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Home , The Castle of Otranto

CC 8 Semester IV

British Literature : 18th Century

The Castle of

Horace Walpole

Context

First Gothic

The Castle of Otranto is considered by most scholars to be the first Gothic novel. When the novel was published in 1764, there was a good deal of debate as to what the function of fiction was, or ought to be. Thus, was well aware that he was creating a new genre and laying down the foundations for it. The prevailing attitude was that fiction should be representative of life and as real as possible. Many of these realistic books went into excruciating detail in order to outline the etiquette and manners of their characters.

This frustrated Walpole, who wanted to write imaginative stories, which he believed were more authentic than realistic works and showed a different or under-analyzed side of humanity. According to Walpole, blending "new" and "old" romance—where the "old" was fantastical and the "new" was grounded in reality—could show why people behaved the way they did, instead of merely reporting on a characters' surface behaviors. The Castle of Otranto places ordinary people in extraordinary situations, which Walpole claimed to have come to him in dreams. He explained, "I have given reins to my imagination till I became on fire with the visions and feelings which it excited. I have composed it in defiance of rules, of critics, and of philosophers; and it seems to me just so much the better for that very reason."

Borrowing from Walpole's imaginative constructs in The Castle of Otranto, subsequent authors of the 18th and 19th centuries wrote innumerable stories with creepy corridors, horrific apparitions, sensational and mysterious settings, and unusual and supernatural circumstances. Authors borrowed and adapted many concepts that came directly from The Castle of Otranto, such as the , the mysterious stranger, and the skeleton in the closet. English novelist Jane Austen's Northanger Abbey (1817), written at the beginning of the Romantic movement, is a satire of the hugely popular Gothic published during her lifetime.

The literary movement known as , a widespread rebellion against formal harmony and straightforward realism, swept through Europe from the late 18th century to the mid-19th century. The development of Gothic conventions eventually inspired Gothic Romanticism. English novelist Emily Brontë's (1847) is one example of a Gothic Romance. French novelist Victor Hugo's Notre-Dame de Paris (1831, known in modern times as The Hunchback of Notre Dame) is another well- known example. Like The Castle of Otranto, it is set in the medieval time period. Walpole and Medieval History

In his introduction to The Castle of Otranto, Scottish poet and historian Sir Walter Scott (1771–1832) says Walpole intended to return to the Middle Age's "secret and reserved feeling of love for the marvellous [sic] and supernatural" and "draw such a picture of domestic life and manners, during the feudal times ... chequered [sic] and agitated by the action of supernatural machinery, such as the superstition of the period received as matter of devout credulity." In other words, Walpole wanted to write a story where the characters believed in and supernatural signs.

In the 1760s, the time period in which Walpole was writing, gothick was a general term for a distasteful and barbarian past called the Middle Ages or medieval time period (c. 500 to 1400–1500 CE). This sentiment stems from when the Goths, a Germanic tribe, invaded the Roman Empire sometime in the 5th century CE and initiated the Empire's downfall. Walpole's readers were in the midst of the Age of Enlightenment, or Age of Reason (1685–1815), which was marked by a devotion to science and rationality. Neoclassical (1660–1798) attitudes (logic, conservatism, restraint, and devotion to the artistic styles of Ancient Rome and Greece) had also pervaded England, and most of society at this time looked down upon the religious superstition (and the religious politics) of distant centuries. But Walpole was attracted to the idea of bringing that past to life in fiction, to shake up the "cold common sense" and "philosophical skepticism" he disliked about the society in which he lived. To better understand the events, allusions, and character motivations in The Castle of Otranto, it is helpful to have some understanding or knowledge of the Middle Ages.

Catholicism in the Middle Ages

Catholicism, which was the only branch of Christianity widely practiced in Europe, functioned much like a government in modern times would. Although many thinkers of the time desired a different relationship between the church and the state, the church and state were not separated. However, within the church, material and social offices were dealt with separately from the spiritual, but, still, these were blurred. The pope and his papacy had ultimate power over much of Europe and all its reigning monarchs from his seat in Rome. (Muslims controlled the Iberian Peninsula near Portugal and Spain, and there were large Jewish populations in many European countries. There was also an entirely separate Orthodox Church centered in Asia.)

The canonized saints who performed miracles, and it kept meticulous records of people whose lives suggested exceptional accordance with God. Such people may have exhibited divine powers to heal or practice miracles while alive. They may also have exhibited such divine powers after death, either in spirit form by appearing to those on earth or from power left behind in the saints' relics. Relics are saints' body parts, such as their bones, or objects the saints touched that were left behind. The practice of listing, recording, and venerating the miraculous deeds of the saints is called hagiography.

The belief in miraculous powers was differentiated from practicing magic—to an extreme degree. For example, the Spanish Inquisition (1478–1834) was a brutal and bloody slaughtering of those who were accused of witchcraft and sorcery or those perceived to not believe "correctly"—according to the pope—in the Catholic religion. People were held in prisons, tortured, or burned alive, and they often confessed to religious "crimes" as a means to stop unbearable torture. Further, practicing magic and sorcery was aligned with the devil. In contrast, the power and prophecy of the saints or the spirits of the saints were seen to derive from God. Walpole stays true to this Middle Age distinction between magic and the miraculous supernatural.

St. Nicholas

St. Nicholas, who is the only saint portrayed in The Castle of Otranto, was a popular saint throughout the Middle Ages. St. Nicholas was a legend likely based on the real bishop of Myra, who lived in the 4th century. After his death, the bishop of Myra's relics (bones) were exhumed and moved a few times, each time causing a fresh stirring in his popularity. Nicholas was known for giving gifts to the poor and acts of kindness; because of his reputation, numerous plays, feasts, and paintings were dedicated to him over many centuries. Miraculous water with the power to heal is said to come from the bones of St. Nicholas, going all the way back to 1087. Over the centuries thousands of churches have been built in St. Nicholas's honor. When his popularity died down in other countries in the 18th century, he remained popular in Holland, where he was called by the Dutch designation Sinterklaas. The Dutch, who founded New Amsterdam, now known as New York City, continued to honor St. Nicholas, and he evolved slowly into what became known as Santa Claus in the 19th century in the United States.

St. Nicholas is the name of the church in The Castle of Otranto. St. Nicholas, as a character in the narrative, appears in or is related to all of the prophecies and visions that occur or are discussed in the novel. In The Castle of Otranto, Alfonso the Good's statue bleeds, which is much like St. Nicholas's relics dispensing of water. Also, at the end of the novel Alfonso the Good's appears, and the power of the appearance causes part of the castle to crumble. Alfonso the Good rises to heaven and is greeted by St. Nicholas. Hence, Alfonso the Good, a fictional character Walpole created, is portrayed as a saint from the Middle Ages would be.

Feudalism

The castle of Otranto, the actual structure, is only a part of what Manfred, Prince of Otranto, is lord of. While Walpole does not delve into these particulars, Otranto would be more like a feudal estate of the type that structured medieval European society: a village or small city within the castle walls, surrounded by farmland. Otranto is a community, and Manfred rules his own army; although he would technically be the subject of a king, everyone in Otranto would be considered Manfred's subject.

The

Two of the novel's characters, Frederic, Marquis of Vicenza, and Alfonso the Good, fought in the Crusades (1095–1291+), a series of religious wars the Catholic Church waged in an attempt to gain control of Jerusalem and the Holy Land, which was under Islamic rule during much of the medieval period. Because of its importance to the three Abrahamic faiths—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—ownership of the Holy Land had been contested for centuries. In particular, members of all three faiths sought control over and access to the sites where historical events had occurred in what is now the Middle East. These places came to be considered sacred sites—many of which overlap—for all three faiths, and access to them is a source of discord and violence even to this day.

The Crusades led to the forming of several military religious orders consisting of knights who appointed themselves protectors of the Holy Land and those traveling there from Europe. Templars or Knights Templars, the Teutonic Knights, and the Hospitallers are among these orders.

Romances, Tales of Chivalry

Walpole, Scott says, wanted to mix current literary trends in fiction of the 1760s with the "ancient romances of chivalry," which had been far out of fashion "so early as the reign of Queen Elizabeth (1533–1603)." These were popular stories beginning in the mid-12th century. Tales of courtly, ideal love with distinct moral conventions and codes of honor (chivalry) include stories such as those about King Arthur and his knights and Camelot, to which French poet Chrétien de Troyes (12th century) added the character Lancelot and the idea of the Holy Grail. In The Castle of Otranto, Frederic and Alfonso the Good, who are knights, adhere to most of these codes of honor, while Manfred breaks them all, particularly in his lustful pursuit of Isabella through the gloomy castle. Courtly, ideal love is chaste, and Frederic, under Walpole's inventiveness, diverges from the medieval trope of knightly honor, as he struggles to make the right moral choice about marrying Matilda and giving his daughter Isabella to Manfred—who is already married—to wed.

The Castle of Otranto and Shakespeare

In the Preface to the First Edition, Walpole pretends he is only the translator of a recovered manuscript and not the writer of The Castle of Otranto, and, in doing so, he adds humor and an additional layer of fiction to his ensuing narrative. "It is a pity," Walpole says, speaking of the supposed "author," "that he did not apply his talents to what they were evidently proper for, the theatre." And then, in the Preface to the Second Edition, when Walpole has been uncovered to be the real writer, he unabashedly takes on French writer Voltaire's and others' criticism of his novel. "The great master of nature, SHAKESPEARE, was the model I copied," Walpole informs his readers. It is difficult to read The Castle of Otranto without envisioning it for the stage or thinking of several of Shakespeare's well-known plays.

