FRAMES OF REFERENCES …

UDC 316.774:069

FRAMES OF REFERENCES – ART MUSEUMS AS UNIQUE VISUAL MEDIA Aneta Hristova; Meri Batakoja Saints Cyril and Methodius University of Skopje, Macedonia

Abstract: The age old activity of collecting arts is not I. INTRODUCTION intrinsically dependent on the art museum as separate architectural type. How was the art museum as an Despite the broad frame of interfering social and independent structure conceptualized and why? What political references of the awakened, hedonistic 16th was the idea behind that concept? Was it created as a medium consciously and what kind of messages was it century society being far more comprehensive than th supposed to deliver? What kind of unique “textual” the architectural one, it is in the very course of the 16 overlaps the various disciplines of archaeology, art and 17th century classical architectural theory where history, politics, literature, science and architecture we can find the emerging awareness of its potential as created in order to produce what we today recognize as a powerful, self-conscious media for artistic art museum space? This study focuses on the crucial representation. Within the general theoretical dispute, historical moments of the late 17th century when such the emergence of art museum as architectural type is questions were posed for the first time within the one of the most stratified one. Its long formative classical discourse of the French architectural theory history represents a dense cobweb of intertwined which followed the consolidation of French absolutism significances: the politics in the court of Louis XIV for and the foundation of the Royal academies of arts and sciences, until the mid 19th century when the answers to the setting of museum’s institutional frame; the way those questions were finally exemplified in built the musaeum was etymologically and philosophically architecture. The study gives a comprehensive overview constructed as classical ideal in the 17th and 18th of the cultural context art museums as public century studies and encyclopedias; the way it was institutions emerged from and became new spatial transposed in the architectural theory as architectural models for collective cultivation. episode of the Querell des Anciens et Modernes; the way it was imagined and interpreted throughout the Keywords: architectural theory, public buildings, art multiply architectural competitions organized by the museum, media, referential frame, modernism, typology Acadèmie in the period between 1770s-1790s; the way

all those efforts diminished both in the final

53 КУЛТУРА / CULTURE, 12/ 2015 conversion of the Louvre Palace as the first public discussions were based derived from philosophy and musée in 1793 and in the architecture of every new the natural sciences, and were not specific to public art museum in the 19th century Western World. architecture: in the spirit of Descartes’ rationalist philosophy, the basic principle of all discussion was II. THE POLITICAL BEHIND THE CLASSICAL AND VICE VERSA raison, with an absolute belief in the authority of Antiquity. Mathematics played a key role in achieving A. The Foundation of the Royal Normative Classical certitude, while geometry was the basic instrument of Style in the 17th Century French Architectural Theory all beauty. The transposition of the classical legacy from the At first, architectural theory in the Acadèmie Italian to the French art theory in the 16th century and followed the literary theory (Boileau, La Bruyѐre) the course of the French architectural theory towards holding the belief that greatness and perfection could the classical synthesis in the 17th century stood firmly be achieved only by imitating Antiquity, which implied on the political and ideological platform of the French reading aloud of Vitruvius and Renaissance authors: Absolutism, reaching its peak in the reign of Louis XIV. Palladio, Scamozzi, Vignola, Serlio, Alberti, Viola, Whereas in the 16th century in Italy the academies Cataneo. The basic positions of the Acadèmie of beautѐ were associations of independent artists free to make universelle were prescribed and processed in a their own status and select their members, in France standard form, although the Acadèmie simultaneously the foundation of the visual arts academies was traced its autonomous discourse on the task of bon programmed by the state authorities (Richelieu, goût opposing the ideals of the enlightened liberalism Colbert) and prescribed, commissioned and carried to the royal normative rationalism personified as the out by the King. The Enlightenment and the “Blondel – Perrault” conflict.4 centralized Absolutism formed, as H. V. Kruft states Completing the difficult task to make a new revised “an unholy alliance”1 in the creation of these translation of Vitruvius, the latter got the chance to institutions, thus conducting the course of the 17th present his own body of theory in which he attacked century Royal Academy of Architecture (Acadèmie the eternal classical principles, specifically the concept Royal d’Architecture, 1671), which “ruled over the of proportion, giving a way to a more empirical architects, students, contractors, royal buildings, method of achieving beautѐ that introduced usage as provinces, towns” and became “a mighty instrument in an aesthetic premise. It was, among symmetry and the service of the central power”.2 proportion, accepted by his successors at the The task of the Acadѐmie consisted of the passing Acadèmie who claimed that “when building, it is no of resolutions, which were eventually to be less important to dispose the rooms skillfully than it is incorporated into a normative architectural aesthetics to adorn the facades finely”5 (Fig. 1) and ultimately in the establishment of a “national” French order (idea initiated by Philibert Delorme).3 At the beginning, the principles on which the Acadѐmie’s

