he International Journal of T ranspersonal Studies Volume 31(1), 2012

Table of Contents Editors’ Introduction—Glenn Hartelius iii Spirituality and the MMPI-2 Restructured Clinical Scales Diana M. Mendez & Douglas A. MacDonald 1 Connecting the Spiritual and Emotional Intelligences: Confirming an Intelligence Criterion and Assessing the Role of Empathy David B. King, Constance A. Mara, & Teresa L. DeCicco 11 The Scale for xistentialE Thinking Blake A. Allan & C. Branton Shearer 21 Trauma and Transformative Passage Reed A. Morrison 38

SPECIAL TOPIC: Parapsychology Introduction to Special Topic Section Sean Avila Saiter & Glenn Hartelius 47 Transpersonal Psychology, Parapsychology, and Neurobiology: Clarifying their Relations Douglas A. MacDonald & Harris L. Friedman 49

Mental Health and the Paranormal Simon Dein 61 How Should Therapists Respond to Client Accounts of Out-of-Body Experience? Alexander De Foe 75 Is the Reincarnation Hypothesis Advanced by Stevenson for Spontaneous Past-life Experiences Relevant for the Understanding of the Ontology of Past-life Phenomena? Sergei Slavoutski 83

Psychoactive Substances and Paranormal Phenomena: A Comprehensive Review

David Luke 97

International Journal of Transpersonal Studies i The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Volume 31, Issue 1, 2012

Editor Publisher Glenn Hartelius Floraglades Foundation, Incorporated 1270 Tom Coker Road Senior Editor LaBelle, FL 33935 Harris Friedman © 2012 by Floraglades Foundation, Inc. All Rights Reserved Coordinating Editor Les Lancaster ISSN (Print) 1321-0122 ISSN (Electronic) 1942-3241 Assistant Editors Maureen Harrahy Board of Editors Courtenay Crouch Manuel Almendro (Spain) Rosemarie Anderson (USA) Honorary Editor Liora Birnbaum (Israel) Stanley Krippner Laura Boggio Gilot (Italy) Jacek Brewczynski (USA) Editors Emeriti Søren Brier (Denmark) Don Diespecker Elias Capriles (Venezuela) Philippe Gross Michael Daniels (UK) Douglas A. MacDonald John Davis (USA) Sam Shapiro Wlodzislaw Duch (Poland) James Fadiman (USA) Guest Special Topic Editor Jorge N. Ferrer (Spain/USA) Sean Avila Saiter Joachim Galuska (Germany) David Y. F. Ho (Hong Kong, China) Associate Managing Editors Daniel Holland (USA) Cheryl Fracasso Chad Johnson (USA) Adam Rock Bruno G. Just (Australia) Rochelle Suri Sean Kelly (USA) Jeffrey Kuentzel (USA) Associate Circulation Editor S. K. Kiran Kumar (India) Adrian Andreescu Charles Laughlin (Canada/USA) Olga Louchakova (USA) Editorial Assistant Vladimir Maykov (Russia) Lila Hartelius Axel A. Randrup (Denmark) Vitor Rodriguez (Portugal) Student Interns Brent Dean Robbins (USA) Liz Caine Mario Simöes (Portugal) Rashmi Chidanand Charles Tart (USA) Nick Fortino Rosanna Vitale (Canada) John Welwood (USA) ii International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Editors’ Introduction