With regard to plot, the novel reads like a Shakespearean play told in prose, which Walpole, based on his introductory remarks, may have intended it to be. It is most reminiscent of a contorted version of Romeo and Juliet (1594–96) but with vital twists and differences. Theodore would be equivalent to Romeo and Matilda to Juliet, but instead of two young lovers rebelling against their parents and their parents' conventions and the long enmity between their houses, Montague and Capulet, it is Manfred and Hippolita, Matilda's dysfunctional parents. All of the parents in The Castle of Otranto, Hippolita, Manfred, and Frederic are more like the over-passionate teenagers in Romeo and Juliet, who are willing to do anything (particularly the lust-driven Manfred and Frederic), while the youth, including Isabella, are calm, dutiful, and responsible.

Romeo and Juliet's central dilemma also involves a problem between two houses, but in The Castle of Otranto, two families are fighting over one house. Though the reader does not know it for a long time, Manfred is not the rightful owner of Otranto, and he is chasing down a way—through Isabella—to become the rightful owner and join two lineages. In addition, both the play and novel have as a central character a meddling monk, one friar with secrets to keep (Friar Laurence, Romeo and Juliet) and the other friar with secrets to reveal (Father Jerome, The Castle of Otranto).

Hippolita is a variation of Hippolyta, the queen of the Amazons in A Midsummer Night's Dream (1595–96). The Castle of Otranto's Hippolita, whose husband wants to divorce her for a younger woman who is like a daughter to them both, is like an unwanted castaway—instead of a queen—caught in a midlife nightmare. The betrothals, misplaced desires, and breaking of betrothals in The Castle of Otranto all bring to mind the fairy hijinks in A Midsummer Night's Dream. For example, Manfred tries to marry Isabella; Matilda and Theodore fall in love but Matilda agrees to marry Frederic; and Isabella and Matilda fight over Theodore. However, while the comedy shimmers in Shakespeare's play, similar circumstances in the novel are gloomy and of serious consequence. A Midsummer Night's Dream ends with a triple marriage. The Castle of Otranto ends with two children slain, a crumbled castle, and a marriage between two grieving characters that takes place long after the ending of the action in the novel, not a wedding.

The violent questions of bloodlines, succession, and insecure lineages serve as key elements in many of Shakespeare's plays, spanning from (1599–1601) to Richard II (1595–96) and (1606–07), and it is one that is also a major concern in The Castle of Otranto. There is also the matter of incest, which is featured in both Walpole's book and Hamlet.

Both authors often created mixtures of comedy and tragedy, and they did this by using the minor, servant characters as . This is a nuance Walpole takes directly from Shakespeare.

Character Analysis

Manfred

Throughout the novel Manfred follows each evil desire, leading to the destruction of his lineage. He behaves purely instinctively to protect his ownership over the castle. But Manfred is not the true ruler of Otranto, and he cannot understand or see the signs he is given that indicate he should step aside and let the true ruler of the castle—Theodore—be reinstated. Manfred attempts to divorce his wife Hippolita and marry Isabella, who is like a daughter to him. His rage, abuse of authority, and jealousy lead him to murder his own daughter, though he believes Matilda to be Isabella when he commits the crime. Even deeper in the throes of evil, Manfred keeps his ancestor's crime a secret and continues to reap the benefits of the crime, which leads ultimately to the complete destruction of all he holds dear.

Isabella

Isabella, who is an orphan at the outset of the novel, though one of high birth, is a loyal, dutiful, and levelheaded princess. Though she does not particularly love Conrad, she is willing to marry him and be brought formally into the family—consisting of Manfred, Hippolita, and Matilda—who have helped raise her and treated her as a daughter and sister. When Conrad is killed on their wedding day, before they are married, and her would-be father-in-law, only hours later, declares that he wants to divorce his wife Hippolita, who cannot bear any more children, and marry Isabella, she appropriately understands all of the emotional ramifications of such a morally grotesque marriage and runs away. Throughout the novel Isabella displays a strong moral compass and emotional responses that align with a pious and loving nature. Even in the end, when she marries Theodore, whom she had loved but already sacrificed for her sisterly friend Matilda, she does so with a sense of loyalty and unselfishness.

Matilda

Matilda, a Virgin Mary figure in the novel, is extremely pious and wants to join a convent rather than be married. She is devoted to her mother's happiness and well-being and entirely aware that in her father's eyes, she is essentially worthless because she is female. However, Matilda still loves her father and seeks to be a good daughter as best she can. Much to Matilda's surprise, she falls in love with Theodore. However, she is willing to obey her mother and father and give up Theodore to marry Frederic, Marquis of Vicenza. This decision saves her family's lineage and the proprietorship of Otranto and proves to be part of her undoing, which she acknowledges after her father fatally wounds her with a dagger meant for Isabella. On her deathbed, Matilda's response to being mortally wounded—forgiving her father for slaying her—unleashes goodness in Manfred in the end. Metaphysically, it helps to bring to light all of the darkness Manfred has been aiding and abetting and works in accord with the supernatural elements in the novel, and it helps resolve the plot.

Hippolita

Hippolita strictly adheres to the prevalent medieval convention that her husband is her ruler, like the divine right of kings, and knows what is best for her. As a result, she is a conflicted character throughout the novel because her husband's morality, if it were ever good, goes haywire immediately after their son Conrad is murdered. Every virtuous instinct Hippolita has is subsumed by Manfred's lust, jealousy, and desire for power, which, in turn, causes Hippolita to be an accomplice in bringing destruction on the house of Otranto, including her son and daughter. Hippolita is an unheroic character with a heart of gold. Not being cut out to stand up for what is right, it is the other characters' moral strength that ultimately redeems her, and her husband too.

Theodore

Theodore, a peasant without family, money, or nobility when the novel begins, is an innocent bystander whom Manfred falsely accuses of using magic to murder Manfred's son, Conrad. However, Theodore's character embodies the idea that the pure of heart will be protected, and throughout every trial he faces, his conviction is proved true—although not without much struggle, damage, and sacrifice. Theodore's convictions, however, do not bring him to a fairytale happy ending, but rather to acquiescence to Providence. Theodore, about to be executed, stumbles into finding his long-lost father. Imprisoned, he finds his true love, Matilda. He appears blessed and marked for greatness. However, he almost kills an innocent man, Frederic, Marquis of Vicenza, by mistaking an ally for an enemy, and he loses his true love. He also does not feel a connection with his biological father once having found him, all elements that complicate his character. In the end Theodore is unmasked and freed to be his true self, and what is rightfully his is restored to him. However, what was most important to him, true love, is lost forever.

Father Jerome

As both a friar and, secretly, Count of Falconara, Father Jerome straddles worldliness and adherence to his medieval religious beliefs, which causes much conflict and moral flip-flopping for the character. When confronted with moral choices, Father Jerome concedes to give up Isabella to save Theodore—something Theodore's character would not permit if given the choice—and, though he is the Otranto's royal family's spiritual counselor, he knows the secret crime lurking underneath their power and harbors a desire for "sacred vengeance." Although this seems to align with Providence within the novel's moral parameters—"a tyrant's race must be swept from the earth to the third and fourth generation," in Father Jerome's own words—Theodore's character contradicts the friar's perspective in this and at many crossroads in the narrative. But Father Jerome is no villain. For the most part, he guides the other characters to make good choices, appeals to the good side of Manfred's nature, and contends with Manfred's outrageous passions when no one else will.

Frederic

Frederic, Marquis of Vicenza, is guided by Providence, through a dream he has while captured in the Holy Land (ancient Palestine) during the Crusades, to the abode of a dying hermit, who, also by Providence, has a message for Frederic. The message comes in the form of a prophecy written on a supernaturally giant sabre, giving advice on how Frederic can save his daughter and right the wrong done to Frederic's ancestor, Alfonso the Good, who was poisoned and murdered by Manfred's grandfather. Once he arrives at the Castle of Otranto, to fulfill his holy mission, Frederic lets his lust for Manfred's daughter, Matilda, cloud his purpose, and he almost sacrifices his daughter Isabella in marriage to the very tyrant whose ancestor wronged Frederic's. However, a frightening apparition of the hermit from Joppa brings Frederic back to his moral senses.

Plot Summary

Summary

The novel begins at a quick pace, showing the death of Manfred and Hippolita's son, Conrad, who is crushed by a gigantic helmet. This is the beginning of the end for Manfred's rule over the Castle of Otranto. After the death of his male heir, Manfred becomes obsessed with birthing another. He believes he should divorce Hippolita and marry Conrad's betrothed, Isabella. Before this, Isabella was almost a daughter to him. Isabella runs away to take refuge in the convent adjacent to the castle, meeting Theodore on the way. She immediately falls in love with Theodore. Shortly after this time Theodore briefly meets Manfred's daughter Matilda and falls in love with her. During the hunt to locate Isabella, Manfred comes across Theodore and sentences him to death for his interference in his rule. While giving Theodore his final rights in the religious tradition, Father Jerome, a friar from the nearby convent, realizes Theodore is his son. Father Jerome works to save Theodore's life, but he must make compromises to please Manfred. Theodore is locked in a tower until he is freed by Matilda.