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of the four fundamental concepts that defined the quality of the architecture work: bon goût, ordonnance, proportion and convenance, owe to its respectful member Germain Boffrand (1667-1754), another concept was systematically introduced in architectural theory – that of caractѐre. Caractѐre revoke the Vitruvian concept of decor, concerning the appropriateness of form and content, i.e. the attribution of specific quality to the function or to the occupant of the building. With the concept of caractère Boffrand redefined the role of the aesthetics now focusing on the effect derived from visual rhetoric which traced the course of the “Revolutionary architecture” and the so called architecture parlante.

Fig. 1 Claude Perrault. Ordonnance for the five kinds of His treatise earned thematic elaboration with columns after the method of the Ancients, 1683 39 Jacques - Francois Blondel, who assigned particular caractѐres to particular types of building, giving the Focusing on the aspect of Vitruvian dispositio highest character sublimitè to important public rather than the aesthetic tasks of architecture, the late buildings. He also extended the notion of character as 17th century French theorists made space distribution an expression of function to the overarching idea of the substantial architectural concept and an style as an expression of effect, which he maintained instrument of the further programmatic classification to have autonomous cultural background recognizable of building types. as a “true architecture”. During the mid 18th century alongside a B. The Relativist Architectural Aesthetics and the reorientation towards a normative classical style Concept of “Architecture Parlante” in the Late 18th emerged a Rousseau-ist school of thought which Century French Architectural Theory derived every architectural tenet directly from the In accordance to its task, at the first half of the 18th rationally justifiable archetypes, with Marc Antoin century the Acadèmie Royal d’Architecture proceeded Laugier being the principle herald. He declared that all with the theoretical debates advocating the primacy of architectural rules should derive from Nature and all taste over function and vice versa, which accentuated architectural processes were imitations of processes the importance of the relationship between the basic of nature, exemplified by the primitive hut as the aesthetic concept and the utility value of the building, origin of all the possible forms of architecture. (Fig. 2) while abolishing the notion of normative architectural doctrine. After the Acadèmie approved the definitions

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to their extreme with logical vigor.6 Etienne Louis Boullѐe (1728-99) was the first to imply the visual effects of the solid geometrical bodies into a series of “poetic” images which he comprehended in an imaginary architectural museum, showing the rhetorical power of the architectural drawings: “In time, one would have a museum of architecture containing all that could be expected of the art from those cultivating it”.7 Boullѐe’s desire towards monumentality, both in size and appearance, best illustrated at his monument to Newton, ultimately led his ideas to pure abstraction and his search for character de grandeur to symbolism of the sublimity of the divine bond between Architecture and Nature. Fig. 2 Marc-Antoine Laugier, Frontispiece to Essay on (Fig. 3) 36 Architecture (Essai sur L’Architecture) ,1753