ranspersonal scholars at times suggest that their Humanistic psychology began with the premise work is an extension of an area of study that that mental health is not merely the absence of disease, reaches far back into human history, that in but the cultivation of human potential. Transpersonal Tthe spirit of the great spiritual traditions it inquires into psychology applied this inspiring stance to human transcendent human capacities, but within the context of spirituality, adopting the vision of democratized trans- contemporary Western psychology and the humanities. cendence crafted by the American transcendentalists However, it is also possible to see the contemporary and put into practice by the anti-authoritarian youth transpersonal project as something quite new. revolutions of the 1950s and 1960s. Unlike the great Within cultures where religious traditions still Eastern traditions to which transpersonal scholars hold considerable influence—India or Indonesia, for often give deference, the transpersonal movement sees example—the average person participates in religious transcendence not as the province of the few, but as the ritual but does not typically partake in the transformative birthright of every human being. This confluence of esoteric practices reserved for mystics or renunciates. human potential and spiritual democracy is the particular These are used by a small percentage of the population, heritage of transpersonalism. It is an approach resonant who devote themselves to advanced spiritual study. with a widespread contemporary interest in personal Such an arrangement is resonant with the structure of growth, popular spirituality, alternative approaches to traditional cultures throughout much of the world—a healthcare that seek to align themselves with the healing spiritual version of the sorts of social hierarchies in which powers of the body, and concerns for social justice and political power and wealth is vested in a monarchy or environmental sustainability. small ruling class. Yet as a scholarly discipline, transpersonal psych- The American and French revolutions of the late ology has been long on discussion and short on empirical 18th century, however imperfect their implementation, evidence. A recent review of literature in the Journal of brought a novel idea: Everyone can participate in political Transpersonal Psychology and the International Journal power. American transcendentalism, a movement of the of Transpersonal Studies during the first four decades of mid-19th century that took shape around such luminaries the field’s existence showed that from 1970 to 1979, only as Ralph Waldo Emerson, Emily Dickenson, and John 4% of articles were empirical in nature; three decades Muir, took a similar view of spiritual power. It planted later, during the period 2000 to 2009, the percentage the notion that the esotericism of the East was something of empirical papers had risen to no more than 17% in which a simple-living American might partake. In the (Hartelius, Rothe, & Roy, in press). While this shows a words of Thoreau (1854/2008), “I lay down the book and clear positive trend, the amount of empirical evidence that go to my well for water, and lo! there I meet the servant of the field has produced is still modest at best. the Bramin, priest of Brahma and Vishnu and Indra, who The resistance to empirical work is understand- still sits in his temple on the Ganges reading the Vedas, or able, even laudable, given that it is inherited from dwells at the root of a tree with his crust and water jug. I humanistic psychology, and reflects a similar concern meet his servant come to draw water for his master, and that the richness and nuanced complexities of human our buckets as it were grate together in the same well. The experience not be reduced to numbers and categories pure Walden water is mingled with the sacred water of the and statistics. Yet the tools of empirical study within Ganges” (p. 183). Though short-lived, the transcendentalist psychology are vastly improved from the era in which vision was revived by best-selling books of the Victorian these concerns took root—the 1950s and 1960s. Not era such as Light of Asia (Arnold, 1879/1995)—a fictional only are there now scores of measures for qualities such as account of the enlightenment of the Buddha—by the compassion, empathy, spirituality, mindfulness, and other poets of the Beatnik generation, and by the counterculture transpersonally-related constructs (see MacDonald & revolution of the 1960s. Esoteric visions were now not just Friedman, this issue), but qualitative inquiry has developed for a few in the East, but available to everyone through either to the point where it is now represented by a division within meditation or communion with psychedelic substances. the American Psychological Association (Division 5). International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 31(1), 2012,International pp. iii-iv Journal of Transpersonal Studies iii In short, at this date the sparseness of empirical papers basic concerns about human existence and how adept within the transpersonal field appears to be more habitual they are at meaningfully situating themselves relative than justifiable on grounds that once held validity. to these issues. The study presents validation data on As psychology moves toward being an evidence- the scale as well as correlations with constructs such as based science, it will be necessary to take positions on what curiosity and meaning in life. Given that transpersonal constitutes evidence, what philosophical assumptions may psychology considers matters of ultimate concern, this be implicit within a given methodological approach, and scale offers a novel and valuable tool for measuring the whether reductionistic and materialistic values should tendency to think in those terms. determine what is or is not reasonable to examine. Finally, Morrison proposes that the experience of However, for the field to gain the prominence that it initiates who undergo experiences of controlled violence deserves based on the importance of its subject matter and in traditional rites of passage significantly parallels the the care for preserving the authenticity of experience that phenomenon of trauma disorder, and the fact that such permeates its approaches, a steadily increasing emphasis initiates are apparently able to integrate their experiences on empirical work can and should be made a priority. usefully may offer insights into how trauma sufferers The modest occasion for this rather large might be guided into similar positive outcomes. This preamble is the fact that in the current issue, nearly suggestion is accompanied by two short clinical case half of the papers are empirical in nature. Small though histories, one success and one failure, that illustrate the this milestone might be, it serves as an opportunity to clinical challenges and potentials of such an approach. re-state this journal’s commitment to the support and In addition, there are five papers in a special publication of empirical research within transpersonal topic section on parapsychology, prepared by Special psychology and other areas of transpersonal studies, and Topic Editor Sean Avila Saiter. These are introduced to call for additional empirical papers in these areas. separately at the beginning of that section. Here, it is The first paper, by Mendez and MacDonald, noteworthy that parapsychology is perhaps the aspect takes direct aim at the sort of quantitative work that is of transpersonal research for which there is the most sorely needed, both by transpersonal scholars and by others extensive and rigorous empirical research. interested in the practial task of assessing spirituality as a TheInternational Journal of Transpersonal Studies dimension of human functioning. In this paper, the authors will continue to encourage and support empirical work examine correlations between measures of spirituality in the transpersonal field by giving priority and expedited and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 consideration to empirical submissions, in the hope that Restructured Clinical (MMPI-2 RC) scales, a common the flurry of empirical papers in this issue will grow into tool for identifying deviations from what is considered to a steady stream of research that can bring transpersonal be mental health. These results were then compared with aproaches into the prominence that they deserve. earlier work that made a similar assessment of the original MMPI scales, and the differences explained in the context Glenn Hartelius, Editor of how and why these scales have been reformulated. Sofia University The second paper, King, Mara, & DeCicco, uses a measure of spiritual intelligence previously published Arnold, E. (1995). Light of Asia. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger. in this journal (King & DeCicco, 2009) to examine (Original work published 1879) possible correlations between spiritual intelligence and Hartelius, G., Rothe, G., & Roy, P. (in press). A measures of both emotional intelligence and empathy. brand from the burning: Defining transpersonal It is not only the fact that correlations were found, psychology. The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of trans- but the specific nature of those correlations, that offers personal psychology. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. perspectives on how spiritual intelligence might be King, D. B., & DeCicco, T. L. (2009). A viable model framed. As such, this work helps to give context and and self-report measure of spiritual intelligence. substance to the notion of spiritual intelligence, which is International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 28(1), remains a new and somewhat controversial construct. 68-85. Next, Blake and Shearer introduce a new Thoreau, H. D. (2008). Walden: Or, life in the woods. measure, the Scale for Existential Thinking, which is Radford, VA: Wilder. (Original work published designed to measure how much an individual examines 1854) iv International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Spirituality and the MMPI-2 Restructured Clinical Scales

Diana M. Mendez & Douglas A. MacDonald University of Detroit Mercy Detroit, MI, USA