A triad of knights arrives at the Castle of Otranto to speak with Manfred. They are at first silent, seeking news of Isabella. After Matilda frees him, Theodore escapes to the forest, where he finds Isabella in a cave. One of the mysterious knights comes to the cave and engages in a duel with Theodore. Theodore bravely fends the knight off, and when the knight becomes gravely injured he reveals he is Isabella's father. The group then returns to the castle for medical attention. At the castle Manfred believes there is a chance his plan will work. He convinces Isabella's injured father, Frederic, Marquis of Vicenza, to take Matilda's hand in marriage in exchange for Manfred's marrying Isabella. Frederic agrees.

Manfred continues to worry that Theodore and Isabella are in love with each other, although Isabella has agreed to respect Matilda's desires and not pursue him. Matilda and Theodore meet in a church, but Manfred storms in, believing they will spoil his plans. Manfred stabs Matilda, thinking she is Isabella, killing his only remaining child. Theodore is revealed to be the rightful Prince of Otranto and agrees to marry Isabella. Manfred and Hippolita are exiled to live a religious life.

The Plot in Points

Introduction

1. Manfred's son is killed, leaving Otranto no male heir.

Rising Action

2. Manfred accuses Theodore of killing Conrad by using magic.

3. Manfred decides to divorce Hippolita and marry Isabella.

4. Helping Isabella escape, Theodore is caught by Manfred.

5. It is revealed that Theodore is Father Jerome's son.

6. Father Jerome saves Theodore from execution by Manfred.

7. A knight arrives to rescue Isabella and challenge Manfred.

8. The knight turns out to be Frederic, Isabella's father.

9. Manfred convinces Frederic to marry Matilda.

10. A ghost tells Frederic not to marry Matilda.

Climax 11. Manfred, thinking it is Isabella, murders his own daughter.

Falling Action

12. It is revealed that Theodore is the true prince of Otranto.

13. Alfonso the Good's ghost appears and crumbles the castle.

14. Manfred and Father Jerome reveal the rest of the secrets.

Resolution

15. Manfred gives up Otranto, and Theodore marries Isabella.

Summary

Chapter 1 | Summary

The main characters of the story are quickly introduced. Manfred, who is the Prince of Otranto, has two children, a "beautiful virgin" named Matilda and a younger son, who is by no means as beautiful as Matilda. This son, Conrad, is betrothed to marry Isabella, a noblewoman who lives with the family, as soon as he recovers from an illness. Manfred would like the wedding to take place as quickly as possible. Manfred's wife, Hippolita, seems skeptical of Conrad's marriage but feels so much shame at only having produced one heir that she keeps quiet. Manfred is worried about an ancient prophecy, a curse cast on the house of Otranto, coming true, although no one knows what the prophecy means: "The Castle and Lordship ... should pass from the present family whenever the real owner should be grown too large to inhabit it."

Conrad is supposed to marry Isabella on his birthday, which is the present day as the narrative begins. However, servants soon discover that a giant helmet has fallen on Conrad and killed him even while the wedding guests are waiting for him in the castle chapel. Everyone rushes to the scene and finds the boy crushed under the helmet and surrounded by black feathers. Isabella doesn't seem upset that her husband-to-be has been killed. A peasant (who will turn out later to be Theodore) suggests that perhaps the helmet was taken from a statue of "Alfonso the Good" near the St. Nicholas church, which infuriates Manfred. The wedding guests all rush to the church and discover that the helmet is actually missing from the statue. They rush back to the scene to tell Manfred, and he accuses the peasant of using sorcery to kill his son Conrad. The crowd joins in on the accusation and forms an angry mob. Manfred jails the peasant under the helmet and sets his servants to guard over him. Manfred also announces that he will not be providing food for his prisoner, saying, since he is a magician, let "his own infernal art ... furnish him."

A little while later Manfred calls for Isabella to come to him in the great gallery. When she arrives, Manfred tells her that Conrad, whom he says was "a sickly, puny child" was unworthy and didn't deserve her beauty. Manfred says he hopes "in a few years, to have reason to rejoice at the death of Conrad." Isabella assumes Manfred has gone mad. Manfred continues, telling Isabella he is in his prime and he desires her for himself. He curses Hippolita for only giving him one male heir and says he plans to divorce her immediately.

The portrait on the wall of Manfred's grandfather comes to life suddenly and sighs. Isabella hears the noise, but only Manfred sees that the painting become animated. Isabella takes Manfred's distraction as an opportunity to run away while Manfred attempts to talk to the portrait, viewing it as either a demon ghost or a possible spiritual guide.

Isabella, remembering the castle has a passageway under it that leads to the nearby church, is running through the cloisters (covered walkways) looking for the subterraneous passage when she catches a glimpse of someone else in the hallway. Then the light she is holding goes out and leaves her in the dark. The stranger speaks to her from the vault (cavern) where the trapdoor to the secret passageway should be. Isabella asks the stranger to help her escape by finding the trapdoor. A beam of moonlight shines in just then, and they locate the trapdoor. Isabella springs the lock and escapes down the stairs, telling the stranger to follow her and shut the door, but he accidentally lets go of the door and it locks back in place. Manfred, hearing the bang of the door closing, rushes in, but only the stranger is there. At this time it is revealed that the stranger is actually the peasant (later known to be Theodore) whom Manfred imprisoned underneath the helmet earlier.

Isabella gets away while the peasant distracts Manfred. Two of Manfred's servants, who are deeply afraid of ghosts and spirits, Diego and Jaquez, show up in the vault. They tell Manfred they saw the leg and foot of a giant ghost wearing armor in the chamber next to the great gallery. The peasant offers to go look and see, which makes Manfred admire him. Manfred says the peasant may go with him, but Manfred must see with his own eyes whether there is a ghost or not.

The narrative goes back to a little earlier and describes how when Manfred was, at first, searching for Isabella, he stops in Hippolita's chambers. Hippolita attempts to embrace Manfred, but he shuns her. To Hippolita's surprise, Manfred screams, "I want Isabella." He tells her to fetch her chaplain and meet him later. Then the narrative moves back to the great gallery. Hippolita is there with the chaplain when Manfred arrives. One of the servants already told her about the ghost, and she tells Manfred she checked the chamber and there isn't a ghost. Manfred softens toward her internally somewhat, but then "the next transition of his soul [is] to exquisite villainy." He is convinced that Hippolita will agree easily to a divorce and even help him encourage Isabella to marry him.

Manfred treats the peasant more kindly, telling him to sleep in a room by the stairs. Manfred says they will speak in the morning and then locks the peasant in.

Analysis

From the beginning The Castle of Otranto embraces the horror of life in the Middle Ages, the time period the novel is set in. Death is everywhere and individuals have very little agency over their actions.

In the first section of the novel a helmet, a symbol that Manfred's rule over the castle will soon come to an end, quickly kills Conrad. Manfred begins his series of evil deeds, manipulating the weaknesses of his wife, Hippolita, and assuming he has the right to rule over everyone in the castle even though he rules in a violent and amoral way. The helmet also foreshadows what will eventually be revealed: that Manfred is not the true ruler of Otranto. The chapter fuses the mythical with the realistic, opening spaces for ghosts and visions, while also reflecting the complexity of relationships in a feudal society.

Mirroring is an important literary device that will continue throughout the novel. Mirrors reflect and mimic but also reveal the reality of life, and Isabella and Matilda will come to be seen as mirrors for each other. Mirrors further reveal Manfred's despicable behavior. Through he is pursuing Isabella sexually, Manfred is also pursuing her mirror, his daughter Matilda. Incest leads to destruction, but Manfred is blind to this. Instead, he believes the almost-incest—she was supposed to become his daughter-in-law and is like a daughter to him—of his pursuit of Isabella will lead to cementing his claim over the castle. Evil has such a powerful hold over Manfred that he cannot see the reality of his reflection in the mirror.

Isabella and Matilda, who will find out later about her father's diabolical plans, despite their occasional blindness, will both be portrayed as understanding the reality of the situation. The speech of Isabella and Matilda is hard to differentiate. They both speak in similar ways and come from similar moral vantage points. The mirroring will dissolve near the climax of the novel.

Manfred's first interaction with the peasant, who will be revealed to be Theodore—and the true Prince of Otranto near the end of the novel—serves to distinguish between magic and Providence. The Catholic Church in the Middle Ages made this distinction. Walpole sets up the same medieval morality and gets magic "out of the way," so to speak. Theodore is immediately accused of sorcery and of being a magician, and Manfred cruelly leaves Theodore to live on the efforts of his magic—leaving him to essentially starve to death. The reader will see at once that survival in this circumstance is impossible and perhaps wonder what will become of the peasant (Theodore). However, this story line dissolves and goes nowhere; Theodore seems to have immediately escaped. The "hand of Providence" will take center stage in the novel; magic has no place here. It is shown to be something silly: only servants, whom Walpole uses for comedic effect, believe in it.

Chapter 2 | Summary

Chapter 2 begins with Matilda in her room, feeling ill at ease. Matilda is wondering why Isabella has run off and why her father would call for the chaplain with such urgency. Matilda is used to Manfred being cruel to her, but she can hardly bear his recent cruelty to her mother. Her attendant, Bianca, tries to comfort Matilda by saying Manfred may possibly be looking for a husband for her, since she is his sole heir now. Matilda, however, longs to enter a convent. While Matilda and Bianca are talking, they hear someone's voice rising up from the chamber below Matilda's rooms, which are on the right-hand side of the tower. Bianca thinks the voice is coming from the ghost of Conrad's tutor, who committed suicide by drowning. Then they hear the voice singing.

From the window, they speak to the voice, and, indeed, someone who introduces himself as a stranger is there. The stranger sounds pious and sad, and Bianca assumes the stranger's unhappiness must have something to do with love. Matilda disagrees and says unhappiness can come from other sources besides lovesickness.

