1.1 INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1 INFRASTRUCTURE, DEVELOPMENT AND CIVILIZATION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

It is believed that Karl Marx first used the term ’infrastructure;’ referring to it as ’civilization’s founda- tion.’ Wheeler [1] also links infrastructure and civilization in his interpretation of civilization. He suggests a definition consisting of the ’the two inherent elements of civilization’: (1) A settled community of size sufficient to support specialists outside the normal range of food pro- duction (2) Public works or infrastructure implying an organized and durable administration. It is apparent that both of these scholars thought that ’civilization’ implied infrastructure and vice versa. Wheeler also equates both to cities. This concern with definitions has not been merely a matter of sematics: implicit in the definition suggested is the concern with process. That is to say: how did ’civilization’ emerge,

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CHAPTER 1: INFRASTRUCTURE, DEVELOPMENT AND CIVILIZATION

how did ’cities’ develop, and how did ’infrastructure’ manifest itself in the process and what roles did it play? Infrastructure is a collection and organization of available technologies into artifacts or systems. Tech- nology deals with how things are done or made. It appears to be the catalyst that relates engineering effort to social change. The history of technology is intimately related to the history of civilization. It is important for a civil engineer who is seeking to identify his role in modern society to understand how the influences which have determined the intellectual climate of a period have had their effect on technology and, on the other hand, how technology has influenced ’culture’ -- a recognizable way of life of a group of people including their mo- res, laws, arts, religion, ideas, and artifacts. To a historian, a culture becomes a civilization when it develops most of the following elements: infrastructure, writing, agriculture, urban areas, arts, science and a formal po- litical organization. Civilization is the manifestation of complex society, one containing physical infrastruc- ture and socioeconomic organization. History is commonly divided, for convenience’s sake, into three great periods: ancient, medieval, and modern. Ancient history begins in an unknown antiquity and is characterized by a very considerable progress of civilization followed by a loss of vitality of the ancient races. Medieval history begins with a far lower stage of civilization than antiquity had reached, accompanied with much ignorance and anarchy. Modern history, again, is characterized by the most rapid and successful advance along a great variety of lines, all parts of a common world civilization [2]. The study of infrastructure should, first of all, include the study of those activities that are directed to the satisfaction of human needs and which produce alterations in the material world. Secondly, in the interest of intelligibility, it is desirable to relate those human activities to ordinary political and economic history. To try to accomplish these two goals, this chapter is organized so as to consider: (1) time (three well-known chrono- logical periods in history); (2) space (geographical or political areas such as river valleys in the case of ancient civilizations, empires as the case of the medieval civilizations, and, in more recent history, countries); and (3) important activity sectors such as agriculture, manufacturing, cities, transport, construction, and energy [3].

1.2 ANTIQUITY

Prehistory. It is essential if we are to comprehend the present that we appreciate the fact that for the most part, the experience of mankind has been that of a predator. Less than ten generations have experienced the modern industrial society and hardly more than a few hundred the rewards of farming. And, yet, for per- haps two million years humans roamed the earth learning how to cope with the environments they inhabited. Our knowledge of the economy practiced by homo erectus coming from excavations in northern Tanzania shows the regular eating of meat, including that of prey as large or larger than these early humans, themselves. The hunting of large mammals depended on social as well as technological factors. It involved among other things an organized system of cooperation among the hunters who were male and the females who remained close to the home-base nourishing, tending, and bringing up the young. Guarding the home base and looking after the family did not exclude women from the food quest, however, since domestic duties could readily be combined with foraging for plant food and small animal products. Once established this system was self-reg- ulating and long enduring [2]. It was only with the emergence of different variants of the large-brained homo-sapiens some 35,000 years ago that the first noteworthy advances of conceptual life, technology and economy can be detected in archae-

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1.2 ANTIQUITY

ological records. The most notable development in the conceptual field was the practice of careful burial with the implication this carries of a personal awareness of death. Rich insights into the aesthetic awareness of the early representatives of modern man is provided by the works of art displayed on the walls and ceilings of caves [4]. Another achievement was breaking out of the frost-free zone to which pervious human populations had been confined and initiating the process by which recent man extended his domain over the rest of the world. Human beings have always been migratory. Sometime between 100,000 and 400,000 years ago man’s prede- cessor, Home erectus, had spread from China and Java to Britain and southern Africa. Later, Neanderthal types spanned Europe, North America and the Near East; modern Home sapiens, originating probably in Africa reached Sarawak at least 40,000 years ago, Australia some 30,000 years ago and North and South America some 20,000 years ago [5]. Whatever the specific factors, the worldwide dispersion of early man had significant consequences. By enlarging the resource base it enabled the human population to expand to a size otherwise impossible. Migra- tion also stimulated sociocultural evolution by making environmental adjustments necessary and by diffusing innovations. It is believed that the process of domestication (sheep and goats) and agriculture (barley and wheat) began in the Near East about 12,000 years ago and gradually spread across Europe as the climate mod- ified. Irrigation Towns. Water supply, irrigation and drainage dominated early civilization in which the surplus of the farm was used to feed the town. Without the fertile silt deposited on the farmlands by the annual river floods, the soil would soon have been depleted and agriculture would not have been possible. The prehistoric farming population, which had slowly migrated into the river valleys, had through cooperative efforts drained the originally swampy banks along the rivers in Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China. Only by cooperation could the dikes be built and maintained, the muddy waters directed over the fields during the inundation, and finally drained off downstream. The practice of farming made it possible to obtain all that was needed within a narrow radius of a perma- nent home base, which increased the density of population and the potential size of groups living in close prox- imity. Another dynamic outcome was the way domestication increased productivity through its impact on the genetic composition of favored animals and plants. This process unfolded in territories with widely different ecologies giving rise to a diversity of human civilizations, each resting on the cultivation of a wide variety of species within the constraints of growing season, land fertility, topography, rainfall and other factors. Urbanization and State Formation. Man’s transition from a food-gatherer to a food-producer was a necessary, but not sufficient condition, for the achievement of civilization. Farming permitted and, indeed, re- quired the regular production of a social surplus. This surplus was available to support full-time specialists who themselves grew no food. This gave rise to urbanization and state formation. The basis for urbanization and state formation is the presence of functional specialization under the fol- lowing limiting conditions [6]: (1) a surplus of food production with which to feed the class of specialists whose activities are now withdrawn from agriculture; (2) a small group of people who are able to exercise some power to ensure stable and peaceful conditions in which both the food producers and the specialists can produce at their best; and (3) there must be a class of traders and merchants so that the work of the specialists can be facilitated and their needs for raw materials satisfied. The need to account for production and taxes led to the development of conventional signs -- writing. The invention of writing may be taken as the final step in the transition from barbarism, or food-production, to civilization. This conjunction of circumstances -- agri- culture, irrigation, urbanization and writing -- is believed to have occurred in half-a-dozen places around 4000

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CHAPTER 1: INFRASTRUCTURE, DEVELOPMENT AND CIVILIZATION

B.C.: the Tigris-Euphrates delta, the Nile valley, the Indus basin, the valley of the Huang-Ho River in China, in Central America, and in the Mekong River valley in Southeast Asia [7]. If the first civilizing revolution was agricultural, the rise of cities represented the second great "revolution" in human culture. Urbanization was pre-eminently a social process, an expression more of changes in man’s interaction with his fellow man than in his interaction with the environment. Every high civilization ultimately produced cities and in most civilizations urbanization began early. There is little doubt that this was the case for the oldest civilization and the earliest cities: those of ancient Mesopotamia. By 5500 B.C., it appears that the village-farming community had fully matured in Southwestern Asia. In the next to millenia some of the small agricultural communities on the allievial plain between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers not only increased greatly in size but changed significantly in structure. They culminated in the Sumerian city-state with tens of thousands of inhabitants, elaborate religions, political and military estab- lishments, stratified social classes, advanced technology and widely extended trading contacts. The Sumeri- ans’ writings and disinterred cities makes it possible to reconstruct their life in great detail [8]. Their civilization rested on agriculture and fishing. Among their inventions were the wagon wheel, the plow and the sailboat, but their science and engineering went far beyond these elementary tools. For irrigation the Sumerians built intricate systems of canals, dikes, weirs and reservoirs. They developed measuring and sur- veying instruments. Their farming was highly sophisticated. In the crafts, the Sumerians’ inventions included the potter’s wheel, metal casting of copper and bronze, engraving, bleaching and dyeing. They manufactured paints, leather, cosmetics, perfumes and drugs. Although their economy was primarily agricultural, their life was centered mainly in the cities. Artisans and traveling merchants sold their products in the central town mar- ket, and were paid in kind or in money, in the form of silver disks. The dozen or so cities in Sumer probably ranged from 10,000 to 50,000 in population; each enclosed by a wall and surrounded with villages [9]. Egyptian Civilization. Developments similar to those in Mesopotamia appear to have taken place in the valley of the Nile prior to 3000 B.C. It is believed that these cities had formed a loose political alliance and that the country as far upriver as Aswan was divided into two major units: Lower Egypt from the delta south to Memphis and Upper Egypt, between Memphis and Aswan. The two countries were ultimately to be unified by the first pharaoh, Menes, who established his capital at Memphis. To Menes is attributed the first damming of the Nile, the digging of the dikes for irrigation purposes and the first attempt to control and ap- portion the waters of the Nile. The wealth of Egypt was, like Mesopotamia, based upon its agricultural output. However, unlike Mesopotamia, the Egyptians had access to mineral resources for making ornaments and stone for building [10]. The stone used for building pyramids was a fine limestone obtained from quarries in the vicinity of the Nile. Each block of stone appears to have been cut clear of the parent rock at either side and at the back using copper-bronze chisels and mallets of stone. Along the lower edge a series of pits was cut and into these were driven wooden wedges causing the blocks to spit away from the parent rock. To transport the huge blocks down the Nile by barge was a relatively simple matter; to move the blocks over land, sledges pulled over rollers were used. To lift the blocks into place, a ramp was built against the side of the pyramid up which the sledge with the stone were drawn. As the pyramind grew so did the ramp, which was removed after the last block had been laid. By the year 2500 B.C. an Egyptian pharaoh caused to be built the largest of all the pyramids, the Great Pyramid. This gigantic undertaking is 756 feet on each side at the base and rises to 482 feet. It is esti- mated that 2,500,000 blocks of stone averaging two and a half tons apiece were used, worked by a construction force of some 200,000 men over a period of 20 years [11]. Ancient China. Following the outline used in this chapter, we have tried to break China’s history into