For Laugier, the primitive hut embodied all structural logic and regarded the Orders not as ornamental features but as constituent parts of a building, thus overcoming the dichotomy between structure and applied ornament. In his proposition that truth of architecture (architecture vraie) lies in its structural logic, Laugier is considered the founder of the new concept of functionalism, superseding the 17th century concept of usage (function understood in terms of use) and the initiator of the proceeding 19th and 20th century debate about functionalism. th From the beginning of the 18 century onwards the idea of the “Revolutionary architecture” arose Fig. 3 Étienne-Louis Boullée, Newton Memorial (Cénotaphe among the royalist progressive circles. Contrary to the de Newton), 1784 24 common misunderstanding of this movement as a break with tradition and being direct precedent of the This tendency towards reduction of architecture to modern architecture, these ideas were not expression basic geometric forms proceeded with Claude – of the political upheaval of the French revolution of Nicolas Ledoux (1736-1806), who, as Boullѐe before 1789, but a rigorous desire to push the existing ideas him, questioned or more precisely, disregarded

56 FRAMES OF REFERENCES … function in the sense of the practical value of enthusiasm for the Classical heritage remained architecture in favor of its symbolic, i.e. semantic constant all throughout the 18th century. content. Around 1800 he developed his own concept of architecture parlante based on a system of C. Towards the New Age – The 19th Century “descriptive” and “eloquent” architectural designs Forerunners of Functionalism covering all architectural tasks according to a The architectural theory at the beginning of the proposed “social order”. His unique radical 19th century in France was driven by the academy stuff formulation of architecture as an instrument of moral of the two newly founded institutions: École des purification of the society, as shown in his project of a Beaux-Arts8 and École Polytechnique9 in Paris, both complex ideal salt-producing town of Chaux changed considered adherents of the Modern movement of the the concept of caractѐre as a means of expression to an 20th century. Owe to Louis – Ambroise Dubut (1760- educational tool. (Fig. 4) 1846), one of the winners of the Grand Prix competitions,10 and his treatise “Architecture civile”, Ledoux’s criteria of architecture parlante were revisited and redefined as “la disposition, la salubritè et l’ѐconomie”, all together under the concept of “utilitѐ”, which was a remarkable departure from Revolutionary architecture. Employing another Vitruvian concept, that of distribution (oeceonomia), Dubut traced the course of architecture towards the radical simplifying schematism worked out by Jean- Nicolas-Louis Durand (1760-1834) attributed mostly to the fact that the latter studied and was a teacher afterwards at the engineering school École Polytechnique. Fig. 4 Claude Nicolas Ledoux, Royal Saltworks at Arc-et- Being a winner of the Grand Prix prizes twice, Senans (Salines de Chaux), 1775 - 1778 33 Durand was still under the neo-classicist influence when he published his “Prècis des leçons d’architecture” Both Ledoux and Boullѐe employed terms from (1802). Revealing his break with the Vitruvian Classical architecture, giving them a personal content tradition, the theory of mimesis and Laugier’s theory due to their own views of architecture where of the primitive hut, Durand pronounced a radical proportion practically disappeared as an aesthetic concept of architecture reduced to two principles, that concept and the caractère took precedence over usage. of convenance (propriety) embracing the concepts of Although the architectural discourse of the Acadèmie soliditè, salubritѐ and commoditè and the concept of Royal d’Architecture varied significantly, the ѐconomie (economy) embracing symetrie, regularite

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(retaining the Classical orders in their generic sense) Further abolition of Classical norms is seen in the and simplicitѐ (deriving from the neo-classicism). He work of Henri Labrouste and Eugenѐ-Emmanuel considered the square and the right angle the basic Viollet-le Duc (1814-79), the latter being the forms of all architecture (and the formal basis of town- protagonist of the Gothic revival as a French national planning). style, who defined architecture as purely and simply a Durand’s dominating criterion for architecture was product of the building process thus opening the however disposition which led him to the full prospect of a new architecture based on functional, dedication to functionalism. Durand’s rationalist national and social premises. Auguste Choisy (1841- principles gained codification into a systematic theory 1909) and Julien Guadet (1834-1908) were the last of architectural composition based on a grid system of representatives of the French classical architectural horizontals and verticals generating infinite number of theory, who despite being stylistically eclectic, combinations of plans and elevations in terms of exhibited a number of progressive features tracing the volumes according to the requirements of disposition. path to the 20th century Modern movement.11 (Fig. 5) III. FRENCH MUSEUM PROTOTYPES