Matilda, who pretends to be one of her mother's servants, quickly figures out that the stranger speaking to her from the window below is actually the peasant her father imprisoned earlier in the day. Matilda is taken with the peasant's gentle manner of speaking and his pious words about heaven and prayers. Hoping to help him, Matilda instructs him to find Father Jerome in the church of St. Nicholas when he is released from the castle. She will see that Hippolita helps him.

The peasant begins to ask a question about the woman he helped earlier—Isabella. Because Matilda does not know why Isabell fled, she is suddenly afraid that the peasant could be an enemy to her father and shuts the window. Bianca raises suspicions about Isabella and the peasant being lovers. Bianca also believes the peasant probably is a magician and has something to do with Conrad's death. Matilda scolds Bianca for being disloyal to Isabella. Matilda is certain that "[w]hatever be the cause of Isabella's flight, it had no unworthy motive." Matilda also says that if Isabella trusted the stranger, then so does Matilda. As for magic, Matilda scolds Bianca for trying to "resolve everything" by assuming magic is involved. "A man, who has ... intercourse with infernal spirits" would not be able to speak "those tremendous and holy words, which he uttered," Matilda insists. During their conversation a servant arrives and informs Matilda that Isabella is with Father Jerome at the church of St. Nicholas.

The narrative then backtracks to when Manfred wakes up early to continue looking for Isabella and, subsequently, asks Hippolita where Isabella is. However, they are interrupted by the news that Father Jerome would like to speak to Manfred immediately. Manfred thinks the friar wants to see his wife and bids him come in. Instead, Father Jerome announces that Isabella wishes to no longer be a part of Manfred's family and that she is hiding in a sanctuary awaiting news from her father. Manfred tries to argue with Father Jerome, sensing the friar knows of his plan to marry Isabella and disapproves on religious grounds, which Jerome does, but neither character speaks explicitly because Hippolita is there. Of Isabella, Manfred declares that "I am her parent ... and demand her.

Sensing something is amiss, Hippolita says, "It is my duty to hear nothing that it pleases not my lord I should hear" and retreats to her apartment. Left alone with the friar, Manfred questions him about the possibility of divorcing Hippolita and marrying Isabella. Father Jerome tells Manfred the marriage would be impossible. Manfred also broaches the idea of giving Hippolita a lot of money to donate to the convent where she will live after the divorce. Jerome, not tempted by money, stands his ground, calling Manfred's intention to divorce Hippolita "adulterous" and his pursuit of Isabella "incestuous."

Manfred tries another angle to get Father Jerome on his side. He declares that for "some time" he has doubted "the legality of [their] union" as Hippolita is related to him "in the fourth degree." Manfred's other doubt about the marriage stems from Hippolita being promised to another man before she married Manfred. Perhaps Conrad's death is a punishment for their "unlawful wedlock," Manfred suggests. Father Jerome sees through Manfred's attempt to manipulate him, but the friar knows he must distract Manfred by giving him false hope. The friar fears Manfred will find another woman, who is unable to defend herself, to unleash his passions on. The friar tells Manfred to allow the church to consider the matter, which does give Manfred some hope. Next, Manfred asks the friar if he knows anything about the peasant who helped Isabella escape, inquiring, "Is he her lover?" Thinking it may cause Manfred to lose interest in Isabella, Father Jerome intentionally sets a seed of jealousy in Manfred's mind by answering "in a manner to confirm ... the belief of some connection between Isabella and the youth."

Manfred, infuriated, leaves Father Jerome and summons the peasant. Manfred questions him about his intentions with Isabella. The peasant, who is revealed to be Theodore, claims innocence and says that he just met Isabella. Matilda and Bianca, on their way to visit Hippolita, overhear Manfred interrogating Theodore. Manfred declares that Theodore will be executed immediately, and Matilda faints.

Theodore, awaiting execution, asks for a confessor, so he can "make his peace with heaven." Manfred mistakenly believes Father Jerome is on his side and sends him to Theodore. Father Jerome realizes it is his fault Theodore is about to die and begs Manfred to pardon Theodore. Theodore unbuttons his collar for his beheading, revealing a birthmark in the shape of a bloody arrow, and Father Jerome realizes Theodore is his son. The gathered crowd feels pity and empathy for Theodore and Father Jerome, who have obviously been separated from each other and are now reunited. Father Jerome reveals he is, in addition to being a friar, the Count of Falconara, which means Theodore is a nobleman. After hearing the pleas of the crowd along with Father Jerome's pleas, Manfred agrees to spare Theodore's life as long as Father Jerome makes Isabella heed Manfred's will. The chapter ends with the sound of a trumpet.

Analysis

Theodore, who is first introduced as the peasant, is one of the few morally upright characters in the novel. For his moral behavior he is locked in a tower, a symbol the contemporary reader may see as phallic and connected to Manfred's domination and control. However, the symbolism the tower will represent within the scope of the novel is just now being introduced and used for foreshadowing in this chapter. This is Matilda and Theodore's first conversation and first spark of love, and it takes place in the castle's dark tower. Through Matilda's goodness, Theodore will eventually be released from the tower, but Theodore's release, though it will lead to the restoration of his true identity, only causes future problems for the characters who have romantic tragedies in their future.

The Castle of Otranto is full of biblical and Christian religious allusions. This chapter ends with the sound of a trumpet. In the Bible the sound of a trumpet is used to announce the apocalyptic return of Christ. In this instance, it represents the beginning of the end of Manfred's reign of terror. In this sense Theodore is cast as a moral Christ-like figure, returning to his rightful place to right a longstanding wrong: Manfred's illegitimate rule.

Manfred's evil behavior becomes a trope (a figurative idea that recurs or is common in literature) in itself. It is darkly humorous how frequently he does the opposite of what is considered good behavior. His lack of recognition builds on itself, eventually becoming absurd. Evil is farcical and goodness is chivalric. By furthering both categories into the absurd, they begin to dissolve into each other, reflecting an overall darkness to the novel. There is no relief from a performance of goodness, much like there is nothing to be gained through evil.

Like Friar Lawrence in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, here, Father Jerome's meddling creates unnecessary potential for tragedy when he is trying to be helpful: he lies to Manfred and says there is a romantic connection between Theodore and Isabella. Walpole is mimicking Shakespeare's logic: a corrupt (dishonest) friar will bring serious consequences. Father Jerome sows the seed here. Unlike in Romeo and Juliet, this produces immediate negative consequences because Manfred decides to execute the peasant (Theodore) on the spot. Even worse, Father Jerome sees the effect his lying renders: he has unintentionally sentenced his own son to death.

Chapter 3 | Summary

Chapter 3 opens with the sound of trumpets and the plumes of the giant helmet quivering in such a manner that Manfred becomes afraid they are supernatural portents (warning signs). He begs Father Jerome to tell him what the signs mean and to pray for him. Father Jerome tells Manfred to "submit [himself] to the church; and cease to persecute her ministers." The friar also tells Manfred to free Theodore, who is Father Jerome's son. Manfred agrees on the condition Father Jerome will go and see who is at the front gate.

A herald stands at the gate and announces, "I must speak with the usurper of Otranto." Manfred is furious at being referred to as a usurper. Manfred then orders Father Jerome to return to the convent and fetch Isabella, saying he will hold Theodore hostage until Isabella is returned. Since the herald is not a portent from heaven, Manfred retracts his offer to free Theodore and submit to the church. Manfred turns his attention back to the herald, asking him what he wants. The herald declares he has a message from the "knight of the gigantic sabre," a knight loyal to Frederic, Marquis of Vicenza, who is Lady Isabella's father. The herald then delivers the message: Lady Isabella was taken unlawfully from her legal guardians and Frederic is the true heir of Otranto, being "nearest of blood to the last rightful lord, Alfonso the Good."

Manfred thinks privately about what the herald has declared, revealing that Frederic's claim has some validity. Manfred, believing Frederic to have died in the Crusades, purposely persuaded Isabella's legal guardians to let her live and be raised in Otranto and grow up to marry Conrad. It was Manfred's hope to unite his house with Frederic's and stop the dispute over rights to Otranto. In fact, this is part of the reason Manfred has been so desperate to marry Isabella ever since Conrad died. Manfred keeps his thoughts to himself and asks the herald to invite the knight and his retinue inside the castle so that they can discuss the disagreement and avoid bloodshed.

When Father Jerome returns to the convent, another friar tells him Hippolita is dead, which confuses the friar tremendously. He asks the other friar where Isabella is, but no one has seen her. Father Jerome searches the convent for Isabella but cannot find her anywhere. He assumes she has gone into hiding after hearing that Hippolita is dead. Father Jerome is torn: if he doesn't bring Isabella to the castle and urge her to marry Manfred, Manfred will certainly hurt Theodore. During this time Manfred has flung open the gates of the castle and is preparing to receive the knight and his retinue. The cavalcade arrives, bearing the flags of both Vicenza and Otranto, which aggravates Manfred. The cavalcade is immense—trumpeters, pages, squires, heralds, horses, knights in full armor, 100 footmen, 100 guards, and 100 men struggling together to carry a gigantic sword. Manfred seems worried but pretends to be brave. He addresses the knight, repeating his request to avoid battle if possible. Manfred makes food and lodging arrangements for all those accompanying the knight, but the knight and those surrounding him at the table refuse to speak to Manfred, and they only open their visors (face coverings) wide enough to eat. Manfred becomes upset at their demeanor and gives up trying to entertain them, instead inviting the top three knights to join him in a serious conversation.