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1.2 ANTIQUITY

the three large periods: Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and Modern times although these periods may or may not correspond with periods of the same name in Western history. In the area that is now China, a considerable number of different, local cultures have existed, each developing along its own lines, but finally all contributing in different degrees to the formation of what we then begin to call "Chinese culture." These different cultures correspond roughly to the regions now designated as China, Korea, Mongolia, Siberia, Turkistan, Tibet, and Indo-China (Thailand, Burma, Laos and Vietnam). Western scholars tend to believe that Chinese history began near the Huang-Ho River with the Shang dy- nasty which began about 1700 B.C. However, Chinese legend which is taken by many as historical fact goes back several centuries before and lists such accomplishments as the breeding of silk worms, the calendar, and government organization. It is believed that in the 23rd Century B.C. after a great flood of the Huang-Ho (Yel- low) River, the first Chinese engineer appeared who finally brought the river under control. An assistant of his, an agricultural expert, taught the people the technology of reclaiming the land for cultivation. Articles of bronze that showed a variety of forms and excellent workmanship were widely used [12]. The first dynasty in what might be called the classical age of China was the Chou dynasty. The Chou dynasty was followed by the short-lived but aggressive Ch ’in dynasty which succeeded in bringing all of east- ern China under its domination. To consolidate the new territories and to erect a bulwark against the nomadic horsemen from what is now Mongolia, the Ch’in ruler extended the Great Wall into a single fortified line stretching from the northwest frontier to the sea. The Great Wall is about 2500 kilometers long. The walls themselves measure four meters at the base and about two meters at the top, rising to a height of six to seven meters above ground. Impressive as it is, and formidable as it was as a defense, it also served as a traveled way for carts linking cities along the frontier. As such, it marked civilization’s first elevated freeway inspiring use of the term "Chinese wall" by modern sociologists to describe the barrier effect of elevated urban freeways today [2]. In this period many devices were developed in China that were eventually to be introduced into Europe. Needham [12] has drawn up an impressive list of techniques, discoveries and inventions which were first de- veloped in China and later in the West. They include the wheelbarrow, the harness, the crossbow, canal lock- gates, gunpowder, the compass, paper - and printing using movable type. Consequences of Early Civilization. Three consequences of Antiquity, the period from 4500 to 1000 B.C., are: (1) technological innovation, (b) infrastructure investment, and (3) institution building. Technological innovation progressed side-by-side with the economic development associated with infra- structure investment and the political development resulting from institution building. There is a good reason why history focuses on the technological aspects of society. Since archaeologists must work with the material remains of ancient civilizations with such artifacts as dwellings, tools, food remains and art objects, they tend to define civilization in technological terms. Two technologies without which our present-day industrial soci- ety could never have been realized are iron working and wheeled transport. During the 3500 year period defined here by the period of early antiquity, many societies were to pass from the Stone Age through the Bronze Age to the Iron Age. At the beginning of the period stone picks were used which were gradually replaced, in turn, by copper tools, bronze tools and iron tools. An abundance of cheap iron tools and weapons produced from readily available ores enabled early civilizations to clear land more easily and to wage war more effectively. Metallurgical methods, including hammering, melting, casting, quenching, tempering and alloying, were developed through hundreds of years of experimentation by thou- sands of smiths. Their very durability gave iron implements an important advantage in the forest and on the battlefield, enabling the societies that used iron to expand the capabilities of their armies and to improve plow

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CHAPTER 1: INFRASTRUCTURE, DEVELOPMENT AND CIVILIZATION

agriculture [13]. The second innovative technology, wheeled transport, depended on heavy vehicles with disk (rather than spoked) wheels when first utilized some 5000 years ago. It is believed that the invention of wheeled vehicles took place over a wide area between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. A vehicle with small one-piece wheels was probably the starting point. Later such developments as the covered wagon may have taken place. Tracing the routes by which a knowledge of vehicles, or for that matter the vehicles themselves is a matter of some conjecture. The presence of wagons in Europe before 2000 B.C. is shown by the discovery of one-piece disk wheels in the Netherlands and in Denmark based on carbon-14 dating. Direct evidence in the form of pottery models of wagons suggest some vehicles entered central Europe by way of the Ukraine, the Romanian plain and Hungary [14]. The wheel was a revolutionary invention -- one that immediately enabled its inventors to carry heavy loads vast distances, provided there were paths over which to travel. The construction and maintenance of roads requires the dedication and cooperation of many individuals and it is an example of what is meant by infrastructure investment. An individual may own a wheeled vehicle but he can not, alone, build a road upon which to move it. At the height of the Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations, one might have expected the wagon and chariot to have become a rapid means of intercity transportation, but in neither were roads taken seriously. Although within the cities roads were often carefully leveled and paved, outside the walls the only roads to which attention was given were those that led either to religious movements or to quarries. The same attitude prevailed regarding bridges. Thus, by 1000 B.C. throughout the larger part of the civilized world the seas and waterways still served as the principal means of transport over long distances [10]. The third major consequence of the period was institution building. All the great ancient civilizations evolved in the same way -- through agriculture, irrigation, urbanization to the development of individual writ- ing systems, the acquisition of skills in working bronze and other metals, and the growth of transport and trade. Drucker [15] lists as some of the accomplishments of the "irrigation cities" the following: (1) the establishment of governments as a distinct and permanent institution and the first conception of man as a citizen; (2) the first development of social classes -- farmers, administrators, priests, soldiers, clerks, etc.; and an appreciation of the importance of the systematic organization and application of knowledge [15].

1.3 THE CLASSICAL PERIOD

By 3000 B.C. urban civilizations, dependent on agriculture and coincident with the development of met- allurgy, had begun to arise in the river valleys of the Tigris-Euphrates (Mesopotamia in what is now modern Iraq), the Nile (Egypt), the Indus (India) and the Yellow River (China). Once established, the peoples met the need of waging annual war against the floods of the great rivers by developing social and political systems tailored to technological necessity and environmental constraints. Water supply, irrigation and drainage dom- inated the world of early civilization. Only by cooperation could the required infrastructure -- the dikes, canals and irrigation ditches -- be built and maintained. The domestic water supplies and sewage systems within the cities were just as carefully regulated as the flood control and irrigation systems of the farmlands. The importance of land transport infrastructure was not to be fully appreciated for centuries, even after the invention of wheeled vehicles; there were no properly constructed roads of any length and few were paved. However, great progress had been made in the building arts. These ancient peoples could build monumental structures such as the Tower of Babel by the Mesopotamians, the Great Wall by the Chinese, and the pyramids

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1.3 THE CLASSICAL PERIOD

by the Egyptians. The construction of a pyramid, for example, required the building of an entire city of tem- porary huts to house the workmen, the removal of debris, the supplying of materials and tools, and the feeding of any army of workmen. These accomplishments demonstrated another element within technology and in- frastructure, namely, the importance of the organization of work as well as the techniques and tools employed [16]. This period from 1000 B.C. to approximately 500 A.D. is often referred to as the period of the Classical Civilizations. The chief difference between these civilizations and the ancient civilizations of the previous his- torical period was the size of the political units. In 1500 B.C. China was limited to the heartland in the lower Yellow River area; in the Han dynasty (202 B.C. to 220 A.D.) its borders were expanded to include most of present-day China. Whereas the ancient Indus civilization was limited to the valley of the same name, by 100 A.D. the Kushnam Empire covered all of northwestern India and Pakistan. During this, the classical age, Greek Civilization emerged and its influence stretched from Spain to the Black Sea, only to be replaced by the Roman Empire which covered much of Europe and extended around the entire Mediterranean Basin [17]. Graecis Magna (Greater Greece). Greek civilization was built on the foundations of two older civili- zations: the Minoan civilization of Crete which dominated the Aegean region from about 1600 to 1400 B.C. and the Mycenae civilization that flourished between 1600 and 1200 B.C. The geography of Greece contrib- uted to the formation of small, independent city-states rather than a monolithic empire. Because every district was separated from the next by mountains or the sea, central control of the kind that existed previously in Egypt and Mesopotamia was impossible. This decentralization of authority did not favor specialization and forced Greeks to be masters of a whole range of crafts and accomplishments. Emphasis on the individual led to the rise of democracy with the danger that such self-awareness could reduce society to anarchy. However, the Greek city-states survived as centers of order because the Greek belief in liberty was inextricably associ- ated with the existence of law [18]. Greek colonization, which was started to relieve the drain on food supplies, extended eastward to Crimea on the Black Sea. To the west the Greeks went into Sicily and southern Italy and by 600 B.C. along the coast now famous as the French Riviera. Around 500 B.C. the eastward expansion was halted by the Persians who, under Darius, created a vast empire which extended from Egypt to India, and from the Persian Gulf to the Black Sea. Dairus is remembered for such engineering accomplishments as a canal between the Nile and the Red Sea and the so-called, Royal Road, which ran from the Persian Gulf to the Aegean Sea. A status-quo be- tween the Persian Empire and the Greek city-states was maintained until 336 B.C. when Alexander the Great marched his armies across Persia reaching India in 323 B.C. at the time of his death. After Alexander, Greece was never the same. Politically it maintained its independence and its cultural influence, but it never regained its former power and after two centuries was conquered by Rome [10]. Imperial Rome. In contrast to the Greeks, the Romans were a rural people and its network of colonies were inland colonies which obeyed and were supported by, the mother-city. Not until after the conquest of Central Italy in 270 B.C. did Rome become a really great state [19]. As the result of the three Punic Wars Rome conquered the Empire of Carthage. By the first Rome ob- tained Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica; by the second she gained southern and eastern Spain; and by the third, Carthage itself and the surrounding region of Africa were acquired. The connection by land between Italy and Spain was brought about at the end of the second century B.C., when the French Mediterranean coast was made a Roman province. In the East, Rome played off the three great powers --Macedonia, Syria and Egypt -- against each other and then gradually reduced them to virtual vassal states. The Roman Republic was not a pioneer of civilization. In all directions it laid its hand on countries of more ancient civilizations which fell