A. Musaeum of Alexandria as the Ultimate but the Impossible Classical Ideal As juxtaposed to this development of architectural thought, the museum as a possible new architectural type conceptualized exactly in the 17th century French circles, followed (curiously) the same departures of architectural thought adopting and testing the new qualitative categories, from the imaginative meditations over the Musaeum of Alexandria as an

Fig. 5 Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand, Lectures on Architecture ultimate classical ideal towards the rationalized (Précis des leçons d'architecture données à l'École “modernist” museum scheme of Durand. Polytechnique) ,180227 The scholarly interest for Musaeum of Alexandria in France was present as early as in the beginning of Launching his catalogue of unlimited combination 17th century. Its history was reconstructed through of architectural features, Durand was recognized as various academic efforts12 and until the mid 18th the forerunner of the standardization enabling century a credible but not completely reliable historic prefabricated construction, which was practically construct was formed. However, this singular classical implemented afterwards by Joseph Paxton at his model that could be looked upon to was deprived of Crystal Palace of 1851. any physical existence. There was not any primary

58 FRAMES OF REFERENCES … documentation about it and its location within known fact that Alexander the Great didn’t forget his Alexandria remained only a subject of speculation. tutor, lavishly sponsored the Aristotle’s school This confronted the classical thought on its most financially and provided rare plants and animals from primary level because anything known about the distant lands for Aristotle’s growing private collection. single classical model in museum context was of That’s how Aristotle established a rich botanical programmatic origin and there was nothing known garden and a form of zoo for the needs of his research about its form. and teaching.18 With all said, we can conclude that The Alexandrian Project was believed to be regardless of the existing structures of the “old conceptualized as a combination of Plato’s Academy Lyceum”, Aristotle needed a combination of academy and Aristotle’s School in the Lyceum of Athens.13 (study and lecturing halls), museum (temple dedicated Plato’s Academy (Academia) was part of an open to the Muses) and library (for various collections). It space, a public garden in the suburb of Athens, sounds like comprehensive and self-sufficient surrounded with a wall and adorned with temples, educational and research facility of encyclopaedic statues and sepulchers of important men.14 It program. represented informal gathering of chosen community The ancient historical knowledge about the discussing among the olive trees under the guidance of Musaeum, however, didn’t provide any stable formal Plato. According to Plato, the knowledge acquired oral reference, but at least provided an extensive inventory tradition and not books. His peripatetic “dialogues”, of ancient words signifying various architectural from the word peripatetikos meaning the act of spaces as fractured from the whole. The French walking, favored walking and talking over the sitting Musaeum was only comprised as a knowledgeable and studying. That is why Young Lee lucidly concludes “building of words:” exedra, oecus, xystus, peripatoi ... that we can understand Plato’s Academia in These fractured spaces began to finally synthesize architectural terms as combining principles of in the period of 1770-1790 when many architectural gymnasium and musaeum, the first being dedicated to competitions for museum design in the Academies the exercise of body, the second to the exercise of were launched as a possible realization of the soul.15 theoretical museum project. The same spatial structure is present in the concept of Aristotle’s Lyceum of Athens. Consisted of B. The Grand Prix Museums and Boulée’s Museum of common architectural elements of a Greek Palaestra16 the Sublime we find the novelties of the Aristotle’s Lyceum in the The architectural programme for the muséum, incorporation and importance of a sanctuary subject of the architectural competition for Grand Prix dedicated to the Muses and a library established by de Rome of 1779 was consisted of: Aristotle himself.17 The Library didn’t consist of “A garden intended for the culture of foreign plants collection of manuscripts only, but consisted of at least or as a public walk. The sciences depository will collections of arts and of natural sciences. It is a well include a library, a cabinet of medals and several