Manfred begins the conversation by stating that he is the rightful heir to the Castle of Otranto. Manfred explains that his father, Don Manuel, received Otranto from Manfred's grandfather, Don Ricardo, who inherited it from Alfonso the Good, who died childless. It was a reward for Don Ricardo's service. Manfred recognizes that Frederic, Marquis of Vicenza, is nearest in blood to Alfonso. However, Manfred believes his grandfather was given Otranto and did nothing illegal. The knight wordlessly shakes his head at these claims, showing he does not believe Manfred is the rightful heir.

Manfred extends his argument and asks the knights if they are there to retrieve Isabella, and they nod yes. Manfred puts on a show, crying about the death of his son Conrad. The chief knight finally breaks the silence, asking, "Do you then restore her?" in reference to Isabella. Manfred believes the knights are coming around to his viewpoint, so he continues with a teary, false speech about how the church will likely force him to divorce Hippolita (which is a lie) for being "related within the forbidden degrees" with Manfred. Through his tears Manfred also says he has been working all along "to restore the line of Alfonso" by marrying Isabella, a distant descendent—the only one he knew of—to Conrad. Now that Conrad is dead and the church is making him divorce Hippolita, he, Manfred says, is willing to marry Isabella.

A servant interrupts Manfred, saying that Father Jerome and other friars would like to see him immediately. Before Manfred can say no, they burst into the room. Manfred has already lied to them by saying he put Isabella in the convent for her own safety. Father Jerome, terrified Manfred will hurt Theodore, blurts out that Isabella has run away and that it isn't his fault. Another friar tells the truth about Isabella running away the night before to escape Manfred. The principal knight becomes upset and orders all of his retinue to rush out and find Isabella. As a method of protecting his own interest, Manfred sends his attendants and the friars after Isabella too.

During the chaos, Matilda goes to see Theodore, who has been left unguarded, and frees him. Matilda tells Theodore to run to the convent for sanctuary, but Theodore, who views himself as innocent, wants to go out into the world and become a knight. The two hear a groan from above and become afraid someone has caught them. Theodore escapes, kissing Matilda's hand and swearing to be her knight. Theodore then goes to the convent to say goodbye to Father Jerome, but he isn't there. The other friars tell Theodore about Isabella's situation and Manfred's hand in it, and Theodore leaves, heading to the forest. Theodore enters some labyrinthine caves. He hears rustling sounds but believes his goodness will protect him from evil spirits. He decides to explore the caves in case there are thieves inside, which leads him to discover Isabella is also hiding in the caves. Theodore tells Isabella that he was not sent to retrieve her for Manfred, and she is thankful. She thinks Theodore must be her guardian angel. Theodore acknowledges Isabella's beauty but says he has pledged himself to another. They retreat back into the cave.

When a knight approaches, Theodore puts himself between Isabella and the knight, believing him to be one of Manfred's men. The knight believes the same of Theodore, and they fight. Theodore wounds the knight in three places, and the knight faints from loss of blood. He rouses just enough for Theodore to discover he has accidentally injured an enemy of Manfred's. The knight begs to speak with Isabella because he has a secret from her father that he must tell her. Isabella emerges from deeper within the cave, and the dying knight reveals he is her father, Frederic, and he came to deliver her from Manfred. Isabella is saddened and stunned. The knight's dying wish is for Theodore to protect Isabella, and he agrees. They bandage Frederic's wounds and bring him to the castle in an attempt to save his life.

Analysis

Theodore and Matilda heed the sign—a noise from above—and Theodore escapes to safety. It becomes clear that the way characters can achieve protection is through a combination of morality and paying attention to signs. Theodore, who believes his goodness will protect him from any evil, seems unrealistic as he plunges from one dangerous situation after another. Nonetheless, Matilda and Theodore are cast as foils, opposites of Manfred and Hippolita. Unlike Hippolita, Matilda has agency and knows how to pursue the moral path. Hippolita is controlled by Manfred and docilely accepts his evil behavior, although she has chances to speak her mind. Because Hippolita accepts and follows Manfred's, behavior she is complicit in the evil that is occurring.

There is a falsehood of protection at work in the novel: those you are trying to care for perhaps do not need it. Theodore attempts to protect Isabella and instead wounds her father. He is only able to do so because Matilda frees him. While women lack formal power, and are frequently placed in defensive positions because they become the objects of lust or anger, Hippolita is the only one who seems lacking in agency. Isabella escapes Manfred's anger and quite presciently leaves the convent when it becomes unsafe there because Father Jerome has reason to bring her back to Manfred. Matilda rebels against her father in order to free Theodore. Both young women have strong morals and are willing to act in defense of themselves and others.

Chapter 4 | Summary

Isabella, her wounded father, and Theodore arrive at the castle, met by Hippolita and Matilda. They send for a surgeon to help Frederic. Matilda sees Theodore and Isabella together and blushes. The surgeon emerges, saying that Isabella's father, Frederic, is alive and would like to see her. Theodore gazes at Matilda in the way Isabella gazes at Theodore, and Isabella understands Matilda is the one Theodore is pledged to.

Frederic begins to explain how he knew Isabella was in trouble. When he was captured and held prisoner during the Crusades, he had a dream of her in trouble in a castle and was told in the dream to go to Joppa, where he would receive more information. The first opportunity he had, Frederic got away and did as the dream instructed. In Joppa, Frederic met a hermit on his deathbed. The hermit knew his destiny was culminating in this moment—it had been revealed to him years ago by a visitation from the spirit of St. Nicholas. The hermit told Frederic to dig underneath the "seventh tree on the left hand of this poor cave." After the hermit died, Frederic dug in the dirt and unearthed the giant sword the 100 men carried earlier into the castle. Hippolita realizes Frederic's dream means he is "destined by heaven to accomplish the fate that seemed to threaten her house." Hippolita tells Frederic that she respects what he must do and that "mortals must receive ... divine behests with lowliness and submission." Frederic continues his story, repeating the lines of poetry written on the sword, which say that where they find the helmet that matches the giant sword and "thy daughter" in peril, only Alfonso's blood "can save the maid."

Manfred and Father Jerome enter the room. Manfred sees a specter of Alfonso, which horrifies him. Then he realizes it is only Theodore he sees, who, wearing a full set of armor, looks exactly like the portrait of the ancestor that hangs in the castle. Manfred says he suspects Father Jerome is responsible for freeing Theodore and giving him a weapon and suit of armor to wear. Theodore lays down his sword and promises Manfred that he does not intend to harm him. Manfred asks Theodore to tell him his history and how he is connected to Father Jerome. Theodore summarizes the journey he took in search of his father. Frederic speaks in favor of Theodore, calling him "one of the bravest youths on Christian ground" and calls for Theodore to be pardoned. The group retreats to give Frederic some time to rest.

Theodore goes with Father Jerome to the convent, while Matilda and Isabella go their separate ways, each occupied with thoughts of Theodore. The next morning Matilda and Isabella, both in the grip of jealousy, seek each other out to discern information about Theodore from each other. Isabella desires Theodore and plans to encourage Matilda to join the convent. Once they are together, the two women try to mask their true feelings until Isabella relents and tells Matilda it is clear that Theodore wants Matilda. The women argue back and forth, each saying they will give him up for the other. This continues until they feel like good friends again.

Hippolita enters and tells Matilda it is likely she is to marry Frederic, Isabella's father. Hippolita suggested the idea, and Manfred is on his way to see if Frederic agrees. It is the only way to save the family. Isabella and Matilda speak up against the idea—and against Manfred—but Hippolita defends Manfred. Isabella becomes furious and tells Hippolita that Manfred plans to divorce her, and both women are shocked by what Isabella reveals. Hippolita continues to defend Manfred while also feeling empathetic toward Isabella. Isabella tells Hippolita that both she and Matilda desire Theodore, but Isabella plans to allow Matilda to marry him. Matilda offers to not marry Theodore in order to serve her mother. Hippolita says Matilda's fate is in her father's hands.

The narrative backtracks to Theodore and Father Jerome meeting at Alfonso the Good's tomb. Theodore, who isn't used to taking advice from his father, is unsure why his father disapproves of his desire to marry Matilda. Father Jerome tells Theodore he is wasting his time pursuing someone whose family is doomed. Father Jerome says, "A tyrant's race must be swept from the earth to the third and fourth generation." Theodore disagrees that heaven would punish the innocent for someone else's crimes simply because of a family connection. Father Jerome is about to tell Theodore a family secret that will inspire him to take "sacred vengeance," but Hippolita enters the convent and interrupts them.

Hippolita tells Father Jerome that she needs his religious counsel about divorcing Manfred. She also tells him of their plan to have Matilda marry Frederic. Father Jerome counsels her, vehemently, against divorcing Manfred.

Meanwhile, Manfred and Frederic discuss the plan that Manfred has concocted for Frederic to marry Matilda and Manfred to marry Isabella, which will unify their houses. Frederic agrees to the plan, and Manfred rushes immediately to find Hippolita but cannot find her in her quarters. He goes to the convent and finds Hippolita talking to Father Jerome. When Manfred tells them that Frederic has accepted the double marriage, "three drops of blood [fall] from the nose of Alfonso's statue." Father Jerome sees it as a sign that Manfred's blood should not mix with Alfonso's descendants. Manfred banishes Father Jerome from the castle and leaves. Hippolita agrees to do what her husband and the church say to do.