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CHAPTER 1: INFRASTRUCTURE, DEVELOPMENT AND CIVILIZATION

prey due to political shortcomings [19]. At its peak the Roman Empire stretched from the burning deserts of North Africa to the icy tracts of the North Sea and as far as the Scottish Highlands; from the mountains of Armenia in the East to the Atlantic Ocean in the West. The Empire was bilingual -- Latin and Greek -- since Rome had to recognize the position of the Greek language because of the supremacy of the Greek civilization it had over-run. Thus the sphere of Roman rule was divided into two halves, the one Western and Latin, the other Eastern and Greek. The parti- tioning of the Empire became so clear cut that we speak of two Empires, a West Roman and an East Roman. The East Empire in Constantinople outlived by almost a thousand years the fall of Rome and the West-Roman Empire. The first important interventions of an artistic nature in the urban fabric of Rome took place when the ba- silicas were built in the Forum. Much of public life in ancient Rome centered on the Forum - the purely eco- nomic aspects (shops, warehouses, places for commercial deals), juridical (tribunals for civil and commercial cases), religious (temples and mausoleums), and administrative for the meetings of magistratures, the treasury (for the assemblies of the voters). It was therefore in this part of Rome that the first great monumental edifices went up. Their nature was basically functional for they were inspired essentially by the dictates of absolving a public function. The original structure of the principal bridge of ancient Rome attested to the important part played by the crossings of the Tiber River in Roman trading economy. The decline of the city of Rome went hand in hand with the economic, political and social crisis of the Empire, until it reached its nadir in the <>. The population, decimated by wars, epidemics and famine, sank to less than 50,000 persons (at the height of the Empire in the 2nd century A.D, it was more than a million), while many of the productive activities disappeared. The imposing structures of the Empire, aban- doned, dismantled, and fallen into ruin due to lack of maintenance and Barbarian invasions, were replaced by other monumental structures in the urban fabric, erected as a definitive confirmation of the new role the city had assumed in politics and religion. Obviously the repercussions of the economic, demographic and social crisis continued to be felt for some time and were reflected in the relative modesty of the new buildings when compared with the old. As far as materials were concerned, too, of necessity choice generally fell to brick, cheaper and easier to come by, or to reused marble and fine stone, recuperated from constructions dating to Imperial times, which thus were turned into veritable quarries in the heart of the urban fabric. The degradation and the disappearance of so many structures is due in much greater measure to this recurrent practice than to the damage inflicted by the hordes of plundering invaders. The most striking example of this type of contin- uous hemorrhage is the Colosseum. Its structures have to a large extent been despoiled and as late as the 18th century Pope Benedict XIV was forced to pass a specific ordinance to avoid its total destruction [19A]. Classical Period Technology. During the fifteen centuries from 1000 B.C. to 500 A.D. which define the Classical Period, society changed from a conglomeration of small agricultural communities to a worldwide state with great cities and an extensive trade. These cities demanded infrastructure for water supply, sewage and the transportation of goods and people. They also required a division of labor which led to a class of ar- tisans. In spite of an abundance of slave labor, there was still incentive to save human muscle power. Two of the most laborious tasks of antiquity were the pumping of water for irrigation and for the city wa- ter-works, and grinding grain to make flour for baking. Like most technical problems in antiquity, these were solved through a combination of scientific invention and the slow accretion of craftsmen’s skills. The water mill was adopted to both grinding grain and lifting water. The water mill had it origin in the water wheel, which was a large wheel with buckets fixed to the circumference, and which was set in a stream of water. The next step was to put a gear wheel on the axle of the paddle-wheel and make it turn a vertical axle that carried

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1.3 THE CLASSICAL PERIOD

a millstone. The water mill developed quickly. Rome was provided with ten aqueducts that carried water from mountain springs to reservoirs in the city; the water ran day and night, and the surplus went to rinse the sewers. Water flowing down one of the mountains was used for turning mills. Eventually mills appeared throughout the Roman Empire, and were applied to several tools, including saws for cutting marble [20]. Probably the greatest engineer of the age was Archimedes. His inventions included a screw pump for lift- ing water from mines, systems of compound pulleys and levers for raising heavy objects, as well as a great number of military devices including his legendary "burning class." Just how Archimedes used large, concave mirrors to concentrate the sun’s rays upon Roman ships attacking his native city, Syracuse, in 214 B.C. was the subject of an experiment using 70 sailors holding mirrors to show how a boat could be engulfed in flames from reflected sunlight [21]. It has been suggested that the output of the Greek inventors, for the most part, went into creating this type of interesting devices such as the burning glass and other clever gimmics used in temples such as doors that opened and closed when a fire was lit on the alter. It would be totally wrong, however, to write-off the inven- tions of the Greeks as having no practical purpose at all [10]. What is true is that the usefulness of their inven- tions was overshadowed by their unique contribution which was to provide a theoretical basis for the applied sciences. They sought general principles, and in the process became not only the founders of science, but of philosophy. While Greek science was developing on a theoretical basis, they appreciated the need for obser- vation and experiment for theory validation. Greek achievements in science were to lead to dramatic developments in future engineering. Previous to the sixth century B.C. there were no general theories of natural phenomena or of mathematics. The Greeks pioneered the investigation of the problem of matter 22 centuries before Einstein. Euclid defined abstract ge- ometry by developing the general knowledge of the relations and properties of lines, angles, surfaces, and sol- ids. Aristotle’s works in physics were the very foundation of the subject for two thousand years. Almost as remarkable as their production of scientific knowledge was their application of this knowledge. For example, the principal application of geometry was in architectural engineering and their greatest achievement was the Parthenon. Although now in ruins, it still shows what its builders hoped to achieve over 2,400 years ago. For nearly 900 years it was a temple to Athena, for 1,000 years a Christian church, for 200 years a Modlem mosque until it was destroyed [18]. Unlike the Greeks, the Romans did little theorizing, but they were skilful at adapting the ides of others. They inherited their knowledge of subsurface drains from the Etruscans; they appropriated the Greeks’ skill of architecture form; even borrowed the road building ideas of their Carthaginian foes -- and improved all of them. The Roman contribution to engineering was manifest in two ways: in the addition of new building ma- terials such as cement and in the emphasis on "function." Regarding the former, apart from its use as a bonding material, it was also employed in the making of concrete, which, combined with a brick facing, allowed the construction of solid arches, so eliminating the need for buttressing the supports. Regarding the latter, nowhere was the accent on function more dramatically illustrated than in the Roman infrastructure; particularly, its aq- ueducts and roads. The Romans devoted a great deal of time and money to public sanitation, creating a water supply, drainage and system of public baths and lavoratories that rival modern facilities. The aqueducts consisted of miles of arches supporting concrete channels constructed on a gradual slope from mountain sources to final destina- tions. Rome, like Greece before it, was a Mediterranean power -- a ring of countries around the great sea. The Greeks, however, were born seafarers; the Romans, on the contrary, were born landsmen and only under force

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of circumstances ventured on the sea. Since the Romans felt at home on land, a network of roads was devel- oped. They were the arteries which vivified the cities of the Empire. By road the legions marched from the Euphrates to the Rhine; by road the Emperor’s messages were transmitted to the most distant provinces, and reports poured into Rome. The roads carried the merchants goods and the migration of people. In contrast with the sea routes, the roads had old Roman traditions behind them and were maintained with true Roman energy and purposefulness [22]. The greatest of the 170,000 kilometers of roads was the Appian Way. It was built in 312 B.C. and extend- ed from the city of Rome to the Adriatic Sea -- a distance of some 500 kilometers. The sub-base and base consisted of four layers of different materials giving a depth of from 1 to 3 meters. The subgrade was drained by ditches and culverts to keep the foundation firm and the surface was crowned and raised well above the surrounding terrain to prevent flooding. Roman roadways were often elaborately overdesigned when one ex- amines their intended purpose lending credence to the claims of historians that the Romans wanted their mas- sive public works to express the power of the Empire [23]. While historians tend to focus on Greece and Rome, these were not the only civilizations of the Classical Period. Noteworthy are the Middle East and China and their technological achievements. For example, two- ancient water systems, the falaj system in Oman and China’s Dujiangyan waterworks, are still in use today. A climatologist describes how these systems meet modern-day needs for irrigation, flood control and domestic supply and distribution [22A]. The word falaj means a system of water distribution among those who have an established right to its sup- ply. Trapasso [22A] describes a system built during the Achaemenid Dynasty, 550-530 B.C., by Cyrus of Per- sia in what is now Oman as a series of wells connected by a subsurface horizontal conduit. The depth of the "mother well" is between 20 and 60 meters. From the mother well shafts are sunk at 15-18 m intervals. These shafts are used for both the initial construction and for subsequent inspection and repair. The tunnel may run for 3-10 km underground. In a hydrologic sense, it is the combined hydraulic head from the piezometric sur- faces of the mother well and the other upland wells that drive the water through this horizontal tunnel and onto the surface. After emergence, the water flows along constructed surface channels. To prevent evaporative wa- ter loss, the channels are protected with a concrete covering. The channels are exposed in areas where water extraction is permitted. Exposed channels are often deeper than they are wide, revealing less surface area to minimize water loss from evaporation. The main channel may also bifurcate into smaller offshoots to allow for specific uses, such as agricultural irrigation. In 267 B.C. overlooking what is now the city of Dujiangyan in China, construction began on a water con- servation project to solve the problems of both floods and droughts for the eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau and down into the agricultural land of the Chengdu Plain. Today, nearly 2300 years later, the Dujiangyan Wa- ter Conservatory Works is still in operation. The Project was conceived as consisting of three parts: the fish mouth (division dike), the sediment discharge weir (spillway) and the Treasure Bottleneck (division intake). The fish mouth is connected to the inner and outer embankments of a 1 km long division dike in the middle of the river. This dike was a natural sandbar. Builders stabilized it for use as the divider. This dike separates the Minjiang River into an inner and outer river. At the other end of the dike, a 240 m wide sediment discharge weir dams the water into the Treasure Bottleneck for irrigation in normal times and transfers surplus water dis- charge from the inner to the outer river during floods. In addition, a third but minor channel feeds the city of Dujiangyan, now a major urban area [22A]. The ancient Chinese designers seemed to recognize that they could not completely control the river, and instead they worked with the river to divert it during the dry season and to allow it to flow in its natural channel during major floods. This system required an ongoing maintenance program that continues today.

