι ι ι ιι , ι , ( ι 5420) ( Sarcopoterium spinosum ) ι ι ( Coridothymus capitatus ), ( ι 9320) ι ( Olea europaea ) ι . , ι ( Acacia saligna ). 400 m ι ι ι Aethionema arabicum Κόκκινο Βιβλίο της Χλωρίδας της Κύπρου ι (Vulnerable).

11.

ι ι ι ι ι ι ι ι ι .

ι 2 Km ι ι ι ιι ι Natura CY2000003: ι ι . ι ι ι ιι , ( ι 5420) ( Sarcopoterium spinosum ) ι ι ( Coridothymus capitatus ), ( ι 9320) ι ( Olea europaea ), ( ι CY02) ι ι ι – Nerio-Tamaricetea – ( ι 92D). ι (Acacia saligna ). ι ι ι ι ι Ophrys kotschyi Κόκκινο Βιβλίο της Χλωρίδας της Κύπρου ι

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(Vulnerable). ι , ιι ι IV ι 92/43/ ι ι ι ι ι ι ι ι ( ).

12.

ι 1,5 Km ι ι . ι ι ( ι 5420), ( ι 9540), ( ι 9320), ( ι CY02) ι ι ι –Nerio-Tamaricetea – ( ι 92D).

13.

ι ι ι ι ι . ι ι ι ι ι ιι , ( ι 5420), , ( ι CY02) ι ι ι – Nerio-Tamaricetea – ( ι 92D).

14. (south)

ι ι ι . ι ι ι ι ι ιι , ( ι 5420), ι , ι ( ι CY02).

15.

ι 1,3 Km ιι ι . ι ι ι ι ι ιι , ( ι 9540), ( ι 5420), , ( ι CY02) ι ι ι –Nerio-Tamaricetea – ( ι 92D). ι , ι ιι ( Pistacia terebinthus ) ι ιι ( Crataegus azarolus ), ι 92/43/ ι ιι .

16.

ι 1,5 Km ιι . ι ι ιι , ( ι 9540), ( ι 5420), ι ( ι 5330),

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( ι CY02) ι ι ι –Nerio-Tamaricetea – ( ι 92D). ι ( Acacia saligna ) ι . ι Aethionema arabicum Κόκκινο Βιβλίο της Χλωρίδας της Κύπρου ι (Vulnerable).

17.

ι ι ι ι ι ι ι ι ι . ι 1 Km ιι ι ι . ι ι ιι ι ι ιι, ( ι 5420) ι .

18-21. υ , υ , ,

ι ι ι , 1 ι 2,3 Km. ι ι ( ι 5330), ( ι 5420), ( ι 9320), ( ι 9540) ι ι ι ιι ιι . ι . : ι ι ι ι ι ι ι ι .

22.

ι 1,4 Km ι . ι ι , ι ι . ι ι ι ι ιι ιι , ( ι 9540), ( ι 9320) ι ( ι 5420).

6 , 2008

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APPENDIX 7: COMMENTARY ON INDIVIDUAL MINES

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