Analysis

Overall, The Castle of Otranto may seem campy to contemporary readers. There are trapdoors, bleeding statues, moving paintings, and supernatural noises. After Walpole, the haunted castle became the most used device in Gothic literature. What was original in Walpole's fiction may also seem cliché to the modern reader. However, it was Walpole's intention to create realistic emotional responses in characters who are enduring extraordinary circumstances, and Chapter 4 delivers. As far as the characters' emotions go, they are quite serious and believable.

Although he has found his long-lost father, Theodore, who is used to being independent, remains aloof when confronted by the judgments of a father figure. Theodore also becomes angry when Father Jerome questions his desire for Matilda. Although Theodore has been reunited with his only family member, he continues to feel isolated, which is realistic. It would be strange and out of character to fabricate familial bonds otherwise. Theodore's response—holding his own emotional ground—shows he has the capacity to grow into loving Matilda deeply. Theodore is constantly misinterpreted and misnamed (first as "the peasant" and then when Manfred confuses Theodore's desires by obsessing over Theodore loving Isabella when he does not). Walpole is quite savvy here, thwarting readers' expectations. When Isabella and Theodore meet in Chapter 1, it seems like the beginning of a love story, but it is not. Walpole does not take the simple and obvious course.

Matilda and Isabella's jealousy over Theodore is believable, too. Their argument is complex, not a slapstick catfight or petty in nature. Their friendship is at stake, and both characters struggle with their newly aroused passion and the damage it could cause. Both characters must fight through a wide range of emotions, and as much as they mirror each other, what each feels is distinguishable from the other. Even Manfred's reaction to seeing the ghost of Alfonso the Good—though it turns out it is only Theodore in a suit of armor—strikes a believable chord and tugs at the reader's sympathy for the villain who cannot believe his own eyes. Here is another instance in which Manfred cannot interpret the supernatural warning signs. In fact, Manfred should be able to translate the signs better than any other character because he is the one who knows the truth, which will be revealed in Chapter 5 (Manfred's grandfather was a murderer). Perhaps Manfred's intense desire for the signs to not be pointing to his destruction is the very thing that is clouding his vision, which is quite realistic and relatable, from a psychological perspective.

The three drops of blood that emerge from the statue of Alfonso the Good, after Manfred tells Father Jerome that Frederic agreed to marry Matilda, reconnect the novel to the important theme of the church and its Christian morality demonstrated throughout. During this time the number three symbolized the Holy Trinity (Jesus, God, Holy Ghost). The three drops of blood are likely referential to the nearness of a Christian God. This presence is opposed to the work done on earth by the devil. Manfred often acts in devilish ways, but moments like the three drops of blood are reminders that although the world is a place filled with pain, there is hope in the afterlife. Much of Gothic literature adheres to this moral framework.

Chapter 5 | Summary

Manfred suspects that Father Jerome knows the true nature of Isabella's relationship with Theodore and that the friar has a secret alliance with Frederic, Marquis of Vicenza. This is what Manfred is discussing with Hippolita as they walk together from the convent to the castle. They also discuss their impending divorce, which Hippolita says she will agree to but will not demand. Manfred, like Matilda, sees an uncanny resemblance in Theodore's appearance to the portrait of Alfonso the Good.

A little while later, on his way to see Frederic to discuss going to Rome to pursue the divorce, Manfred runs into Bianca. He grills her for information about Theodore and Isabella, giving Bianca a jewel to try to bribe her. Bianca tries to distract Manfred by talking about Isabella's feelings about her father being wounded. Manfred comes to the point and asks Bianca directly if she knows when Isabella first met Theodore, and Bianca says she does not know. Annoyed, Manfred dismisses Bianca and goes to speak with Frederic, in private, about Manfred's plans.

Before they can resolve anything, Bianca bursts suddenly into the room, screeching in horror that she has seen a giant hand and is leaving the castle without her things. Terrified, she is almost babbling, saying, "Would I had been content to wed Francisco!—this comes of ambition." Bianca is certain that the giant hand belongs to the giant leg and foot Jaquez and Diego saw recently in the great gallery. Manfred tries to convince Frederic that Bianca is delirious and prone to hysterics. However, because Bianca describes hearing the "clattering of armor" and other details, Frederic realizes that her description accords with the giant sabre he carries, and it must be a sign. Frederic tells Manfred, "Keep your daughter, and think no more of Isabella: the judgments on your house forbid me matching into it." However, after Manfred leaves, Frederic is left feeling caught between his desire for Matilda and procuring Otranto and knowing that "Heaven declared itself against Manfred."

It is time for an evening feast, and Matilda and Isabella are in a melancholy state. Manfred attempts to change the mood with his jollity and to get Frederic drunk, but it doesn't work. After dinner Frederic, still hoping to marry Matilda, goes to the oratory looking for Hippolita to ask her if she really will divorce Manfred. Instead of Hippolita, Frederic sees a specter, who has "the fleshless jaws and empty sockets of a skeleton, wrapt in a hermit's cowl," praying at the altar, and he is terrified. The specter tells him not to be afraid, since he is the hermit from Joppa, but, still, Frederic trembles. The hermit's ghost tells Frederic not "to pursue carnal delights." "Forget Matilda!" the hermit's specter says, and Frederic, shocked, collapses.

Hippolita arrives in the oratory for her evening prayers, and when she sees Frederic lying on the floor, she thinks he is dead she shrieks. Her cries awaken him. Hippolita, seeing his state, fears something terrible has happened or is about to happen, and she begs Frederic to tell her what he has seen. Frederic is too beside himself to speak and rushes from the room. Manfred is waiting outside of Frederic's door, hoping to revel and drink some more, but Frederic pushes Manfred out of the way, goes into his rooms, and bolts the door.

Manfred, angry at Frederic's rude behavior, walks away. A servant, who is a spy for Manfred in the convent, rushes in to tell Manfred that Theodore and a woman are talking at Alfonso the Good's tomb in St. Nicholas church. Manfred, assuming the woman is Isabella, runs to the church. The sounds of a woman whispering infuriate Manfred, and he takes out his dagger and stabs her. "Ah, me! I am slain!" cries Matilda. Manfred realizes he has just stabbed his own daughter. Theodore and some monks prevent Manfred from killing himself. Matilda and Theodore exchange passionate looks, and Matilda forgives her father for killing her. Theodore is heartbroken. Matilda wishes to be near her mother as she dies, so they all agree to carry her to the castle.

Hippolita sees the procession taking Matilda's body into the castle, and she faints. Manfred curses the day he was born and throws himself down on the ground. Theodore asks Father Jerome to perform a marriage ceremony for him and Matilda. Father Jerome berates Theodore for thinking of marriage at a time such as this. Frederic insults Theodore for thinking he is good enough to marry a princess, and Theodore blurts out that he is the true Prince of Otranto, which Father Jerome confirms and begins to explain. Matilda, very close to death, opens her eyes, and all of the characters turn their attention back to her. Hippolita is weeping. Matilda asks for her father, so she can forgive him. Matilda struggles to say something about Isabella and Theodore but then dies. Isabella tears Hippolita away from Matilda's body, but "Theodore threatened destruction to all who attempted to remove him from it."

Isabella escorts Hippolita back to her chambers. In the courtyard, they encounter Manfred, who is filled with dread and confusion. A clap of thunder booms, rocking the earth, and "[shaking] the castle down to its foundations." Frederic and Father Jerome, dragging Theodore with them, come rushing into the courtyard, believing the world is ending. As soon as Theodore appears, the castle walls behind Manfred crumble and a giant ghost of Alfonso appears there. Alfonso's ghost declares, "Behold in Theodore the true heir of Alfonso!" Another clap of thunder booms, and the spirit rises toward heaven. The clouds part, and the spirit of St. Nicholas appears to welcome Alfonso into heaven. Everyone in the courtyard falls on their knees, "acknowledging the divine will."

Manfred says his "story has drawn down these judgments," and he wants to confess and atone. He explains that Alfonso the Good did not leave Otranto to Manfred's grandfather as a reward for loyal service. Manfred's grandfather, Don Ricardo, murdered Alfonso by poisoning him, and then he forged Alfonso's will and took over Otranto. Feeling guilty, Manfred's grandfather built two convents and the St. Nicholas church. St. Nicholas appeared to Don Ricardo and declared, "Ricardo's posterity should reign in Otranto, until the rightful owner should be grown too large to inhabit the castle," and as long as there is a male heir to rule it. In the midst of confessing, Manfred cries out, "I pay the price of usurpation for all!" But still to be discovered, Manfred says, is how Theodore is the rightful heir.

"What remains, is my part to declare," Father Jerome says. Then he explains. Apparently, Alfonso the Good did have a wife, whom he met when he was shipwrecked on his way to the Holy Wars. He married her and left her pregnant, promising to return, but he was killed in the Crusades. Meanwhile, Alfonso's wife gave birth to a daughter. Many years later Alfonso's daughter's daughter married Father Jerome when he was the Count of Falconara, before tragedy struck and he became a friar. She was Theodore's mother, making Theodore Alfonso's closest heir.

The next morning Manfred signs a document giving up Otranto. Then Manfred and Hippolita move to the neighboring convents to devote themselves to religion for the remainder of their lives. Frederic offers Isabella to Theodore, but he finds it hard to pursue a new love after his recent heartbreak. Theodore eventually marries Isabella because they both share the same grief.