The present investigation examined the relation between spirituality, measured by the Expressions of Spirituality Inventory (ESI; MacDonald, 2000); and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 Restructured Clinical (MMPI-2 RC) scales (Tellegen et al., 2003) using data from a previously published study (i.e., MacDonald & Holland, 2003). Zero-order, multiple, and partial correlations were calculated to explore the association. All multiple correlations, wherein the five ESI dimensions were used collectively to predict MMPI-2 RC scales, emerged significant for all MMPI-2 RC scales. For zero-order correlations, all RC scales were found to have a significant relation with at least one ESI dimension. Existential Well-Being (EWB) was found to be significantly negatively associated with all MMPI-2 RC scales except RC9-Hypomanic Activation. When compared to correlations between the ESI and the MMPI-2 Basic Clinical Scales, the RC scales seem to produce a similar pattern of coefficients but of lower magnitude. The study concludes with a discussion of the findings, limitations, and suggestions for clinical practice and future research.

Keywords: spirituality, Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 Restructured Clinical (MMPI-2 RC) Scales, measurement, psychopathology

n the last few decades, spirituality has been Based precisely on such reasoning, MacDonald increasingly recognized as an important aspect of and Holland (2003) completed a study examining the human functioning, which demonstrates a robust association of the Basic Clinical scales of the Minnesota Ibut complex association to health and well-being Multiphasic Personality Inventory, Second Edition (Elmer, MacDonald, & Friedman, 2003; Gartner, (MMPI-2; Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & 1996; MacDonald & Friedman, 2002). Despite such Kaemmer, 1989) to self-reported religious involvement recognition, there appears to be a lag in how spirituality and to a multidimensional measure of spirituality is being incorporated into assessment practices by health called the Expressions of Spirituality Inventory (ESI; professionals (e.g., psychologists). Even more simply, there MacDonald, 1997, 2000) with a nonclinical sample appears to be minimal published research that examines of 239 university students. For those unfamiliar with the relation of spirituality to instruments commonly the test, the MMPI-2 is one of the most widely used used in clinical assessment. If spirituality is indeed an measures of psychopathology (Greene, 2011), and while area of functioning that is important, then it would be it contains a variety of scale sets, the Clinical scales are logical that research should be done to establish how it the most venerable and widely used of them all. In their relates to popular clinical tests since such investigations original incarnation on the first MMPI (Hathaway & will help practitioners better incorporate spirituality into McKinley, 1940), the clinical scales were derived using assessment. The fact that the Diagnostic and Statistical an empirical test construction strategy (as opposed Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR; APA, 2000) to a theory driven strategy) where items from a large includes a diagnostic category for religious or spiritual item pool were assigned to scales based on their ability problems further reinforces arguments about the need to differentiate between normal people and known for research to be done that supports ways in which diagnostic groups. This approach ultimately resulted spirituality can be considered in formal psychological in the creation of 10 scales that were preserved in the assessment. MMPI-2. These scales are called Hypochondriasis (Hs,

InternationalSpirituality and Journal the MMPI-2 of Transpersonal Studies, 31(1), 2012,International pp. 1-10 Journal of Transpersonal Studies 1 a.k.a Scale 1), Depression (D, a.k.a Scale 2), Hysteria identified five robust factors which appeared to embody (Hy, a.k.a Scale 3), Psychopathic Deviate (Pd, a.k.a Scale central features of spirituality. The ESI was constructed 4), Masculinity-Femininity (Mf, a.k.a Scale 5), Paranoia to tap these five factors. Table 1 presents the names of (Pa, a.k.a Scale 6), Psychasthenia (Pt, a.k.a Scale 7), these dimensions along with a brief description of each Schizophrenia (Sc, a.k.a Scale 8), Hypomania (Ma, a.k.a and examples of measures that contribute to each of the Scale 9), and Social Introversion (Si, a.k.a Scale 0). As dimensions. for the measure of spirituality used by MacDonald and In their study, MacDonald and Holland (2003) Holland (2003), the ESI was constructed by MacDonald found that those reporting active religious involvement (2000) in order to address problems with the definition obtained significantly lower t-scores than those and measurement of spirituality seen in the literature. reporting a religious affiliation but no involvement on In particular, starting with the view of spirituality as Scale 2 (Depression), Scale 4 (Psychopathic Deviate), representing a multidimensional domain of human Scale 6 (Paranoia), Scale 7 (Psychasthenia), and Scale functioning, which incorporates experiential, cognitive, 8 (Schizophrenia). Effect sizes of these differences, affective, and behavioral components, MacDonald however, were observed to be small (e.g., eta2 ranged completed a series of factor analyses involving a total of from .02-.03 for all significant findings). They also found 20 different tests of spirituality and related constructs and that when the sample was bifurcated into subgroups