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1.4 MIDDLE AGES

1.4 MIDDLE AGES

We should emphasize an elementary fact of all history, that there are no clearly marked boundary lines between its eras and subdivisions. One age passes into another by a gradual transformation which is entirely unnoticed by the actors of the time. Historians say that ancient history, which contained Antiquity (the period up to 1000 B.C.) and the Classical Period (beginning in 1000 B.C.), closed with the year 476 A.D. The great fact which marks the close of that age and the beginning of the age referred to as Medieval History is the con- quest of the Western Roman Empire by the Germanic tribes, a process that occupied the whole fifth century. In 476 A.D. the title of Emperor of Rome was given up in the Western Empire. There is no such general agreement as to the specific date making end of medieval history. The fall of the Eastern Roman Empire with the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453; the discovery of America in 1492; and the beginning of the Reformation in 1520 have been suggested depending upon different fields of interest. The traditional historical picture of this thousand year period has been one of cultural decline. In fact, the first half from the fifth or the ninth centuries is commonly referred to as the "dark ages." Yet this view of the ten centuries is misleading, especially when viewed from the standpoint of the history of technology. Islamic Society. The Classical Period marked the birth of several new great creeds which arose almost simultaneously and won millions of followers. Christianity had a broader appeal than Judaism, which was identified only with the Jewish people, and spread through the Western World. In India the civilization that resulted was a fusion of Aryan and Dravidian elements united by Hinduism, which was not only a religion but featured a special caste system. As a reaction against the injustice of the caste system, Buddhism found a fol- lowing and the Buddha’s teachings spread throughout southeast Asia. The philosopher Confucius established a doctrine in China which gained millions of followers in the East. The birth of Islam in the Medieval Period and the interaction of Muslims with other peoples of the world over the past 14 centuries is one of the great stories of world history. The pattern of living laid down by Islam is one of the main ways men have had of giving meaning to existence. Today one-fifth of the world’s population are Muslims who live almost entirely in its developing regions. The first date in the advent of the faith of Islam is the birth of Muhammad in 570 A.D. His vision marked the beginning of the new religion and by the time he died in 632 he had given his nomads a faith in one God and a book of revelations which pointed the way of a life superior to the paganism which it replaced. Muslim’s believe that Muhammad was the last of God’s prophets. He is seen as completing the work begun by the great Hebrew prophets, Abraham, Moses and Christ, in showing the way to the true monotheism. In the Muslim community there was no distinction between the religious and secular spheres; the function of the leader of the community, the caliph, was to administer God’s will [24]. Fired by their new faith the Muslims exploded out of western Arabia and by 732 ruled from their capital Damascus a vast empire stretching from the Indus valley and Tashkent in the east to the Atlas mountains and the Pyrences in the west. While Islam’s influence was to spread across Central Asia, Indonesia and Central Africa; most of the territories conquered by the Arab Muslims were to be lost to the Christians in Europe, the Turks in the Middle East and the Mongols in Central Asia [17]. It is noteworthy that the Moslem Civilization was spread as much by peaceful conversion as by force. The Moslems did not uproot the peoples and cultures they overran, but offered a system of law and government that allowed anyone regardless of race or past religion to join the Islamic community so long as he became a Moslem. Since the Moslem Empire was in the center of the world of that time, and because the Moslems were

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CHAPTER 1: INFRASTRUCTURE, DEVELOPMENT AND CIVILIZATION

eager to preserve and add to the accomplishments of the past, they were the cultural middlemen of this period in history. The outstanding contributions of the Moslem Civilization, in addition to law and religion, were in the practical sciences of mathematics (decimal system, algebra, trigonometry, logarithms), astronomy (instru- mentation, dimensions of the earth as a sphere, navigational aids), medicine (emphasis on the brain and mental disorders, systematization of medical knowledge, diagnosis, treatment using drugs) and urban planning and administration [25]. The Mongol Conquests. In 1160 at the time of the birth of Genghis Khan, the Mongol world was con- fined to the Central Asian plateau of what is now Mongolia. Numbering perhaps two million, the Mongols were united in 1206 into a nation from a confusion of separate tribes. In 1215 they broke through the Great Wall and began their conquest of Northern China and by 1223 the Ukraine and Crimea were under their con- trol. In 1241 Hungary fell and the Mongols seemed poised to sweep across the Christian states of central and western Europe when the offense was halted. By 1258 most of the Muslim world except Egypt and Syria and the lands to the west, acknowledged the supremacy of the pagan Mongol. At its height in 1260, the Mongol Empire stretched from the Pacific Ocean in the east to Hungary in the west and from the Artic Ocean in the north to the Straight of Malacca in the south [26]. In carving out this colossal realm, the Mongols contributed only indirectly to methods of organized gov- ernment or the advancement of arts or sciences. What they achieved, they did in the name of some other au- thority -- Buddhism, Islam or Christianity. Under the Mongols, Buddhism took a stronger hold on Asia. Islam suffered a shattering blow with the sack of Baghdad, only to flourish anew when the Muslim religion was even- tually adopted by a majority of the Mongols as its empire spread. Since the western half of Christendom es- caped Mongol conquest, it was able to flourish, while the Mongol-influenced East was retarded by a heritage of tyranny. They were, like the Northern Europeans and Arabs of the middle ages, barbarians. While they were most skilled in warfare and the most ruthless, they would be the last of their type because by the end of the middle ages, gunpowder had made war a matter of technology [27]. There is controversy about the historical significance of the great Mongol conquests begun by Genghis Khan and carried on by his sons and grandsons. Most agree, to the credit of the Mongols that the vastness of the Empire they conquered allowed, for the first time, an international traffic in goods, knowledge, and ideas. Asia was crisscrossed by caravan routes and China was opened to the world by both land by the "Silk Road" which first emerged in the second century B.C. and centuries later was popularized by the adventures of Marco Polo and by sea. Each year, according to Marco Polo, 20,000 ships sailed up the Yangtze River, bringing dia- monds and pearls from India; ginger, cotton, and muslin from Ceylon; black pepper, white walnuts, and cloves from Java. More significant, the gradual westward flow of eastern artifacts, knowledge, and expertise worked in favor of a Europe that was far behind China in arts and sciences [28][29][30]. Europe After the Fall of Rome. The expression "fall of Rome" is more of a convenient phrase than ac- curate one. Actually the empire was virtually empty when the German tribes took possession. The word "fall" connotes the destruction of an ancient civilization but it was something more than that. The Teutonic race brought with them ideas and institutions which, though they were those of a primitive people, were noble and well developed. The Germans became the custodians of Christendom and one of the guiding forces in the fu- ture of western civilization. Fortunately, seizing control of the Roman Empire, they recognized their inferior- ity to the people they had overcome. They found upon every side of them evidence of a command over nature such as they had never acquired: infrastructure including cities, buildings, roads, bridges, ships, etc.; wealth and art; skill in mechanics; skill in government; and a strong church. Of all the German tribes, it was the Franks under Charlemagne who would become a power in the general history of the middle ages. The move- ment toward nation formation which followed the breaking-up of Charlemagne’s empire was to be delayed for

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1.5 THE AGE OF TRANSITION

a considerable period; a vacuum filled by "the feudal system" [2]. The feudal system of medieval western Europe came into existence in the eighth and ninth centuries, ow- ing to the political disorders of the time. It is a crude form of government in which the political organization is based on the tenure of land; that is, the public duties and obligations which ordinarily the citizen owes to the state are turned into private and personal services which he owes to his "lord" in return for land which he has received from him. But the individual must obtain protection somewhere if the central government can not provide it. If the individual owns land, he will need protection in order to cultivate it and enjoy the returns; if he has no land he will need protection for his life and his means of livelihood. In such political conditions there always arises a class of men strong enough from wealth or position or abilities to give some degree of protection. One of the consequences of the feudal system was the construction of the medieval castle. It is commonly believed that the invention of gunpowder and development of the canon made the castle vulnerable and brought about the decline of the feudal system [18]. Both of these theories are oversimplified, but it is known that with the decline of the feudal system, Europe’s new monarchies came into being. It should be stressed that the relationships between the feudal system, the role of castles and evolution of monarchies differed from country to country in Europe.

1.5 THE AGE OF TRANSITION

Adams [2] traces the rise and the history of the three great medieval creations -- the Church, the Empire, and Feudalism. He points out how the German empire of Charlemagne reinforced the Roman idea of world unity and how the breaking up of his empire created the vacuum within which the modern nations of Europe could eventually take shape. The Medieval period of history is often described as consisting of an initial period called the "dark ages" followed by a period of recovery. He identifies the crusades as the pivot upon which the middle ages turned from darkness and disorder to the brighter light and relative order of modern times. The Crusades. The occasion of the crusades was the rise of Islam and the Arab conquest of the Holy Land which contained sacred places for Muslims just as for Christians. Initially, the Christians were allowed free access to the holy shrine, but as the numbers increased new conditions were introduced. The response of Western Europe to the appeal of the emperor at Constantinople for aid was enthusiastic. There were eight cru- sades between 1095 and 1291 with each lasting about three to four years on the average [2]. Although the crusades were a military failure, Western Europe was profoundly affected by the prolonged contact with the East, which stimulated culture and trade. From the time of the first crusade, commerce increased rapidly and penetrated into new regions, accom- panied by technical and institutional improvements in the art of navigation, use of currency and forms of credit, maritime law, and mercantile organization. The accumulation of capital and possession of wealth created a demand for order and security, incompatible with feudalism, that could best be fulfilled with the formation of national governments. Europe’s New Nations. In three of the leading states of Europe national governments were established -- France, England and Spain. In Italy and Germany, while a genuine national feeling and spirit existed, it was not able to express itself through the necessary political institutions. It was principally the monarchies of En-

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CHAPTER 1: INFRASTRUCTURE, DEVELOPMENT AND CIVILIZATION

gland and France that began to move into the post-feudal world in the thirteenth century. It was a time of bur- geoning populations; forests were felled and marshlands drained so that marginal land could be brought into civilization. Windmills, introduced in the twelfth century, pumped water to feed crops nourished by fertilizers. Agricultural surpluses encouraged the development of new towns and the expansion of existing urban center. Many larger cities purchased charters for self-government, thus freeing them from interference from feudal overlords, on the one hand, and the church on the other [27]. The Medieval Castle. The subject of feudalism is central to the subject of castles; both in large measure are products of disorder, of the lack of control. In a society where land was held as a ’fief’ by doing homage to a ’vassal,’ and where the tenure of land was by military service, where the principal occupation of aristo- cratic males was to enhance the marital spirit by practicing at arms and using them in earnest, a pride was generated that found expression in a formidable edifice, the castle. While the word ’castle’ has many different connotations in different countries at different times, we define a castle as a fortified residence in which, in contrast to a palace, the fortifications predominate over the domestic aspect of the structure, and the principal occupant normally owns or controls a large territory around it. The erection of a castle would have a profound impact over a considerable area. It is estimated that in Wales, for example, 80 percent of the towns of medieval times owe their origin to a castle and, in most cases, the design of the town can leave no doubt but that it was intended as an adjunct of the castle [32]. The thirteenth century was a great age for castle building in Europe, especially in contested lands, where the strongholds -- and the soldiers they housed -- could be used to impose a ruler’s will on subjects for many miles around. In some countries beneath the walls of some, new towns were created in which subjects were encouraged to settle by grants of land and other privileges. The castle-town complexes erected were imposing statements of military, economic and social domination. Linked to the castles by strong walls, the towns pro- vided secure havens from which their inhabitants were able to work and trade [27]. It has often been said that the introduction of gunpowder and cannons into warfare sounded the death knell of the castle. This is highly questionable. Consider the contrast between England and France to the ar- chitectural reaction to artillery. In England there was no significant response to the new weapon. How differ- ent in France where artillery was accepted with enthusiasm both for attack and in devising methods to resist its effects. In the fifteenth century, in France where artillery was actively used the number of castles actually increased; whereas in England where artillery was only slightly used castles declined in number [33]. It has been suggested that the demise of the castle had nothing to do with military tactics, but rather was economic. One theory stresses the fact that the bubonic plague, or Black Death, killed an estimated one-third of Europe’s population between 1348 and 1369. One effect was to put the surviving peasants in a strong po- sition to shake off many feudal restrictions and to bargain with their landlords for wages and better conditions of employment. Another was the loss of knights, both through this plague and through the recurrent wars. Men who did not choose to work on the land found fresh opportunities for employment and advancement in the growing towns and cities. As the Middle Ages advanced, the social changes by which military tenure was replaced by cash relationships between tenant and landlord undermined the position of the castle [34]. So eventually the castle lost its arrogance and the manor lost its automatic rights to labor and specified taxes; land was partitioned and sold off, the administrators went into trade, and the descendants of surfs farmed their own acres. Castles dwindled in importance with respect to the surrounding town. Many became prisons or were abandoned, and some, much later, were renovated to become museums. The Renaissance. If the crusades and the end of the feudal system marked the beginning of the transi- tional period between the Middle Ages and modern times, the Renaissance, the name given to a period of deep-