59 КУЛТУРА / CULTURE, 12/ 2015 rooms for maps (géographie) and prints. That of the arts will include rooms and galleries for painting, sculpture, and architecture. That of natural history will include rooms for collections of anatomy, injections, conservation of animals, plants, and shells: a communal salon will be placed in the plan, preceded by a room, vestibule, and large stairwell. The construction of this building will be in masonry and vaults without any woodwork. This project will not have an assembly room intended for different academies. It will be carried out on the principal floor, and in the sequence of each of the parts of the museum, in closed rooms (cabinets) for persons destined for public service, and for the study of scientists and amateurs. All the rooms and cabinets of the muséum Fig. 6 Gisors, Projects for a Museum, First prize award for the will be placed on different floors elevated above the Grands Prix of the French Academy of Architecture, 1779 40 ground level, destined to be occupied by a printing press, several laboratories, depositories, and other objects of indispensable service. The lodgings of the director and the intendant will be formed in a part of the major floor, and the disposition (of the plan) need not be concerned with the symmetry of the exterior decoration or the ease of movement (commodité) within the building. Students will take up a single level in the main floor and might expect individual lodgings in the mezzanine.”19 Helen Rosenau, presenting the first and second place winners of the same 1779 competition, Gisors (pupil of Boulée) and Lannoy (pupil of Antoine), respectively, also confirms the comprehensive architectural program consisted of botanical garden and a library, a cabinet for medals, rooms for housing geographical exhibits and engravings, as well as halls 20 Fig. 7 Lannoy, Projects for a Museum, Second prize award for the display of the arts and natural history. (Fig. 6) for the Grands Prix of the French Academy of Architecture, (Fig. 7) 1779 40

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The winning projects both represent typologically The whole of his museum project is produced by hybridized form. We can recognize in them the ideal the regularity and symmetry imposed by the quincunx, musaeum consisted of school, temple and library as pattern which Boullée recommended for the unified program and typological crossover, regulation of the “immensity” of the scale to be fully recognizing the Rotunda, the circular temple developed as an overall effect in temples.21 (Fig. 8) associated with the Temple of the Muses, the cross, as He used colonnades as an ingenious technique to a kind of rudimentary panoptical device and the ring achieve this effect of succession in a way to fully associated with the palaestra that can be multiplied develop the overall effect of immensity. He even several times providing variable and greater capacity emphasized the “scale” by lowering the entrance level for realization of the ambitious scholarly programme and providing gradient ascent towards the centre of of the Academies and the Library. the quincunx or where the Temple of Fame was We cannot skip the possible and probable link of positioned. In his “Reflections on Architecture in these winning projects to Boullée’s passionate Particular” Boullée praises the interior vaulting of a preferences towards the architecture that can stay dome that architecture has prepared for painting and innocent of utility, for which monuments of public sculpture to bring out all their beauty. gratitude, the architectural group museums belong to, The effect of the immensity and the effect of the are especially illustrative. Boullée’s theory and his perfect rendering of light within the dome created this greatest strivings from the “Architecture, Essay on Art,” museum’s character of the sublime. (Fig. 9) are maybe best exemplified through his own “Project for a Museum at the Center of Which is a Temple of Fame Containing the Statues of Great Man” from 1783.

Fig. 9 Étienne-Louis Boullée , Project for a Museum, 34 Fig. 8 Étienne-Louis Boullée , Project for a Museum, 1783 Interior view, looking toward the Temple to Fame, 178334

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C. Durand and the Birth of the Art Museum as This is quite a dramatic conceptual shift in this Functionally Determined “Modernist” Type chronological juxtaposition of French (proto) In 1802, in Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand’s “Précis des museums. The museum conceptualized ideally for two leçons d'architecture” (Lectures on Architecture), centuries as a laboratory and repository of all the among various functional types, there was also a world knowledge after the single model of Antiquity museum project that was specialized in exhibiting art was here transformed in a building that exhibited with repositories intended for separate exhibition of adequate amount of related material items properly painting, sculpture and architecture and enriched only collected and maintained. with artists’ studios. So, somewhere in-between 1783 and 1802, the art museum as programmatically understood today was born. This conceptual shift was surely not an overnight phenomenon. The continual attacks over the eternal classical principles were continually rationalizing the architectural thought and Durand’s functionalist museum scheme can be read as their logical and expected end-product. The broader process of modernization of thought embedded the phenomenon of industrialization leading towards single-functional edifices, incorporated in the values of the new École Polytechnique after 1794.