Table 1. Descriptions and convergent correlates of ESI Dimensions from MacDonald (2000) Dimension Name Description Partial list of correlates Cognitive Orientation toward Beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions Measures of non-religious Spirituality (COS) about the significance of spirituality for spirituality and subjective (40 items, a = .97) daily living and sense of personal spiritual well-being including identity Spiritual Orientation Inventory (Elkins et al., 1988); Assessment Scale (Howden, 1992), Spiritual Well-Being Questionnaire (Moberg, 1984) Experiential/Phenomenological Dimen- Spiritual experiences including religious, Measures of explicit spiritual and sion (EPD) mystical, and transcendent experiences mystical experience including Mystical (19 items, a = .91) Experiences Scale (Hood, 1975), Peak Experiences Scale (Mathes et al., 1982), Ego Permissiveness Inventory (Taft, 1969) Existential Well-Being (EWB) Sense of meaning and purpose of Measures of explicit existential well-be- (9 items, a = .85) existence and perception of self as being ing and self-satisfaction including competent Spiritual Well-Being Scale (Paloutzian & Ellison, 1982), Ego Grasping Orienta- tion (Knoblauch & Falconer, 1986) Paranormal Beliefs (PAR) Belief in paranormal phenomena (e.g., Measures of explicit belief in the para- (13 items, a = .91) ESP) normal including the Paranormal Beliefs Scale (Tobacyk & Milford, 1983), and subscales of teh Assessment Schedule for Altered States of Consciousness (van- Quekelberghe et al., 1991) Religiousness (REL) Beliefs and practices associated with Measures of intrinsic religiosity and (17 items, a = .94) intrinsic religious orientation (e.g., belief religious well-being including Intrin- in higher power, prayer/meditation sic Religious Motivation Scale (Hoge, 1972), and Religious Orientation Scale (Allport & Ross, 1967) Note: Table adapted from MacDonald and Holland (2003), descriptions and alpha coefficients from MacDonald (2000)

2 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Mendez & MacDonald based upon the presence versus absence of one or more were significantly associated (p< .001) with overall clinically significant Clinical scale scores (i.e., t-score of spirituality (as represented in standard multiple regressions 65 or higher), a significantly larger proportion of the not- wherein all five ESI dimensions were used as predictors), religiously involved participants were observed to have a as well as with at least one of the five ESI dimensions of clinically significant MMPI-2 clinical profile. spirituality as manifested in bivariate correlations (both When examining the relation of the Clinical scales to the zero-order correlations and partial correlations where ESI dimensions, MacDonald and Holland (2003) found each ESI dimension was correlated to each MMPI-2 scale that, with the exception of Scale 5 (Masculine-Feminine) after controlling for the remaining four ESI dimensions). and Scale 9 (Hypomania), all MMPI-2 Clinical scales Closer inspection of their results revealed that some components of spirituality were strongly and inversely Table 2. Summary of MacDonald and Holland (2003) related to MMPI-2 Clinical scales (e.g., Existential Well- correlational findings involving the MMPI-2 and ESI Being), while others demonstrated weaker but still inverse associations (e.g., Religiousness was negatively associated ESI Dimensions with Scale 4–Psychopathic Deviate). Still others produced positive associations with some Clinical scales (e.g., MMPI-2 Paranormal Beliefs was found to be significantly and Clinical COS EPD EWB PAR REL Mult. R positively correlated with Scale 6–Paranoia). Table 2 presents the main correlational findings Hs–Scale 1 .07 .16 -.33 .16 .05 .38 (-.00) (.11) (-.33) (.07) (.04) reported by MacDonald and Holland (2003). Further, using the presence versus absence of one or more clinically D–Scale 2 -.11 -.10 -.65 .01 -.12 .65 significant scores as a grouping variable and the five ESI (.03) (-.09) (-.64) (-.02) (-.03) dimensions as dependent variables, a MANOVA found Hy–Scale 3 .09 .18 -.27 .14 .02 .33 a significant difference between groups with subsequent (.06) (.12) (-.27) (.05) (-.04) univariate ANOVAs uncovering Existential-Well-Being as the only dimension that had significantly different Pd–Scale 4 -.09 -.01 -.46 .14 -.21 .50 (.10) (-.04) (-.44) (.11) (-.19) scores across the two groups (with the former group producing lower scores than the absence-of-clinically- Mf–Scale 5 -.11 -.03 .08 -.16 -.01 .23 significant-scores group). (-.16) (.10) (.08) (-.15) (.10) Revision to the MMPI-2: Pa–Scale 6 .00 .10 -.47 .24 -.07 .52 The Restructured Clinical Scales (.05) (.02) (-.46) (.19) (-.05) ince the publication of MacDonald and Holland’s S(2003) findings, efforts have been made by researchers Pt–Scale 7 -.04 -.04 -.54 .10 -.10 .55 to address longstanding problems with the psychometric (.10) (-.09) (-.53) (.07) (-.08) properties of the MMPI-2 Clinical Scales, which include Sc–Scale 8 -.01 .14 -.48 .19 -.06 .51 such difficulties as excessive intercorrelatedness between (-.01) (.11) (-.47) (.11) (-.02) scales and weak evidence supporting their criterion and discriminant validity (Graham, 2006; Nichols, 2006). Ma–Scale 9 .02 .18 -.06 .18 -.07 .25 (.01) (.13) (-.03) (.11) (-.09) These efforts have culminated in the development of the Restructured Clinical (RC) scales. The RC Scales Si–Scale 0 -.15 -.26 -.45 -.13 -.09 .53 were created to “preserve the important descriptive (-.00) (-.21) (-.47) (-.09) (.04) properties of the existing MMPI–2 Clinical Scales while Note. Mult R = Multiple Correlation based upon standard regres- enhancing their distinctiveness” (Tellegen et al., 2003, p. sions using all five ESI dimensions as predictors of each MMPI-2 1). A major objective in the development of these scales Clinical Scale. All multiple correlations significant at p<.001 ex- was to remove the nonspecific distress variance that is cept those for Mf and Ma. Coefficients in parentheses are partial correlations (df= 233) where the ESI dimension was correlated shared by most psychiatric disorders from each of the to the each MMPI-2 clinical scale while controlling for the re- Clinical scales (Tellegen et al., 2003; Sellbom, Ben- maining four ESI dimensions. Zero order and partial correlation Porath, & Bagby, 2008). This was done through the coefficients of .21 or greater are significant at p<.001. use of principal components analysis wherein variance