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1.5 THE AGE OF TRANSITION

ly significant achievement between 1350 and 1650 completed the age of transition. It saw the ’Reformation’ challenge the unity and supremacy of the Roman Catholic Church, along with the rise of humanism, the growth of large nation-states with powerful kings, far-ranging voyages of exploration and a new emphasis on the im- portance of the individual. It was a period of extraordinary accomplishment in the arts, in scholarship and the sciences [35]. While England, France, Portugal and Spain achieved nationhood during this period Italy flourished, not as a nation but rather as a collection of powerful city-states. Two of these, Florence and Venice, are especially significant. Florence has been referred to as the Renaissance City. The Florentine Renaissance has been defined in various ways: as a chronological period, as a cultural phenomenon, as a complex of attitudes, ideas, and values. However it is described and interpreted, it was the creation of a free and independent community. Liberty and republicanism were two key elements of the city’s historical experience. Why did the new Renaissance style originate in Florence? The city was a likely site for this development, with its exceptional size and wealth, and its tradition of excellence in the crafts and arts. The community of artists was large, active, and well patronized by clients, public and private, secular and ecclesiatical [35A]. Water-girt Venice rises on an archipelago of small islands separated by a dense network of waterways, which were rectified as time passed, noticeably changing the original conformation. Venice lies four kilome- ters from the mainland and two from the open sea. In the course of centuries the population kept increasing, developing into a city the likes of which is not to be found anywhere in the world. The longest of the canals (3.8 km.) and the widest (from 30 to 70 m.) is the Grand Canal which divides the city into two parts that are interconnected by three bridges: the Bridge of the Scalzi, the Bridge of Rialto and that of the Accademia. For- ty-five internal canals run into the Grand Canal and they can all be navigated with small boats or gondolas. As many as 350 bridges connect the various zones of the city. The territory is subdivided into districts: Cannar- egio, San Marco, Castello, Dorsoduro, San Polo, Santa Croce. Until 1480 the bridges were in wood; later they were replaced by arched stone structures [35B]. The Renaissance was marked by a change in men’s thinking manifest in the urge to explore the unknown -- both geographically and intellectually. Regarding the former, the period marked the passionate interest in remote and hitherto unknown lands and peoples, and the courage and adventurous spirit to explore them. Eu- rope’s knowledge of Asia was substantially increased in the 13th and 14th centuries by Marco Polo and the missionaries and adventurous Italian merchants who followed him -- often traveling to China by land and re- turning by sea around India. Medieval interest in Central Africa was also keen, in spite of less success than the penetration of Asia due to the fanaticism of the Muslims of North Africa. Still trade was permitted and as early as the 12th and 13th centuries Tripole, Bona, Tenes and Ceuta were regular ports of call [36]. As the 13th and 14th centuries had been an epoch of exploration and discovery by land, so the 15th cen- tury was a period of maritime discovery. The glory of maritime discovery in the Atlantic fell to the new At- lantic seaboard states of Europe -- Portugal, Spain, France and England. In 1492 Christopher Columbus discovered Cuba and Hispaniola, intending to find the elusive route to East Indies. In three further voyages, he discovered many islands of the West Indies as well as Central America. It remained for Vasco da Gama, in 1498, to circle Africa and thus attain a maritime route to the Far East. But with the advent of the Renaissance, ’discovery’ meant more than just ’finding’ as in geographical ex- ploration; it also involved ’finding out’ as an intellectual exploration. There was a shift in men’s thinking, in the authority they recognized, and in the direction and range of their prevailing interest. Increasingly, people abandoned their submission to ecclesiastical authority. Rather, they relied on observation and experiment or

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CHAPTER 1: INFRASTRUCTURE, DEVELOPMENT AND CIVILIZATION

on critical analysis and inference, both in seeking knowledge and in testing the truth of their ideas. The printed book carried the ideas of such Italians as Niccolo Machiavelli and Leonardo de Vinci to every corner of Eu- rope, and in turn, as the northern countries drank-in the new learning, brought back original ideas. In astron- omy and cosmology, medicine and technology, scientists found that they were working not in isolation but in one part of a larger continent, to which Italy was joined by a constant ebb and flow of men and ideas. da Vinci epitomized the proverbial "Renaisannce Man." He served Venice as a naval engineer and Cesare Borgia as a military engineer. It is believed that he painted the Mona Lisa while serving in the campaign against Pisa. With no formal schooling, he had no ambition to appear in print and many of his ideas and ex- periments were recorded privately. He prepared a book of flood control and his design of the locks on the Pad- erno Canal near Bologna in 1548 is still employed today. He proposed that towns should be built on two levels; the high level for pedestrians, the lower for vehicles, with steps connecting the two levels at frequent intervals. He invented a flying machine, understood the true nature of organic fossils, and clearly anticipated many of the developments of modern times including the self-propelled armored car or tank, the alarm clock, the diving suit and the power loom [37]. Significance of the Middle Ages. The Middle Ages were richer in technological discovery than is usually supposed. In particular the period succeeded in utilizing the elemental forces of nature -- wind, water, and beasts -- to a far greater degree than was possible in previous periods, which depended mainly on the muscles of slaves. Curiously, this was the era in which man found new ways to extend his groping mechanical knowl- edge. The need for weapons and tools kept men improving old machines and devising new ones [38]. Some of the factors that interact to determine the nature of technology in an historical era are the materials available, the accumulated skill and experience of craftsmen, economic and social conditions, and religious and philosophical doctrines. Forbes [39] classifies the tools used to transform raw materials into finished prod- ucts as "direct actors" such as the hammer and chisel which are used directly on the material and prime-movers which are the devices that provide the power for other tools or machinery. The latter which convert the power of animal muscles, running water, wind, or heat into a convenient form of mechanical energy, serve as mea- sures of man’s technological progress. The decline of the feudal system hastened by the advent of the cannon led to a blossoming of city life and of a comprehensive civic hand-craftsmanship. The 14th century was the most prosperous period for the guilds and corporations. Contemporary with the flourishing handicrafts of the late medieval towns came a series of important inventions. One class of inventions were machines for the conversion of motion like the concept of the crank-and-connecting rod. Another class of inventions were machines for the conversion of energy like the hydraulic hammer used for forging. Eventually the concepts of conversion of motion and conversion of energy were combined to develop waterwheels and windmills [40]. The western world would be surprised to learn that paper, printing, and movable type were invented in China several centuries before the European inventor Gutenberg was born. The westward journey of paper- making started in China in 105 A.D., reached Mongolia in 300 A.D.; arrived in Samarkland in 750 A.D.; trans- mitted to Baghdad by 800 A.D., reached Egypt in 900 A.D.; Spain in 1150 A.D. and Germany in the 1300s [12][41]. The significance of the Renaissance to technology is that is marked, not only the separation between sci- ence and religion but of science from philosophy. Anyone who could read was a potential scientist or engineer. This freeing of natural science from religion on the one hand and the domination of philosophy on the other ultimately paved the way for the liaison between science and engineering which culminated in the Industrial Revolution.

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1.6 PRECOLONIAL CIVILIZATIONS

1.6 PRECOLONIAL CIVILIZATIONS

We have seen that one of the manifestations of the Renaissance was global exploration. Three regions greatly affected by this age of discovery were sub-Sahara Africa, the Americas and Southeast Asia. It would be wrong, however, to infer that civilization did not exist in these regions prior to discovery and that it was brought to these areas from Western Europe. African Civilizations. Though the history of tropical Africa is marked by great achievements of its an- cient civilizations, their work has long been obscured by Europeans who have been slow to allow the indige- nous population much credit for sophistication. One of the most inaccurate stereotypes has been the vague general notion that such societies consisted only of scattered groups of people living in small villages in grass huts. There is strong evidence that human beings have been in Africa for two million years, longer than in any other part of the world. There are indications of urban and state development in the Middle Nile beginning about 1500 B.C. By 1000 A.D. these developments had spread to all of Africa, long before 19th century co- lonialism. Neither urbanization nor nationhood were ideas grafted onto Africa from modern Europe [42]. Mesoamerican Civilizations. Mesoamerica is the archeological term used to describe those parts of Mexico, Central America and South America which were early centers of high civilization. Long before Co- lumbus arrived in 1492 three remarkable ancient civilizations had flourished for centuries: (1) the Maya in Yucatan and Central America, (2) the Aztec in central Mexico, and (3) the Inca in South America. There is evidence of the first farming villages in 2500 B.C. By 1519 A.D., taking the Basin of central Mexico alone, there were some 50 to 60 city states, each with its own ruler [43]. One of these, Tenochtitlan, was a metropolis of over 12 square kilometers with from 150,000 to 200,000 inhabitants, which served as Montezuma’s capital when he Spaniards conquered Mexico. It seemed to the Spaniards that the Aztec stronghold must have been the greatest city of pre-Columbian America. Yet only 25 miles to the north was the site of a city that had once been even more impressive. Teotihuacan, as it was called, was larger than imperial Rome in 500 A.D. and for over 500 years it was to middle America what Rome was to the Old World. Unlike the Maya Empire to the south, Teotihuacan was never a "lost" city; the Aztecs were still worshiping at its sacred monuments, including the Pyramid of the Sun (as large at the base as the Great Pyramid of Cheops in Egypt), at the time of the Span- ish Conquest [44]. The Maya Empire may have been even more advanced. It culture reached its peak in the first millennium of the Christian era as indicated by its art and many intellectual achievements including not only a written lan- guage but also calendric and astronomical studies of a high order. Most Maya centers contained a major tem- ple pyramid with sculptured stone monuments bearing images and inscriptions, testimonials to their knowledge [45]. The word, Inca, actually refers to the title of the ruler of the empire in western South America which, at the time of the Spanish Conquest, occupied what is now Peru, Ecuador, Chili, Bolivia and part of Argentina. Communications were maintained along brilliantly engineered roads carried over the sheer Andean gorges by fiber cable suspension bridges [45A]. No discussion of Inca civilization would be complete without mention of Machu Picchu, ancient Inca city in Peru dramatically situated on a high ridge of the Andes. The city gave shelter to thousands of Incas during the 15th century with its water supply provided by a 757 meter long canal built on a series of stone walled terraces carrying water by gravity from the mountainside spring to the city center’s uppermost fountain [45B]. These three great civilizations are especially important for their extraordinary success in agriculture --