IV. CONCLUSION

This study deconstructs the idea of the art museum

as unique visual media and forms an original Fig. 10 Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand, Project for a Museum, inventory of museum prototypes as juxtaposed to 180229 their conceptual origins. The condensed demonstration of the otherwise Durand’s museum composition is consisted of much longer and steeper path of the successive separate elements (galleries) dedicated to separate transformations of architectural thought in the French groups of art works: architecture, painting and architectural theory from the 17th century peak of the sculpture. Durand explained the museum as a building classical revival through diverse departures of its in which the connection and maintenance of the normative doctrines, introduced the socio-political functional links between these elements and the and culturally complex processes the new qualitative treasury is basic motive for its existence.22 (Fig. 10) categories were developed in, forming the

62 FRAMES OF REFERENCES … architectural autonomous system that would [7] From Boullѐe, Considerations (1968: 40) Ibid: 159 eventually be embedded into the Modern movement [8] École des Beaux – Arts was founded in 1648 by Charles Le Brun as the Académie de peinture et de sculpture (the famed th of the 20 century. The development of this French Academy). In 1793, the institutes were suppressed. architectural theory system and its categories is However, in 1816, the name was changed when it merged significant when juxtaposed to the process of with the Académie d'architecture. inventing of the museum as an architectural type [9] École Polytechnique was established in 1794 by the mathematician Gaspard Monge during the French because it illustrates how every hesitation and change Revolution and became a military academy under Napoleon of direction of architectural thought were reflected in I in 1804. the evolution of this single architectural type by [10] Louis – Ambroise Dubut won the Grand Prix competition in changing the map of references that informed its 1797 with a design for a public granary. [11] Choisy’s view of the history of architecture reduces it to its conceptual creation. This doesn’t prove the logical structures. He sees stylistic features as merely architectural theory to be the ultimate frame of expression of the new materials and methods of construction reference, but it allows us to peek into its dynamic of the new age, mostly of the iron. His device that a new spirit nature and the ways the architectural thought is never demands a new formal language is considered to be the light- motif of L’Esprit Nouveau, the journal edited by Le Corbusier firmly established but constantly in the state of and Ozenfant. Ibid: 287 becoming in the wider cultural field. Understanding [12] For the full list of academic attempts to recover Musaeum’s architectural theory as a field of continually changing history read in: P.Y. Lee, "The Musaeum of Alexandria and the frames of references allows us to believe that it holds Formation of the Museum in Eighteenth-Century France," in The Art Bulletin (College Art Association) 79, no. 3 (1997): the power not just historically to acknowledge the 391. emergence of new architectural types as shown in the [13] Demetrious of Phaleron, a student of Theophrastus, the example of the birth of art museum as “modernist” successor to Aristotle in his school in Athens, was in charge in type in the 19th century, but also to anticipate possible the Ptolemy’s book buying programme. It is the only factual connection to Aristotle’s School mentioned in numerous new types of our century. written sources on the theme. In Strabo’s description of Alexandria, the Musaeum is mentioned briefly. His description ENDNOTES contains the common elements of Greek Palaestra type although assuming a kind of palatial structure. A. Erskine, "Culture and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: The [1] (H. V. Kruft, 1994: 128) Museum and Library of Alexandria," in Greece & Rome, [2] (Hautecoeur. according to H. V. Kruft, 1994: 128) Second Series (Cambridge University Press on behalf of The [3] In 1671 Colbert announced a competition with a prize of Classical Association) 42, no. 1 (April 1995): 40. (P.Y. Lee, 3.000 livres for the design of a “French” order, which ended 1997: 391) unsuccessfully. Ibid: 129 IEP – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (A Peer- Reviewed [4] Both Francois Blondel (1617-86) and Claude Perrault (1613- Academic Resource) http://www.iep.utm.edu/academy/ 88) were appointed professors at the Acadèmie. [14] (P.Y. Lee, 1998: 419) [5] Ibid: 138 [15] Vitruvius, The Ten Books on Architecture, translated by [6] It was Emil Kaufmann who “discovered” it and named it Morris Hicky Morgan, Harvard University Press, 1914: 159- “revolutionary architecture” in the 1920s, revealing first the 162. writings of Ledoux and than of Boullѐe. Ibid: 158