Spirituality and the MMPI-2 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 3 associated with general distress was extracted as the Hypomanic Activation (RC9). One noteworthy change first component and partitioned out of the total item that deserves mention relates to RC3. In particular, score variance. Thereafter, items were retained that were Tellegen and colleagues (2003) elected to reverse score found to associate in conceptually expected ways on the the items so that it transformed the scale from a measure remaining components. of naiveté to a measure of cynicism. Table 3 presents In their finalized form, the RC scales are made descriptions of each of the RC scales. up of a total of nine scales, one of which is designed While the RC scales have garnered a good to measure generalized demoralization (RCd) and the deal of attention since their release in 2003 with a fair remaining eight to assess statistically and conceptually number of empirical studies showing that they are an redefined versions of all but two of the original Clinical improvement over the original Clinical scales and with scales (i.e., all but Scale 5–Masculine-Feminine and their popularity resulting in the creation of the MMPI- Scale 0–Social Introversion, which were deemed to be 2 Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF; Ben-Porath & of minimal clinical importance). These eight scales are Tellegen, 2008), to date no research has appeared in called Somatic Complaints (RC1), Low Positive Emo- the published literature investigating the association of tions (RC2), Cynicism (RC3), Antisocial Behavior (RC4), the RC scales to spirituality. In this vein, the purpose Persecutory Ideation (RC6), Dysfunctional Negative of the present study was to examine the relation of Emotions (RC7), Aberrant Experiences (RC8), and the MMPI-2 RC scales to spirituality as measured by the ESI through a re-analysis of the Table 3. Description of MMPI-2 Restructured Clinical Scales data used by MacDonald and Holland (2003). We elected to re-analyze these RC Scale Name Parent Clinical General Description data since it would allow for a direct Scale comparison of the RC scales to the Basic Demoralization (RCd) None General unhappiness; Clinical scales in a way that would help (24 items, a = .89) Hopelessness determine if the RC scales demonstrate Somatic Complaints (RC1) Scale 1 Preoccupation with (27 items, a = .83) Hypochondriasis bodily concerns a more robust and differentiated pattern of associations with the ESI as compared Low Positive Emotions (RC2) Scale 2 Lack of hedonic capacity; (17 items, a = .73) Depression passive social withdrawal to the original scales. Considering the findings of the MacDonald and Holland Cynicism (RC3) Scale 3 Other-referential belief (15 items, a = .78) Hysteria about malevolence and study, it was expected that (a) all of the untrustworthiness ESI dimensions collectively would be Antisocial Behavior (RC4) Scale 4 Externalizing proclivities; significantly related to all MMPI-2 RC (22 items, a = .73) Psychopathic disinhibitory style; scales as manifested in statistically signifi- Deviate nonconformity cant multiple correlations, (b) at the level Ideas of Persecution (RC6) Scale 6 Self-referential paranoid of the individual ESI dimensions, every (17 items, a = .70) Paranoia ideation; MMPI-2 RC scale would produce a persecutory delusions significant correlation with at least one ESI Dysfunctional Negative Scale 7 Negative emotions dimension, with Existential Well-Being Emotions (RC7) Psychasthenia including: fear, demonstrating a more general pattern of (24 items, a = .85) anxiety, and anger significant negative associations, Religi- Aberrant Experiences (RC8) Scale 8 Bizarre perceptual experi- ousness producing a significant negative (18 items, a = .79) Schizophrenia ences/hallucinations and nonpersecutory correlation with RC4, and Paranormal delusional beliefs Beliefs generating a significant positive Hypomanic Activation (RC9) Scale 9 Grandiose self-view; association with RC6. (28 items, a = .75) Hypomania general excitation; Methods risk taking Participants Note. Descriptions based on Tellegen et al. (2003). Alpha coefficients based upon cur- The sample used in this study rent sample. Basic Clinical scales Masculine-Feminine (Scale 5) and Social Introver- was the same used in MacDonald and sion (Scale 0) not included in RC Scale set. Holland (2003). It consisted of 239 self- 4 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Mendez & MacDonald selected university students from a mid-sized Canadian Procedure university (65 males, 174 females). The sample had a Data for this study were originally collected as mean age