Analysis

Walpole relies on purposeful symbols: each thunderclap or voice here is directly connected to an action that will take place. One sign from above signifies the downfall of Manfred's rule. In this instance, a clap of thunder emerges, cementing Theodore's rightful rule. The thunderclap and the earth shaking and crumbling the wall are religious allusions to the moment Christ died on the cross, and they are also apocalyptic. Additionally, the clanging of armor heard by Bianca is an expression of the supernatural.

Isabella and Theodore are given clarity of sight by following the moral path. This clarity is not joyful. Instead, the novel ends with both experiencing confusion and sadness over their loss. Clarity is not always revelatory in a positive sense. Both Isabella and Theodore are completely aware that they live in a world where truth may be restored but evil can cause real harm, and there are few good options. Theodore and Isabella remain together because Matilda is dead and Theodore cannot be with her, but their marriage is not the result of romantic love or hope for a brighter future: they are united by grief.

The mirroring between Isabella and Matilda at the beginning of the novel diverges and is concluded. Isabella replaces Matilda as Theodore's partner, but it is a displeasing, uncanny replacement. Isabella will presumably live out a gloomy mundane existence, while Matilda leaves a saintly impression in her wake. Both Theodore and Isabella are fully aware Isabella can never be Matilda, but they still accept the pairing because it is the best available option. Morality is exposed to be complex and doesn't always lead to bliss. The morality behind Isabella replacing Matilda as Theodore's wife, relies on the Christian moral universe where women are virginal and saintly and marriage is seen more as a moral duty than an expression of passionate love. To the contemporary reader Isabella's marriage to Theodore will make her character seem disempowered in the act of becoming a substitute for her friend and settled in a less than truelove marriage. However, Walpole, in the choice to make Theodore's mother carry Alfonso the good's bloodline, not Theodore's father, leaves a hidden line of argument that undermines the male view that women are subordinate when it comes to producing heirs. Because of his mother carrying the family line, Theodore rightfully gains all of Otranto, and Manfred loses all through the destructive actions of his male ancestors. Walpole's logic is not very far ahead of its time or remarkably feminist, but Isabella's fate and part in the newly restored Otranto is not entirely dismal either.

Quotes

1. The next transition of his soul was to exquisite villainy.

Narrator, Chapter 1

Manfred's personality becomes one of pure darkness, and he lets his villainous mind lead his actions. His character will become a moral prototype (model) in Gothic literature.

2. Oh! my Lord ... is my honesty the price I must pay for this dear youth's safety?

Father Jerome, Chapter 2

Manfred is requesting that the friar perform an immoral act (allowing him to marry Isabella) in order to spare his son. Though Father Jerome is a flawed character, he mostly stays within the moral boundaries at work in the novel.

3. Heaven is no doubt displeased with your mockery of its servants. Submit yourself to the church ... heaven will not be trifled with: you see.

Father Jerome, Chapter 3

Father Jerome predicts the demise of Manfred. The supernatural and moral necessities in the novel include recognizing and, in this case, delivering portents (spiritual signs). Being able to read and willing to follow those signs is vital to characters' destinies. 4. He put several questions to them, but was answered only by signs.

Narrator, Chapter 3

The he in the quote refers to Manfred, the responses, in the form of signs, come from the mysterious knight of the gigantic sabre and his cavalcade. Signs arouse only suspicion in Manfred. It seems that Manfred represents all that is evil and vile, whereas the cavalcade behaves morally, discomfiting Manfred and throwing doubt on his assertions.

5.Thou traitor Prince! Isabella shall be found.

Frederic, Chapter 3

The knight does not trust Manfred and seeks to find Isabella on his own. Soon after this moment, it is revealed that the knight is really Frederic, Marquis of Vicenza, Isabella's father. As the novel progresses, Frederic's character loses the chivalrous morality he shows here and gives into temptation.

6.Where'er a casque that suits this sword is found, / With perils is thy daughter compass'd round; / Alfonso's blood alone can save the maid, / And quiet a long restless Prince's shade.

Frederic, Chapter 4

These lines are written on the gigantic sword Frederic found under a grove of trees when he met the hermit from Joppa. Frederic, who has brought the sword with him to the castle, repeats these poetic lines, which foreshadow the future events in the novel.

7. She bound a writing about my arm under my garments, which told me I was the son of the Count Falconara.

Theodore, Chapter 4

Theodore is speaking about his long-deceased mother. Because of her foresight, Theodore comes to Otranto and is reunited with Father Jerome, Theodore's father. Though he does not know it yet, Theodore is the rightful heir to the throne and is claiming it in front of Manfred and the crowd that has gathered around Frederic. Though Manfred sees no use in having a daughter when the novel begins, it is Theodore's mother who gives Theodore the tools he needs to overthrow Manfred and become the Prince of Otranto.

8. It is sinful to cherish those whom heaven has doomed to destruction. A tyrant's race must be swept from the earth to the third and fourth generation. Father Jerome, Chapter 4

Father Jerome warns Theodore not to love Matilda because her family is doomed to be destroyed. Theodore is unwilling to listen to his newfound father. He does not believe "heaven [will] visit the innocent for the crimes of the guilty." Perhaps Walpole, by making Theodore morally superior to his father, who is a friar, is poking at religious hypocrisy.

9. Every reflection ... made on the friar's behavior, conspired to persuade him that Jerome was privy to an amour between Isabella and Theodore.

Narrator, Chapter 5

Manfred is often unsure if he can trust Father Jerome and often thinks the friar is scheming against him. Although it is untrue, Manfred is led to madness when he believes Isabella and Theodore are lovers and are being protected by the friar. Lack of trust in others is another quality that leads to Manfred's downfall.

10.The hand! the giant! the hand!—support me! I am terrified out of my senses.

Bianca, Chapter 5

Bianca reflects the reemergence of a spiritual manifestation of the curse. The giant ghost hand functions as figurative imagery for the "hand of Providence," portrayed as a stalking presence coming for vengeance in the novel.

11. Keep your daughter, and think no more of Isabella: The judgments ... on your house forbid me matching into it.

Frederic, Chapter 5

After hearing Bianca's descriptions of seeing a ghost's giant hand, Frederic no longer wants to follow any plan designed by Manfred. However, just moments after Frederic says this to Manfred and even though he sees that dealing with Manfred is a bad omen that can only lead to destruction, Frederic still must wrestle with temptation. He cannot shake his desire for Matilda.

12.Wast thou delivered from bondage ... to pursue carnal delights?—Hast thou forgotten the ... sabre, and the behest of Heaven engraven on it?

Hermit, Chapter 5 The hermit from Joppa appears as a frightening specter to warn Frederic against marrying Matilda. Frederic immediately abandons the pursuit of his erotic desire. Willingness to listen to signs and heed warnings from the supernatural realm is a matter of life and death.

13.Ah, me! I am slain! ... good Heaven, receive my soul!

Matilda, Chapter 5

Matilda cries this out after being slain by her father. Her accidental death is the final nail in Manfred's coffin as ruler of Otranto.

14. The blood of Alfonso cried to Heaven for vengeance, and heaven has permitted its altar to be polluted by assassination, that thou mightest shed thy own blood at the foot of that prince's sepulchre!

Father Jerome, Chapter 5

Father Jerome realizes the full extent of Manfred's wrongdoings. The friar understands Manfred has crossed a moral line and must abdicate. All of the warning signs sent from the supernatural have inflicted their damage and completed their purpose.

15. Those of a prince ... of the sovereign of Otranto. This reverend man, my father, has informed me who I am.

Theodore, Chapter 5

Theodore understands at once that he is the rightful heir of the Castle of Otranto. Although he is mourning the death of Matilda, he must continue, and he must rule his kingdom. It is his divine destiny, which in tales of chivalry is of the utmost importance.

Symbols

Helmet

The inciting incident (the event that sets the plot in motion) in the novel is the appearance, practically out of thin air, of a gigantic, metal helmet that no human being would be strong enough to carry, and it functions as an instrument of death. The helmet, which crushes Manfred's son Conrad, is a portent foretelling of a nasty and violent ending. It makes clear that real harm can and will come from the unseen world. This is made manifest when Manfred's family line ends with the death of his daughter and it is revealed that Manfred's power to rule comes from an egregious crime committed long ago by Manfred's grandfather. In the helmet's initial appearance, Providence has arrived for restitution, and, in Father Jerome's words, "heaven has doomed [Manfred] to destruction." Tower

After her brother Conrad's death, Matilda and her attendant maiden, Bianca, discuss the possibility of Matilda's father, Manfred, procuring a prince for Matilda to marry. At this moment they hear a wind whistling through the battlements in the tower above where Matilda's rooms are located. This functions as foreshadowing for the symbolic meaning of the tower in The Castle of Otranto. The wind through the tower marks that love is on its way.

The tower, upright and sturdy, and, therefore, aligned with Theodore's character arc (he is the most morally upright character), represents his identity as the true Prince of Otranto and implies that there is a shadow cast on his destiny. In Chapter 3 Manfred locks Theodore up in the dark tower. In this ominous tower (there are many towers in the castle) Theodore and Matilda converse for the first time and love sparks between them. Matilda, not long after, frees Theodore from the dark tower, which directly leads to the unmasking of his true identity. Unfortunately, Theodore's future does not include Matilda, who is killed by accident when her father lashes out in a jealous rage, believing Theodore to be in the church with Isabella.