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[16] This existence of the Aristotle’s Lyceum and its physical and [29] E. Kaufmann, Three Revolutionary Architects, Boullée, Ledoux, programmatic structure is confirmed by the excavations in Lequeu, The American Philosophical Society, 1952. Athens from 1996. [30] E. Kaufmann, “Étienne-Louis Boullée,” in The Art Bulletin, IEP – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (A Peer- Vol.21,No.3, 1993: 213-227. Reviewed Academic Resource) http://www.iep.utm.edu/ [31] H. V. Kruft, A History of Architectural Theory from Vitruvius to lyceum/ the Present, London: Zwemmer, 1994. [17] F.C. Robb, "Aristotle and Education," in Peabody Journal of [32] K.N. Ledu, Arhitektura iz ugla umetnosti, običaja i Education (Taylor&Francis) 20, no. 4 (January 1943): 209- zakonodavstva, Prevod Verka Jovanović, Beograd, Srbija: 210. Građevinska knjiga, 2002. [18] (Young Lee, 1997: 392) [33] P.Y.Lee, "Standing on the Shoulders of Giants: Boullée's "Atlas" [19] (Roseau, 1960: 23) Facade for the Bibliotheque du Roi," In Journal of the Society of [20] A quincunx is a geometric pattern consisting of five points Architectural Historians (University of California Press on arranged in a cross, with four of them forming a square or behalf of the Society of Architectural Historians) 57, no. 4 rectangle and a fifth at its center. (December 1998): 401-431. [21] Diran, Pregled predavanja (Précis des leçons d'architecture), [34] P.Y.Lee, "The Musaeum of Alexandria and the Formation of edited by Stana Shehalich, Gradzevinska knjiga, 2005: 178. the Museum in Eighteenth-Century France," in The Art Bulletin (College Art Association) 79, no. 3 (1997): 385-412. [35] H.F. Mallgrave, Modern Architectural Theory: A Historical REFERENCES Survey 1673-1968, Cambridge University Press, 2005. [36] A. Palladio, The Four Books of Architecture, Introduction by [22] L. B. Alberti, On the Art of Building in Ten Book,. Translated by: Adolf K. Placzek, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. 1965. Joseph Rykwert, Neil Leach, Robert Tavernor, Cambridge, [37] N.Pevsner, A History of Building Types, Princeton University Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1997. Press, 1976. [23] E.L. Bule, Arhitektura, Esej o umetnosti, Preveli Mirjana [38] C.Perrault, Ordonnance for the Five Kinds of Columns after the Mihajlović-Ristivojević, Verka Jovanović, Beograd, Srbija: Method of the Ancients, Introduction by Alberto Perez – Gomez, Građevinska knjiga. The Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities, [24] D.S. Capon, Architectural Theory, Volume One: the Vitruvian 1993. Fallacy, Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons, 1999. [39] H. Rosenau, "The Engravings of the Grands Prix of the French [25] D.S. Capon, Architectural Theory, Volume Two: Le Corbusier’s Academy of Architecture," in Architectural History (SAHGB Legacy. Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons, 1999. Publications Limited) 3 (1960): 15+17-21+23-171+173-180. [26] Diran, Pregled predavanja. Prevod: Ivanka Bogdanović, Mila [40] Vitruvius, De Architectura Libri Decem, Prevod: d-r Matija Baštić, Maja Đordević. Beograd, Srbija: Građevinska knjiga. Lopac, Svjetlost, 1990. [27] B. Evert (Preface), Architectural Theory from the Renaissance to the Present, Kőln, Deutschland: Taschen, 2006. [28] A. Hernandez, “J.N.L.Durand’s Architectural Theory: A Study in the History of Rational Building Design,” in Perspecta, Vol.12, The MIT Press, 1969: 133-160.

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