of 21.16 years, ranging from ages 18 to 51 a part of a larger test battery used in a factor analytic (SD=4.51). For all cases in the sample, MMPI-2 validity investigation on spirituality (MacDonald, 1997) and scores fell within the score ranges recommended by more recently used in a study of the MMPI–2 clinical Butcher, Graham, and Ben-Porath (1995; e.g., less than scales and spirituality by MacDonald and Holland 30 missing item responses, L and K t-scores less than 80, (2003). Participants were recruited through in-class F scale raw score less than 30, VRIN t-score less than 80, presentations and advertisements posted around the and TRIN raw score greater than 5 but less than 13). university community. Those who volunteered completed Measures the questionnaires at one of several testing sessions held The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality on campus and proctored by the second author. All Inventory-2 (MMPI-2; Butcher et al,, 1989) was used in participants read and signed an informed consent form this study. The MMPI-2 is a paper-and-pencil measure prior to completing the tests. of personality structure and psychopathology, which Results consists of 567 items in a true-false response format n order to assess the shared and unique association and takes approximately 60 to 90 minutes to complete. Ieach ESI dimension has with the MMPI-2 RC scales, The Restructured Clinical (RC) scales were used in multiple correlations, zero-order correlations, and this investigation. Examination of the psychometric partial correlations were calculated. For the multiple properties of the MMPI-2 RC scales indicates satisfactory correlations, all ESI dimensions were used as predictors internal consistencies for all the RC scales using multiple of each MMPI-2 RC scale in nine standard multiple samples (Tellegen et al., 2003). For instance, Tellegen and regressions. For the partials, each ESI dimension colleagues (2003) reported median Cronbach’s alphas was correlated with each MMPI-2 RC scale after across samples ranging from .76 to .86 for men and .76 controlling for the other four ESI dimensions (see Table to .85 for women. With the sample from our study, the 4). Examination of the multiple correlations reveals mean t-score across all RC scales was 54.77 with scale coefficients ranging in magnitude from .23 for RC9 to means ranging from 49.05 (RC2) to 57.44 (RC8). The .71 for RCd. All coefficients were significant at p<.001, mean inter-item reliability coefficient across all RC scales with the exception of multiple correlation involving RC9 was .78 with RC6 obtaining the lowest value (a = .70) for which the coefficient was found to be significant at and RCd producing the largest (a = .89). p<.05. The Expressions of Spirituality Inventory Inspection of the zero-order correlations (ESI; MacDonald, 1997, 2000) was used to measure showed a differential pattern of significant coefficients spirituality. The ESI is a 98-item self-report measure that between the MMPI-2 RC scales and each of the five utilizes a Likert-type scale with five response alternatives ESI dimensions. EWB obtained the most noticeable ranging from 0 (Strongly Disagree) to 4 (Strongly array of significant correlations. The EWB dimension is Agree). The ESI measures five dimensions of spirituality: significantly negatively correlated (p<.001) with MMPI- Experiential/Phenomenological Dimension (EPD), 2 RCd (r = -.71), RC1 (r = -.44), RC2 (r = -.57), RC3 (r = Cognitive Orientation towards Spirituality (COS), -.25), RC4 (r = -.27), RC6 (r = -.24), RC7 (r = -.46), Existential Well-Being (EWB), Paranormal Beliefs and RC8 (r = -.26). COS is negatively correlated with (PAR), and Religiousness (REL). Dimension scores MMPI-2 RCd (r = -.14, p<.05), RC2 (r = -.17, p<.01), are obtained by adding appropriate item responses. It RC3 (r = -.13, p<.05), and RC4 ( = -.13, p<.05). EPD contains 40 items on COS, 19 items on EPD, 9 items generated significant positive correlations with RC1 in EWB, 13 items on PAR, and 17 items on REL. Brief (r = .20, p<.01), RC8 (r = .29, p<.001), and RC9 (r = descriptions of what is measured by each dimension can .20, p<.01), and a significant negative correlation with be found in Table 1. The ESI has revealed reliable scores RC2 (r = -.16, p<.05). PAR produced significant positive with scale alphas ranging from .85 to .97 across the correlations with RC1 (r = .18, p<.01), RC6 (r = .19, five dimensions. Furthermore, the ESI has been shown p<.01), RC8 (r = .32, p<.001), and RC9 (r = .15, p<.05). to have good factorial, convergent, discriminant, and Lastly, REL obtained a significant negative correlation criterion validity (MacDonald, 