Themes

Magic versus Providence

Early in the novel Walpole brings up magic to distinguish it from the supernatural events—visions, portents, ghosts, prophecies—that will unfold in the narrative. Hippolita, near the climax of the story, will declare: "There is a destiny hangs over us; the hand of Providence is stretched out." The first supernatural event Walpole uses to make this distinction comes when Conrad is crushed to death by a giant helmet that no human hands could lift. Nevertheless, when a peasant in the crowd (Theodore) suggests the helmet belongs to a statue from the nearby church, Manfred, the Prince of Otranto, calls him a "villain, monster, sorcerer" and jails the "magician" within the helmet, saying, "he should be kept there without food, with which his own infernal art might furnish him."

The reader can see clearly that Theodore will not be able to make food appear while he is trapped under a giant metal helmet. Walpole renders magic powerless in the reader's mind right from the beginning to suggest that magic won't be an easy device used to explain events in this story. Perhaps this is the author's own crafty sleight of hand, for the purpose of throwing readers off-track and enticing them to suspend their disbelief. For all that is awaiting them, readers will need to bring their imaginations along. By the time readers get to the end of the novel, it has gone far above and beyond the unbelievable.

Theodore is not accused of being a magician or sorcerer for the remainder of the novel. However, the servants, Bianca, Jaquez, and Diego are scolded and mocked throughout by the princes and princesses for confusing the godly supernatural with the magical. It is Providence, with some help from the spirits of St. Nicholas, the hermit from Joppa, and the saint-like Alfonso the Good, that pushes the narrative to its bloody conclusion: a "sacred vengeance" that rights the crimes Manfred's ancestors committed. Being able to differentiate between magic and portents (signs from Providence) is vital to the characters' destinies. Throughout the novel, if characters do not heed a sign, they are destroyed. There are moments where Manfred has a chance to do something positive, but, instead, he continues his bad behavior. For instance, the paintings in the castle come to life and move as a sign that certain things should occur. The painting in the hallway looks like Theodore, but Manfred chooses to ignore this sign as well. By not valuing signs or misinterpreting them, Manfred continues on his selfish path and loses almost everything he values—his children, his castle. Characters who see signs and portents and interpret them successfully—like Theodore—are favored throughout the novel and achieve success. These signs are often connected to spirituality. They come as a warning, and if characters do not listen, they can be punished. One Biblical sign from The Castle of Otranto are the drops of blood that come out of the statue of Alfonso the Good, signifying the holy trinity (belief that God is made up of three divinities: the Father, the Son (Christ), and the Holy Spirit) and serving as a warning for Manfred.

Black-and-White Morality

The intertwining of religious views of the Middle Ages with Walpole's hero and villain characterizations creates a black-and-white morality in The Castle of Otranto. The story devices that result became Gothic novel standards.

Villain

Manfred becomes the archetype for the classic Gothic villain. Each choice he makes is chaotic and creates darkness. He behaves selfishly; however, he is not beyond redemption. In The Castle of Otranto, even the worst villain gets a second chance. Manfred is allowed to realign himself with Christianity and dedicate the rest of his life to the faith. Even though Manfred's behavior could be categorized as evil (murdering his daughter, attempting to marry Isabella and divorce his wife), his villainy is essential to drive the plotline. The villain also makes room for a hero to emerge who abides by a moral code, typically in the moral universe of Christianity. The evil of the villain is typically influenced by masculinity and often is a patriarchal figure. To put his villainy on full display, he often pursues an innocent woman.

Hero

The hero is an important character in Gothic literature. Often, the hero is a young princely character who tries to win over a maiden character. He isn't necessarily a barbaric character, like a war hero; he is, instead, often a lovestruck gentle soul. The hero of Gothic literature is also often connected to the common medieval ideas of religion at the time. Christian faith presents the hero (as the case with Jesus) as a self-sacrificial person who acts based on love. This can often be the downfall of a Gothic hero: when they are blinded by love, they cannot make proper choices. In The Castle of Otranto, the hero is the character of Theodore, whose moral compass never falters.

Heroine

Much like the hero, the heroine is a symbol of faith. The heroine is often depicted as being a young, beautiful, virginal woman. Virginity is equated with morality for the heroine. She responds to danger in a passive way, such as when Isabella hides in the cave and when Matilda accepts her father's wishes for her to marry Frederic. In Gothic literature she is often pursued by a villain, who is typically an older patriarchal figure. Near the beginning of the novel, Isabella is escaping through mysterious corridors in the castle. She runs and has trouble figuring out how to escape until Theodore assists her. Again, she escapes from Manfred and hides in the convent or the cave in the forest. Those who pursue the heroine seek to violate her morals, which often means take her virginity. Manfred chases Isabella, pursuing her virginity, and exposes himself as the main villain.

Sterility and the Role of Women

Hippolita's inability to bear more children spurs Manfred to act in ways that ultimately destroy himself and his legacy. However, though Hippolita is the ostensibly sterile character being discarded by her husband, it is her husband's perspective and failure to recognize the power of the women in his life that comes to light to be the true fault in the character—and ensures his loss of an heir much more completely than Hippolita possibly could.

At the beginning of the novel, it is made clear to the reader that Conrad, before he is crushed to death by a supernatural helmet, is Manfred's only hope for continuing his lineage. There is also a prophecy (Manfred knows about it, but the reader does not at first) corroborating Manfred's viewpoint as well. The prophecy says his rule over Otranto will end when there is no longer a male heir to take over. Meanwhile, also at the outset of the narrative, it is made clear that Manfred sees no value whatsoever in his daughter Matilda. It never occurs to him that she could be of value until Frederic, Marquis of Vicenza, shows up and Hippolita thinks of the idea of matching Frederic with Matilda and solving all of their problems by joining the two disputing families. When Manfred kills Matilda near the end of the novel, he kills the daughter, not the son, who could have saved him from ruin and brought male heirs. Matilda is long dead to Manfred before he kills her, so it is redundant when he kills her. His blindness to her—and all women's—value is represented in his killing her.

In the center of this construct sit Theodore and Isabella. Manfred only can see potential in Isabella, but it is lust that drives him, not true sight. And further along those lines, it is Theodore's mother who is related to Alfonso the Good, not Father Jerome, Theodore's father. Because of the mother carrying the family line, Theodore rightfully gains all of Otranto, and Manfred loses all. Though he takes the course of the novel to make the point, Walpole masterfully reveals that it is the men (except Theodore, who respects and loves the female characters) in the novel who are "sterile"—incapable, ineffective—and leashed to the absurd viewpoint that only one sex (male) is vital in the producing of heirs.

Biography of Horace Walpole

Early Life

English author Horace Walpole, who was born on September 24, 1717, in London, gained fame in Europe for creating a new genre of writing: Gothic literature. After his novel The Castle of Otranto was published, literature with medieval, spiritual, and villainous elements gained popularity. Walpole was the son of British Prime Minister Sir Robert Walpole, and he enjoyed a life of privilege and esteem. He was also the youngest of six children, two of whom died at a young age. Throughout his life he was pale and sickly, and he largely devoted himself to arts and architecture.

Horace Walpole was very close to his mother, who died when he was only 20. His father, Sir Robert Walpole, was often away on political ventures or with his mistress. After his mother's death, Walpole was isolated and depressed. He dropped out of King's College in Cambridge and went on a tour of Europe. He was accompanied by his friend, the English poet . They traveled to places such as Italy to study the arts and architecture. At some point during the trip, Gray and Walpole had a fight, and Gray left his friend on the Continent. Walpole eventually returned home and, in the family tradition, began his political career. He became a member of Parliament in 1741 and had moderate success as a politician. Rather than devoting himself wholeheartedly to politics, as his father had done, he instead gained esteem as a writer of personal letters and novels.

Strawberry Hill

After the death of his father in 1745, Walpole sought to find ways to spend the money he earned from his political appointments. Walpole oversaw the creation of his own house, known as Strawberry Hill, which was built in Gothic style and greatly influenced by architecture used in medieval Catholic churches. He continued to build on additions to the home, such as turrets, arched windows, stained glass, and grand interiors, until Strawberry Hill looked more like a castle than a house. In many ways Strawberry Hill was Walpole's masterwork, which began an architectural trend in England. Walpole kept renovating Strawberry Hill throughout his lifetime from the year it was first purchased in 1747 until 1790. He added new wings, gardens, and fanciful decorations such a bench shaped like a seashell. While he was still alive, Strawberry Hill became a tourist destination. Walpole also amassed a large library, containing many rare books. Additionally, Walpole ran a printing press from his home, publishing books and writing about art.

Walpole's home greatly influenced his artistic direction. He had a nightmare one night, and, based on imagery from his dream, he wrote The Castle of Otranto. Walpole stated "that on the uppermost bannister of a great staircase I saw a gigantic hand in armor. In the evening I sat down and began to write." The building took on a new significance for Walpole after being endowed with symbolism in the fictional work. When Walpole first published the book, he pretended that it was a new translation of an old book found in Italy. When the book gained popularity, he admitted he was the sole author.

Later Life

Throughout his life Walpole continued to be involved in arts and letters, and he wrote popular art history scholarship on painting. Walpole never married, and most of his family died before he passed away on March 2, 1797, after suffering from gout (a form of arthritis). Walpole had many close friends who died in the 1770s and 1780s, causing him a great deal of sadness. Strawberry Hill, despite its popularity among tourists, began to decay. Walpole's entire life was changed by the frequent deaths of those he cherished, and his emotional landscape remained dark as is reflected in the somber mood of his writing and design. Letter writing was consistently Walpole's most productive artistic output. After his death his correspondence, which included some 4,000 letters, was published in a huge 48-volume set (1937–83). The letters concern art, design, and theory.