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CHAPTER 1: INFRASTRUCTURE, DEVELOPMENT AND CIVILIZATION

particularly in domesticating over 100 plants including corn, beans, squashes, tomatoes, potatoes, tobacco, cotton and chocolate. Because of their success in agriculture, their respective populations are estimated to have exceeded two million [17]. Indo-China Civilization. It was India, at the apogee of her glory and ranking with China and Rome as a center of world culture at the time of the birth of Christ, that brought her culture to Ceylon, Burma, Cambodia and Thailand. Though geographically nearer than India, China initially showed comparatively little interest in her southern barbarian neighbors. Actually the Indianization of Southeast Asia occurred at the zenith of Indian power during the Gupta Period coinciding with a most unsettled period in Chinese history. In each country to which India brought her culture the initial period tended to mirror the parent culture, gradually evolving in a distinctive manner until independent and unique centers of civilization were reached long before colonization by England and France. Testimonials to this are the noble ruins of Anuradhapura, Sigiriya and Polannaruwa in Ceylon, Pagan in Burma and Angkok in Cambodia [46].

1.7 MODERN HISTORY

Modern history is characterized by the most rapid and successful advance along a great variety of sectors -- less the result of the distinctive work of separate peoples, but rather as all parts of a common world civiliza- tion. A significant result of the Middle Ages was the beginning of the understanding in the western world of the technological development process. Firstly, the balance of technological superiority began to swing from the East to the West. Secondly, the basic steps in the technological development process were (as they are now) linked to the satisfaction of the most elementary and insatiable human needs. The reason that the technolog- ical development process never ends is because those needs change -- continually growing in number and in sophistication. The Industrial Revolution. Certain ages in the story of civilization stand out so distinctly that historians have devised special distinguishing labels for them. Popular usage has established the label "the Industrial Revolution" to identify the changes in British industry, and their impact on the economy and society, which occurred in the period from approximately 1750 to 1850. It was a change from the small-scale domestic sys- tem of production to the larger-scale factory system. Steam as a new source of power and the development of new machines were paralleled by improved land and water transportation. Forbes [47] lists the four basic technical achievements of the Industrial Revolution as: (1) replacement of tools by machines, (2) the introduction of new prime movers, (3) the universally available prime mover, and (4) the factory as a new form of organization of production. To these, we would like to add, (5) the elevation of engineering to professional status and (6) a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry. By way of brief explanation, whereas a tool is set in motion by man’s physical strength, a machine is a combination of parts arranged so that natural forces can be made to cause certain definite motions. Machines were developed for various manufacturing processes and engines were developed to drive them. The invention of machine-tools for metal working and wood-working made commercially practicable processes which, even though mechanically possible, could not be performed economically by hand. The new machines demanded a new prime mover, for the existing ones such as wind and water were lim- ited by local conditions. More than any other factor, it was the relentless force of steam that brought about the Industrial Revolution. The power of the steam-engine could be created where needed and in quantities signif-

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1.7 MODERN HISTORY

icantly greater than the older prime movers. The concentration of machines driven by steam-engines in facto- ries was a characteristic feature of the period. James Watt invented the rotative steam engine in 1781 making it possible to drive machines directly from the engine. The first cotton mill to use the engine was in 1788. About a quarter of the 2000 or more steam engines produced in the 18th century were used in the textile industry. The first steam pumping engine to be used for land drainage was built in 1821. These engines were later to be used for removing water from mines and in the construction of canals. The first companies to run regular steamships were formed between 1810 and 1820. By 1852 steamships were sailing to Bombay and Singapore from London with an overland link through Egypt to Suez [48]. The period under review saw the permeation of age-old craft-technology by the scientific approach. For example, there was a complete revolution in chemistry with the rejection of alchemical ideas leading to the extremely rapid development of the chemical industry. The importance of this change in chemical outlook on the chemical industry rests in the complexity of this particular industry. Clow [49] identifies the following unique features of the chemical industry that demanded systematic rather than empirical treatment: (1) the great number of raw materials, (2) the variation in products -- many of which are inputs to other industries, and (3) the diversity of processes. Civil Engineering became a profession in response to the increased demand for bridges, harbor-works, canals and other infrastructure. In its Charter, the Institute of Civil Engineers defined the profession as "the art of directing the great source of the power of nature for the use and convenience of man" [50]. Engineering was clearly making great strides. It was directed particularly to the needs of towns and the industries located in them. The rise of engineering was the work of an urban civilization. Colonialism. The reasons for the industrial revolution occurring are not fully understood. Britain had certain advantages over Continental Europe. There were rich deposits of coal and iron, a long tradition of com- mercial banking, population growth, internal peace and security, and a burst of inventions and technological improvements. Of course, Britain held no monopoly on these elements and the Industrial Revolution eventu- ally spread throughout western Europe and America. With Europe’s industrial strength came its colonial drive in the late 18th century and they gradually divided the territories of Africa, South Asia and the Americas among themselves. The wars of independence between 1776 and 1825 ended almost 400 years of conquest and colonization in North and South America. However, economic and political subjugation continued in Asia and Africa until after the Second World War. By far the most important colonies were India, Southeast Asia (Burma, Indoch- ina, the Malay Peninsula, and the East Indies). There was, of course, much more to the economic revolution of the period than colonialism. The period produced its full complement of economic theory -- part of it to justify the new order, part of it for critical analysis, and the remainder as a gospel of social reform. Adam Smith published the "Wealth of Nations" in 1776 in which he, while accepting the principle of "laissey-faire," maintained that government intervention was desirable to ensure the maintenance of public health, advancement of education, and prevention of injus- tice. A disciple of his, Thomas Malthus, published his "Essay on Population" in 1798 in which he contended that there is a natural tendency for population to increase more rapidly than the means of subsistence. He ar- gued that even if laws were to be passed distributing all the wealth equally, the condition of the poor would be only temporarily improved because they would only begin to raise larger families. Lastly, a third revolution accompanying the industrial and economic was political in nature. In England,

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the United States, and France, political revolutions succeeded in proclaiming the rights of men. In Europe these were the by-products of technological, economic and social changes which were felt in the new industrial towns and cities. Significance of the Period. From 1750 onwards, for the first time in history, a predominantly agricultural society was to become predominantly industrial. However, a highly significant, but little appreciated, feature of the period according to Fleck [50] was that most of the goods were mainly the products and by-products of an agricultural economy -- both native and overseas colonial. He states that even exports of manufacturers, such as hardware and textiles shipped to Africa in the great triangular trade with the West Indies, were mainly the output of cottage industries. By providing work for the farmer and his family when they were not busy on the land, cottage industry permitted the otherwise uneconomic working of small farms and was an essential feature of the agrarian economy. The technological, economic and political revolution of this period had profound effects on the develop- ment of man. They brought about new industrial and urban centers with the results that the majority of people were not tied to their fields. They were able to move from place to place, and from one position in society to another. Around the middle of the 19th century, the Industrial Revolution shifted gears and entered a new phase. This new phase marked the spread of industrialization to Europe and America. In Europe, a group of French, German and Belgian inventors was conceiving machines just as ingenious as those that sparked the Industrial Revolution in Britain. Most of their efforts centered on the search for less cumbersome power sources than the steam engine. They succeeded in adding the water turbine, the internal-combustion engine, the electrical generator and artificial fertilizers to an already prolific period of invention [51]. In the United States inventions like Whitney’s cotton gin, Fulton’s steamboat, and Morse’s telegraph es- tablished the new nation’s technological sophistication. In 1834 an American farmer, Cyrus McCormick, pat- ented his mechanical reaper; by 1860 he was manufacturing and selling 20,000 a year [52]. Easily the greatest contribution of America to the development of technology in the Industrial Revolution was "mass-production," which came to be known as the "American system" of manufacture. A second contribution of the U.S. to tech- nology in the middle of the 19th century was the complete interchangeability of parts. Interestingly enough these concepts, plus "division of labor" and "specialization" were necessitated by the scarcity of skilled labor in the new world. In general, the technological developments which serve to distinguish this second phase of the Industrial Revolution from the first are the following: (1) the growth of food technology -- the application of food science to food management -- as an industry; (2) the substitution of steel in place of iron as the basic industrial ma- terial; (3) the replacement of coal by petroleum as the principal source of power; (4) the use of electricity as the major form of industrial and private energy; (5) the use of alloys and light metals and the products of in- dustrial chemistry; (6) radical changes in transportation and communication; and (7) the development of au- tomatic machinery and a high degree of specialization of labor. Some comments will be offered about each of these developments [3]. Mankind has always been faced with the task of producing and preserving food. The scope of this task increased with the Industrial Revolution, with its urbanization, generally accompanied by a rapid increase in population. Whereas food management -- the grading, processing, preserving, packaging, and storage of foods for distribution in convenient forms -- was formerly done in the home, it was not to be transferred to large fac- tories [53].