2000). with RC4 (r = -.26, p<.001). Spirituality and the MMPI-2 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 5 Finally, examination of the partial correlations COS generated a significant negative partial correlation reveals a similar pattern of significant coefficients with MMPI-2 RC3 (r = -.14, p<.05). EPD generated between the MMPI-2 RC scales and each of the five significant positive partial correlations with RC1 (r=.16, ESI dimensions as seen with the zero order correlations. p<.05), RC8 (r = .23, p<.001), and RC9 (r = .13, p<.05). EWB dimension showed significantly negative partial PAR produced significant positive partial correlations correlations with MMPI-2 RCd (r = -.70, p<.001), RC1 with RC6 (r = .17, p<.05) and RC8 (r = .22, p<.001). (r = -.43, p<.001), RC2 (r = -.55, p<.001), RC3 (r = -.26, Lastly, REL obtained a significant negative partial p<.001), RC4 (r =-.25, p<.001), RC6 (r = -.19, p<.01), correlation with RC4 (r = -.23, p<.001). RC7 (r = -.47, p<.001), and RC8 ( r= -.24, p<.001). Comparison with Basic Clinical Scales In order to determine if the zero-order correla- Table 4. Zero Order, Partial, and Multiple Correlations tions obtained with the RC scales were markedly between ESI Dimensions and MMPI-2 Restructured different from those obtained with the Basic Clinical Clinical (RC) Scale T-scores scales as reported in MacDonald and Holland (2003), Steiger’s z was calculated comparing the coefficients of ESI Dimensions Basic Clinical Scales 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9 to RC scales MMPI-2 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9 respectively. No calculations were RC COS EPD EWB PAR REL Mult. done involving RCd since there is no corresponding R scale in the Basic Clinical scale set. Also, Steiger’s z was RCd -.14* -.06 -.71*** .06 -.12 .71*** not calculated for correlations involving RC3 since the (-.07) (-.06) (-.70)*** (.04) (.04) scale is reverse keyed compared to its parent scale (i.e., RC1 .04 .20** -.44*** .18** .08 .50*** Scale 3- Hysteria) and, as such, the directionality of (-.09) (.16)* (-.43)*** (.07) (.12) associations are likely to differ as a result. RC2 -.17** -.16* -.57*** .03 -.12 .59*** Considering the coefficients involving ESI (-.07)* (-.13) (-.55)*** (.05) (.06) Existential Well-Being, the correlations between Scale 4 and RC4 were found to be significantly different RC3 -.13* -.06 -.25*** -.05 -.03 .29*** (Steiger’s z= -3.35, p<.001; r(scale 4) = -.46; r(RC4)= -.27) (-.14)* (.01) (-.26)*** (-.04) (.11) as were the correlations between Scale 6 and RC6 RC4 -.13* .00 -.27*** .13 -.26*** .38*** (Steiger’s z = -3.96, p<.001; r(scale 6) = -.47; r(RC6) = -.24) (.05) (.00) (-.25)*** (.10) (-.23)*** and Scale 8 and RC8 (Steiger’s z = -4.22, p<.001; r(scale8) = -.48; r(RC8) = -.26). There were no significant differences RC6 .01 .07 -.24*** .19** .06 .31*** (-.11) (.02) (-.19)** (.17)* (.12) found between correlations for all coefficients involving ESI Cognitive Orientation toward Spirituality, Experien- RC7 -.11 -.08 -.46*** .04 -.09 .47*** tial/Phenomenological Dimension, Paranormal Beliefs, (-.02) (-.10) (-.47)*** (.06) (.02) and ESI Religiousness. RC8 .01 .29*** -.26*** .32*** -.01 .45*** Discussion (-.12) (.23)*** (-.24)*** (.22)*** (.03) s expected, all the ESI dimensions both collectively Aand individually are significantly related to the RC9 .07 .20** -.09 .15* .03 .23* MMPI-2 RC scales with each RC scale having a significant (-.02) (.13)* (-.11) (-.08) (-.00) relation with at least one ESI dimension. Moreover, Note. COS = Cognitive Orientation toward Spirituality, EPD = ESI Existential Well-Being (EWB) was significantly Experiential/ Phenomenological Dimension, EWB = Existential negatively correlated with all of the MMPI-2 RC scales, Well-Being, PAR = Paranormal Beliefs, REL = Religiousness. Mult R = Multiple correlation. RCd = Demoralization, RC1 = Somat- with the exception of Hypomanic Activation (RC9). ic Complaints, RC2 = Low Positive Emotions, RC3 = Cynicism, Other negative correlations include: ESI Cognitive RC4 = Antisocial Behavior, RC6 = Persecutory Ideation, RC7 = Orientation towards Spirituality (COS) and Cynicism Dysfunctional Negative Emotions, RC8 = Aberrant Experiences, RC = Hypomanic Activation (RC9). Partial correlations reported (RC3), ESI Experiential/Phenomenological Dimension in parentheses involved correlating each ESI dimension to each (EPD) and Low Positive Emotions (RC2), and ESI MMPI-2 RC scale after controlling for the other four ESI dimen- Religiousness and Antisocial Behavior (RC4). These sions. *p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001. results are consistent with a vast amount of literature