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1.7 MODERN HISTORY

Almost simultaneously in the U.S. and in England in the middle of the century a process was invented whereby the excess carbon could be burned out of the molten iron by the introduction of a jet of air, thereby toughening it for the production of steel. The results was to cut the price of steel so that it quickly replaced iron for rails and heavy construction. Although interest in petroleum products go back to Roman times, the demand for them was small. De- velopments in drilling technology such as the idea of a derrick and an assembly center for all machinery and power-engines at the mouth of the drill-hole and wrought iron bits with steel cutting-edges solved the problem of supply but new uses were continually being sought. The invention of the internal-combustion engine solved the problem because a couple of decades later in 1913 Ford’s assembly line production of 1000 cars a day ush- ered in the motor age. The advent of the modern machine age demanded a means of widely distributing energy in small pack- ages adaptable to a wide range of possible applications. Electricity was the key. It not only opened up a new source and field of energy but it made available in any required quantity at any time to any potential user who could be reached by wires. Although electrical engineering had been established in the last years of the 19th century, it was not until the 20th that its impact penetrated deeply into modern life. The rise of the electrical industry depended upon overcoming problems of its generation, distribution and utilization. The dynamo which was under development from 1831 to 1837 solved the problem of converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. Electric motors were manufactured to convert the electric energy back into mechanical energy. Experience gained in the development of the electric telegraph was turned to good account in solving the problems of transmission and distribution of electrical power. If the first phase of the Industrial Revolution could be called the age of steam, the second phase might be referred to as the age of electricity. In it civilization gained every required form of energy, motive-power, light, and warmth in a most convenient and practical form. Because of it, in the early years of the new century, telegraph cables joined the far corners of the earth, to be followed by radio, television, modern electrical home appliances and the whole area of electronics [54]. The production of coal-tar dyes in 1856 foreshadowed the beginning of a marvelous development of syn- thetic chemistry. From this same coal-tar it was discovered that literally thousands of dyes could be derived, together with an infinite variety of other products from aspirin to vanilla. As time passed, many additional substances were added to the list of synthetic products. Still more recently, remarkable progress has been made in the development of plastics manufactured from various substances, such as coal and petroleum deriv- atives [53]. The second half of the 19th century saw the phenomenal growth of railroad transportation. In the U.S. almost 300,000 kilometers of track were constructed in this 50 year period. After the turn of the century, how- ever, the railroads suffered severely under competition from such newer forms of transportation as pipelines, highway transportation, and air transportation. The automobile and the airplane were to endow mankind with unprecedented mobility as well as some unforeseen and unfortunate side-effects. After 1850 there was an enormous increase in mass production, division of labor, and finally the use of automative machinery. The latter was made practical by such inventions as the photoelectric cell, or "electric eye," which could be used to sense or measure and then actuate an appropriate control mechanism. A natural extension of this success was the development of machines to direct and operate other machines and to com- plete whole series of manufacturing processes which formerly required much human labor.

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1.8 THE AMERICAN CENTURY

The beginning of the Industrial Revolution probably owed less to the inventory of scientific theory car- ried over from the Renaissance than it did to the creative empiricism and persistent trial-and-error of the time. However, during the second phase of the Industrial Revolution in the last half of the 19th century, the impor- tance of applied science was evident, especially in the newer industries such as the chemical and electrical. It has been suggested that a lesson for our time is the fact that the greater the extent to which scientists and engi- neers assumed control of an industry, the more rapid the need for them expanded [55]. It follows that the only way that the scientists, engineers, and technicians could be supplied then, and can be supplied now, is through relevant technical educations. A dependence between science and technology exists. Scientific theory may follow, rather than precede, a major technological accomplishment. Similarly, although the causal relationships are not well understood, we know that technological, economic, sociological, political, and cultural changes develop together, each stimulating the others. Colonialism (an economic phenomenon) created the need for industrialization (tech- nological) causing increased urbanization (sociological). The effect of this was that the ratio of producers of food to consumers was continually diminishing. The solution to this problem was achieved through increased production and improved distribution of food -- both using technological means. Farm production was greatly increased through mechanization and the use of artificial fertilizers. The distribution problem was solved by matching supply to demand in space through improvements in transportation, and by matching supply to de- mand in time through the development of new food-preserving technologies. The new countries that benefitted from the industrialization and urbanization of Europe were the United States, Canada, Argentina, Australia and New Zealand. Later the rich soils of the Russian Ukraine were brought under cultivation to help fill the demand for food. By the close of the 19th century economic advances born of the Industrial Revolution in Europe had spread not only to the Western World, but to Japan -- and were soon to reach Russia. Japan was opened to western science and technology in 1854 by an American naval officer, Commodore Perry, who presented the Mikado with a miniature train driven by steam. With the rise of the Soviet Union to power after the First World War, a process of intensive industrializa- tion began. It was also during the First World War that the United States emerged as the leading industrial

nation of the world prompting reference of the 1900’s as "The American Century" [55A]. A Second World War, which -- like the first -- was a war of nationalism, had to be fought. The U.S. and U.S.S.R. were to emerge as "superpowers." Europe and Japan were to be nursed to recovery by massive amounts of American economic assistance and both -- the European Common Market and Japan -- would become economic giants. The rise in standards of living in many parts of the world, the spectacular advantages in technology, and the achievement of self-government by such former "colonies" as India, Indonesia, and some of the new Afri- can nations, encouraged many people to believe that technology, which had been uses as an instrument of de- struction during the Second World War, would banish the age-old curse of early death, of grinding poverty, and ceaseless toil. Public opinion forced scores of newly crated governments to embrace the concept of "economic development" through forced-draft industrialization emphasizing the most modern technology. Perhaps the only common denominator in the community of nations in 1950 was the demand of acceptance by world so- ciety of a thoroughly technological civilization.

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1.9 SUMMARY

The Second World War and the "Cold War" that followed signaled a technological leap from one order of magnitude to another. Electronics, nuclear fission and jet propulsion were to have profound effects on all three of the principal components of technology -- information, energy and materials. No attempt will be made to discuss these in the context of history since they are of the present. The estimation of their impact on society and the development process are subjects to be treated in the next two chapters.

1.9 SUMMARY

History opens with the civilization of the great empires of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China -- their technologies to a considerable extent determined by the great rivers, the Nile, the Euphrates, the Tigris, the Yellow and the Ganges. Irrigation, the building of dykes and canals, the control and utilization of flood waters, were major engineering undertakings on a scale that necessitated organization by the State. Infrastructure investment was followed by institution-building. When Mesopotamia was divided among a number of city-states, these competed for sufficient water to flood their lands, and each city had its own ir- rigation board. Properly trained officials supervised the irrigation systems which allowed the farmlands to yield two crops a year in some places. The importance of this water supply infrastructure is clearly seen be- cause when warriors invaded enemy country, they regularly singled out their irrigation works for particular destruction. The so-called "agricultural revolution" made possible by the control of water resources was accompanied by an "energy revolution." When primitive man succeeded in controlling fire for his warmth, food and protec- tion, he achieved the first milestone in man’s continued quest for greater control over his environment. The sources of power available in classical antiquity were limited to man-power and animal power. To place this in perspective, Landels [23] estimates that a gallon of gasoline used in any ordinary engine of average efficien- cy will do the equivalent work of 90 men or nine horses. Clearly, socioeconomic development is highly de- pendent on infrastructure to generate and distribute energy efficiently so that it is available when and where it is needed. Without doubt the most important milestone in the history of man’s utilization of energy sources was the development in the late eighteenth century of a practical device which for the first time made possible the

use of the chemical energy of wood and coal to drive all kinds of industrial machines and transport. This device was the steam engine. Although the idea of using a fluid to absorb heat and by subsequent expansion do work was known for centuries before, it was not until after James Watt’s invention that the steam engine became an efficient heat engine. Technological developments dating back to Antiquity gradually led to a regular production of surplus foodstuffs, a "social surplus," which supported another revolution that evolved side-by-side with those of ag- riculture and energy -- the "urban revolution." Farming villages slowly developed into urban centers and trade was no longer limited to luxuries such as exotic spices but involved staples of diet. Farmers brought their sur- plus grain to the city where skilled, full-time craftsmen traded the articles they had produced for the food they needed. This specialization and division of labor fostered trade and increased the importance of transportation. Despite the exponential growth in trade, transportation was still very primitive. Water transport evolved

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CHAPTER 1: INFRASTRUCTURE, DEVELOPMENT AND CIVILIZATION

slowly starting with rafts suitable only for inland waterways. Boats made of bundles of reeds were used in ancient Egypt and dug-out canoes in Mesopotamia. When the ancients learned to take advantage of the pro- pulsive power of wind, water transport spread to the open seas. At the advent of the Roman Empire, ships of 400 to 500 tons of cargo were not uncommon. Ancient oar-powered warships could cruise at speeds of 6 knots with a maximum of 12-13 knots [57]. In studying the history of transportation infrastructure, there is no field which is more interesting and fas- cinating than the history of our highways. Whereas the history of rail, air and modern water transport is largely the history of technological progress over the past two centuries, the development of highways is in itself the story of man’s development from prehistory to the present day. On all six continents there is evidence of an- cient purposefully constructed roads that were deliberated, planned and constructed for a definite use as op- posed to mere unimproved tracks which would have become established simply due to repeated use of the same routes. Water supply represented one of the most serious problems for Greek and Roman urban communities of the Classical Period. With each new urban center, and major expansion of an existing one, new supplies had to be found, tested and carried over some distance to the delivery point where at least some storage capacity had to be provided. This required extensive infrastructure, which had to be planned, designed, operated, main- tained and managed so a to reconcile all kinds of legal and administrative problems concerning consumers’ rights and financing. The Romans, Greeks, and other people in the Classical Period centered their lives on fortified cities which were religious, legal and business centers. The Greeks called such a center polis which we have to this day, incorporated for the names of cities such as "Indianapolis." The Romans had the "civitas" or city-state of which Rome was the most important. It consisted of a fortified hilltop with a cluster of market and public buildings and a wall about the whole settlement. The open village was outside the walls, and the farm lands where the peasants and nobles plowed and tended their animals was also in the civitas. By the Middle Ages, in the development of prosperous towns, a very large amount of the activity and wealth of the citizens was devoted to public improvements. In Europe, there was a lively town spirit in which a town would express its character much as we see today. A great deal of money was inevitably devoted to the erection of at least one great public church [57A]. Water transportation continued to advance during the Middle Ages with the invention of the canal-lock chamber for inland waterways and the invention of the modern rudder for steering ocean vessels. Advances in ship-building based on just constructing the skeleton and then nailing on the planks reduced the costs of maritime commerce significantly. Soon there appeared the magnetic compass which revolutionized naviga- tion. By the end of the 13th century, Europe began to contemplate the use of oceanic sea-routes for world trade and exploration. Some of the many bridges built during the Renaissance were erected to span canals which were increas- ingly coming into use. Canals had been dug in ancient times, serving chiefly for irrigation and domestic water supply. The canal slowly evolved to become of vital importance in the days before the advent of the railroad, when road traffic was limited and waterways were the major transportation arteries of trade and commerce. We have used the terms "agricultural revolution," "energy revolution" and "urban revolution" to define sectoral change. The term "Industrial Revolution" is the most universally accepted by historians in describing technological and socio-cultural change associated with a period. If we think of the word "revolution" as im- plying only a quick and sudden overthrow, then none of these "revolutions" were not so much revolutionary as they were evolutionary. We must regard the Industrial Revolution more as a process than as a distinct period

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1.9 SUMMARY

of time which explains why it has taken place in different places around the world at different times. Wherever and whenever it occurred, it transformed societies by taking men away from the traditional agricultural pur- suits and introducing them to novel ways of working and living in factory and city. Perhaps more than any other single factor, improved transportation infrastructure was the key to the suc- cess of the Industrial Revolution. A nation can never know in advance what the final solution of a pressing national problem will be, particularly if the technical means that will in time make the problem soluble have not yet emerged. Thus it was in Europe and in the United States during the period of the Industrial Revolution. That a need existed for better transportation was evident to thoughtful men. "Good roads, canals, and navigable rivers," wrote the great English economist, Adam Smith,"by diminishing the expense of carriage of goods, thus opening new markets to producers are on that account the greatest of all improvements" [50]. The impact of the steam powered boats and trains was enormous in England and the United States, but as Ferguson [58] points out, their results were somewhat different. While in the United Kingdom the new sys- tems of transportation were connecting already established centers of population and industry, those in the U.S. were designed to probe that sparsely settled territory to the west, bringing to large sections of the new continent not only whole populations but also the avenues of trade that permitted rapid development of centers of industry. The steamboat and railroad not only encouraged commerce and industry but also the industry that built transportation systems -- boilers, rails, engines, new bridges and existing wooden bridges replaced by iron ones. In the U.S. improved transportation was, in the late 19th century, the gateway to future greatness.

REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 1 1. Wheeler, M.; "The First Towns," Antiquity 30; 1956 2. Adams, B. A.; "Civilization During the Middle Ages," Charles Scribner’s Sons; New York; 1896. 3. Drew, D. R. and C. H. Hsieh; "A Systems View of Development," Cheng Yang Publishing Co.; Taipei; 1984. 4. Clark, G.; "Primitive Man as Hunter, Fisher, Forager, and Farmer," in "The Origins of Civilization," Ed. by P.R.S. Moorey; Clarendon Press; Oxford 1979. 5. Davis, Kingsley; "The Migrations of Human Populations"; in "Civilization: Readings from Scientific American," W. H. Freeman and Co.; San Francisco; 1978. 6. Mellaart, James; "Early Urban Communities in the Near East"; in "The Origins of Civilization,"; Ed. by P.R.S. Moorey; Clarendon Press; Oxford 1979. 7. Childe, G. V.; "Early Forms of Society"; in "A History of Technology," Vol. 1, Ed. by C. Singer, E. Holm- yard and A. Hall; Oxford University Press; Ely House; London; 1967. 8. Kramer, S. N.; "The Sumerians"; in "Civilization: Readings from Scientific American"; W.H. Freeman and Co.; San Francisco; 1978. 9. Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C.; "An Early City in Iran"; in "Civilization: Readings from Scientific American"; W. H. Freeman and Co.; San Francisco; 1978. 10. Hodges, H.; "Technology in the Ancient World"; Alfred A. Knopf Publishers; New York; 1970. 11. Klemm, F.; "A History of Western Technology"; The M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, 1964.

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12. Needham, J. and Wang Ling; "Science and Civilization in China", Vol. I; Cambridge University Press; 1954; P. 242. 13. Forbes, F. J.; "Extracting, Smelting, and Alloying"; in "A History of Technology," Vol. I; Ed. by C. Singer, E. Holmyard and A. Hall; Oxford University Press; Ely House; London, 1967. 14. Piggott, Stuart; "The Beginnings of Wheeled Transport"; in "Civilization: Readings from Scientific Amer- ican"; W. H. Freeman and Co.; San Francisco; 1978 15. Drucker, P.F.; "Technology, Management and Society"; William Heinemana Ltd.; London; 1970. 16. Forbes, R. J.; "Mesopotamian and Egyptian Technology"; in "Technology in Western Civilization Vol. I"; Ed. by M. Kranzberg and C. W. Pursell, Jr.; Oxford University Press; New York; 1967. 17. Stravrianos, L. S.; "A Global History of Man"; Allyn and Bacon, Inc.; Boston; 1966. 18. Bowra, C. M.; "Classical Greece"; Time Incorporated; New York; 1965. 19. Milsson, M. P.; "Imperial Rome"; Schocken Books; New York; 1967. 19A "Art and History of Rome"; Casa Editrice Bonechi; Florence, Italy; 1994. 20. Drachmann, A. G.; "The Classical Civilizations"; in "Technology in Western Civilization Vol. I"; Ed. by M. Kranzberg and C. W. Pursell, Jr.; Oxford University Press; New York; 1967. 21. "Archimedes Weapon"; Time Magazine; November 26, 1973. 22. Goodchild, R. G. and R. J. Forbes; "Roads and Land Travel"; in "A History of Technology Vol. II"; Ed. by C. Singer, E. Holmyard, A. Hall, and T. Williams; Oxford University Press; Ely House; London; 1967. 22A Trapasso, M.; "Water Wisdom of the Ancients"; Civil Engineering; Jan. 1996; P. 64. 23. Landels, J. G.; "Engineering in the Ancient World"; Chatto & Windus Publishers; London; 1978. 24. Robinson, F.; "Atlas of the Islamic World"; Facts on File, Inc.; New York; 1982. 25. Parkinson, C. N.; "East and West"; Houghton-Muffin Co.; Boston; 1965. 26. Hoang, M.; "Genghis Khan"; The Camelot Press; Trowbridge; 1990. 27. "Time Frame A. D. 1200-1300"; by the Editors of Time-Life Books; Alexandria, VA; 1989. 28. Brett, Peter; "The Mongol Empire"; Weidenfeld and Nichoson Ltd.; London; 1976. 29. Obschki, L.; "Marco Polo’s Precursors"; Octagon Books; New York; 1972. 30. Obschki, L.; "Marco Polo’s Asia"; Univ. of California Press; Berkeley; 1960. 31. Soulsby, I.; "The Towns of Medieval Wales"; Chicester Ltd.; London; 1983. 32. Thompson, M. W.; "The Rise of the Castle"; Cambridge University Press; Cambridge; 1991. 33. Burke, John; "The Castle in Medieval England"; B. T. Batsford Ltd.; London; 1978. 34. Thompson, M. W.; "The Decline of the Castle"; Cambridge University Press; Cambridge; 1987. 35. Tsanoff, R. A.; "Civilization and Progress"; The University Press of Kentucky; Lexington; 1971. 35A Brucker, G. A.; "Renaissance Florence"; Univ. of California Press; Berkeley; 1969; P.. 242.

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35B "The Art and History of Venice"; Casa Editrice Bonechi; Florence, Italy; 1996; P. 3. 36. Thompson, J. W,. G. Rowley, F. Schevill, and G. Sarton; "The Civilization of the Renaissance"; Fredericak Ungar Publishing Co.; New York; 1959. 37. Cronin, V.; "The Flowering of the Renaissance"; Pimlico Publishing; London; 1992. 38. Finch, J. K.; The Story of Engineering; Doubleday and Co. Inc.; Garden City, NY; 1960. 39. Forbes, R. J.; "Power"; A History of Technology, Vol. II; Ed. by C. Singer, E. Holmyard, A. Hall and T. Williams; Oxford University Press; Ely House; London W. 1, 1967. 40. Gille, B.; "Machines"; A History of Technology, Vol. II; Ed. by C. Singer, E. Holmyard, A. Hall, and T. Williams; Oxford University Press; Ely House; London W. 1, 1967. 41. "A Pictorial History of Printing," Bangkok Post Supplement, June 30, 1973. 42. Connah, G.; "African Civilizations"; Cambridge University Press; Cambridge; 1987. 43. Brag, W.; "From Village to City in Mesoamerica"; in "The Origins of Civilization," Ed. by P.R.S. Moorey; Clarendon Press; Oxford; 1979. 44. Millon, R.; "Teotihuacan"; in "Civilization: Readings from Scientific American"; Ed. by B. M. Fagan; W. H. Freeman and Co.; San Francisco; 1979. 45. Hammond, N.; "The Planning of a Maya Ceremonial Center"; in "Civilization: Readings from the Scien- tific American"; Ed. by B. M. Fagan; W. H. Freeman and Co.; San Francisco; 1979. 45A The Concord Encyclopedia, Concord Reference Books, New York, 1977, P. 621. 45B Wright, K.; "Hydraulic Secrets of Ancient Inca City"; ASCE News, May 1996; American Society of Civil Engineers; New York; P. 16. 46. Swaan, W.; "Lost Cities of Asia"; G. P. Putnam’s Sons; New York; 1966. 47 . Forbes, R. J.; "Power to 1850"; A History of Technology, Vol. IV; Ed. by C. Singer, E. Holmyard, A. Hall, and T. Williams; Oxford University Press; Ely House; London; 1967. 48. Lines, C.; "Companion to the Industrial Revolution"; Facts on file, Ltd.; New York; 1990. 49. Clou, N. L.; "The Chemical Industry: Interaction with the Industrial Revolution"; A History of Technol- ogy, Vol. IV; Ed. by C. Singer, E. Holmyard, A. Hall, and T. Williams; Oxford University Press; Ely House; London; 1967. 50. Beals, H. L.; "The Industrial Revolution"; Augustua M. Kelly Publishers; New York; 1967. 51. Fleck, A.; "Technology and Its Social Consequences"; A History of Technology, Vol. V; Ed. by C. Singer, E. Holmyard, A. Hall, and T. Williams; Oxford University Press; Ely House; London; 1967. 52. Furnas, C. C. and J. McCarthy; The Engineer; Life Science Library; Time Inc.; New York; 1966. 53. Kerby, R.; Engineering in History; McGraw-Hill Book Co.; 1956. 54. Burns, E. M. and P.E. Ralph; World Civilizations: Their History and Culture, Vol. 2; W. W. Norton & Co., Inc.; New York; 1964. 55. Schubert, H. R.; "The Steel Industry"; A History of Technology, Vol. V; Ed. by C. Singer, E. Holmyard, A. Hall, and T. Williams; Oxford University Press; Ely House; London; 1967.

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55A Pursell, C. W. and Kranzberg, M.; "The Promise of Technology of the Twentieth Century"; Technology in Western Civilization; Ed. by Kranzberg, M. and Pursell, C. W.; Oxford University Press; London; 1967; P. 5. 56. Ashby, E.; "Education for an Age of Technology"; A History of Technology, Vol. V; Ed. by C. Singer, E. Holmyard, A. Hall, and T. Williams; Oxford University Press; Ely House; London; 1967. 57. Forbes, F. J.; "The Beginnings of Technological Man"; in "A History of Technology,": Vol. 1; Ed. by Melvin Kranzberg and C. W. Pursell, Jr.; Oxford University Press; London; 1967. 57A Reynolds, R. L.; "Europe Emerges: Transition Toward an Industrial World-Wide Society"; The University of Wisconsin Press; Madison; 1967; P. 247. 58. Ferguson, F. S.; "Steam Transportation"; in "A History of Technology," Vol. I; Ed. by Melvin Kranzberg and C. W. Pursell, Jr.; Oxford University Press; London 1967.

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