6 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Mendez & MacDonald which suggests that more spiritual individuals are RC3 were in different directions (e.g., Scale 3 correlated likely to experience higher levels of physical health and positively and RC3 negatively with COS and EPD). This psychological well being and less psychopathology and finding does not really come as a surprise since RC3 is antisocial behavior (Brown, O’Grady, Farrell, Fechner, comprised of items from Scale 3 that were reverse keyed & Nurco, 2001; Cotton, Larking, Hoopes, Cromer, & thereby resulting in a construct that is the opposite of Rosenthal, 2005; McCoubrie & Davies, 2006; Miller, what Scale 3 was originally designed to assess. Also, when 1998; Pargament, 1997). one considers the magnitude of the coefficients with However, akin to MacDonald and Holland both MMPI-2 scales, the effect size can be described as (2003), the results of this investigation also yielded small. By association, these findings are unlikely to hold some significant positive correlations between some ESI much import for elucidating the relation of spirituality dimensions and MMPI-2 RC scales. More specifically, to specific forms and manifestations of psychopathology. the Experiential/Phenomenological Dimension (EPD) Taken together, the results of this study suggest was significantly positively correlated with Somatic that the RC scales may be generally viewed as equivalent Complaints (RC1), Aberrant Experiences (RC8), and to the Basic Clinical Scales, offering neither benefit nor Hypomanic Activation (RC9). Also, ESI Paranormal liability in the exploration of the relation of spirituality Beliefs was significantly positively associated with to mental health. With that stated, there do appear Persecutory Ideation (RC6) and Aberrant Experiences to be a number of specific scales within both MMPI- (RC8), the former of which was consistent with our 2 scale sets that demonstrate sufficiently substantive research expectations based upon past findings with the associations to spirituality, which would justify not only Basic Clinical Scales. These results are generally in line further empirical investigation but also could serve as with what has been reported in the published literature; the basis for utilizing the MMPI-2 for the identification spiritual experience tends to demonstrate inconsistent of problems in functioning that may be associated associations with measures of psychopathology and belief with spirituality (e.g., spiritual emergency; Grof & in the paranormal is more generally linked to higher Grof, 1990). By substantive associations, we mean levels of pathology (MacDonald & Friedman, 2002). correlations of a magnitude of .21 or higher. This follows When comparing our findings to those of the suggestion of Butcher et al., (1995, p. 322) who MacDonald and Holland (2003), it appears that with argued that, based upon their own research, correlations only a few exceptions involving RC3 specifically, .20 or lower generally tend to be uninformative. In the magnitude and directionality of correlations are particular, with the exceptions of Scale 5 (Masculine- essentially the same for the RC scales as they are for the Feminine), Scale 9 (Hypomania), and RC9 (Hypomanic Basic Clinical scales. Where significant differences in Activation), elevations on the remaining Clinical and correlations were found, the most ostensible trend was RC scales may be associated with diminished existential in the direction of the coefficients being smaller for well-being (e.g., problems finding meaning and purpose the RC scales than for the Basic Clinical scales (e.g., in life; perception of self as inefficacious and/or unable with EWB, correlations with RC4, RC6, and RC8 to cope with life’s adversities). Elevated scores on Scale were significantly smaller than with the corresponding 4 (Psychopathic Deviate) or RC4 (Antisocial Behavior) Clinical scales). This downward trend in the correlations may be indicative of difficulties associated with makes sense since the RC scales were designed with identification with and/or adherence to an organized the intent of removing a general distress component faith system (e.g., problems with religious doctrine, that contributed to the Clinical scales being markedly practice, or lifestyle). Lastly, elevations on the Clinical intercorrelated. The resulting effect of partialing out scales of Schizophrenia (Scale 8) and Social Introversion this general variance would be the attenuation of the (Scale 0) or the RC scale of Aberrant Experiences (RC8) magnitude of correlations with measures of well-being, may indicate the presence of non-ordinary experiences including existential well-being. In the case of RC3, and thought patterns associated with the occurrence of different correlations from Scale 3 were produced with spiritual experiences and belief in the paranormal that both Cognitive Orientation toward Spirituality (COS) should garner further attention by clinicians. Based and the Experiential/Phenomenological Dimension upon the results of this study and MacDonald and (EPD). In both instances, the coefficients for Scale 3 and Holland (2003), Scale 1 (Hypochondriasis), Scale 6 Spirituality and the MMPI-2 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 7 (Paranoia), RC1 (Somatic Complaints), and RC6 (Ideas levels to account for the increase in statistical Type I of Persecution) also appear to have some relevance to the error (i.e., finding a significant result because of chance identification of non-ordinary experiences and beliefs alone) that occurs when a large number of analyses are associated with spirituality, though the magnitude of simultaneously conducted. As such, it is reasonable their associations to spiritual variables suggests that the to conjecture that at least some of our results may be utilization of these scales should be done with some due to chance. This would seem to be most likely with degree of caution. significant correlations that reflect a small effect size Elevations on any of the scales named above (e.g., correlations of absolute magnitude between .13 and should prompt health professionals to make deliberate .20). Third, research on the relation of spirituality and and specific inquiries about their clients’ spirituality religion to health has suggested that the association may through both qualitative (e.g., interview) and be at least partially mediated by such factors as social quantitative (e.g., standardized assessment instruments) support (e.g., Sternthal, Williams, Musick, & Buck, means to ascertain the extent to which problems in 2010). Extending from this, future research examining spirituality are contributing to dysfunction. A formal and the association of MMPI-2 scale sets to spirituality systematic exploration of client spirituality is an absolute should try to incorporate potential mediators to see if necessity since the presence of some its core elements, significant associations with spiritual variables continue such as spiritual experiences, is often erroneously to exist. assumed by conventional practitioners to reflect serious psychopathology (e.g., psychosis; see Clarke, 2001) References when, in many cases, they may simply be a natural manifestation of states of consciousness that have been Allport, G. W., & Ross, J. M. (1967). Personal religious espoused by transpersonal clinicians and theorists as a orientation and prejudice. 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8 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Mendez & MacDonald Cotton, S., Larking, E., Hoopes, A., Cromer, B. A., & Knoblauch, D. L., & Falconer, J. A. (1986). The Rosenthal, S. L. (2005). The impact of adolescent relationship of a measured Taoist orientation spirituality on depressive symptoms and health to Western personality dimensions. Journal of risk. The Journal of Adolescent Health, 36, 529. Transpersonal Psychology, 18(1), 73-83. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2004.07.017 MacDonald, D. A. (1997). The development of a Elkins, D. N., Hedstrom, L. J., Hughes, L L., Leaf, J. comprehensive factor-analytically derived measure A., & Saunders, C. (1988). Toward a humanistic- of spirituality and its relationship to psychological phenomenological spirituality: Definition, description, and functioning (Doctoral Dissertation.) University of measurement. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 28(4), 5-18. Windsor, Windsor, Ontario, Canada. doi:10.1177/0022167888284002 MacDonald, D. A. (2000). 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Detroit, Michigan, USA and a licensed psychologist in Personality and psychopathology: Mapping the Ontario, Canada. He has been doing research in the area MMPI-2 Restructured Clinical (RC) Scales onto of spirituality for the past 20 years and is involved in an the five factor model of personality. Journal of editorial capacity with a number of scholarly journals. Personality Disorders, 22, 291-312. doi:10.1521/pedi. Email [email protected] or pneumaticscope@ 2008.22.3.291 gmail.com. Phone: (313) 578-0388, Address: 4001 West Sternthal, M. J., Williams, D. R., Musick, M. A., McNichols Road, Detroit, MI 48221-3038 USA & Buck, A. C. (2010). Depression, anxiety, and religious life: A search for mediators. Journal About the Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 51(3), 343-359. doi:10.1177/0022146510378237 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies is a Taft, R. (1969). Peak experiences and ego permissiveness: peer-reviewed academic journal in print since 1981. 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Assessment Schedule for Altered States of Consciousness: A brief report. Journal of Parapsychology, 55, 377-390. Wilber, K. (2000). Integral Psychology: Consciousness, spirit, psychology, therapy. Boston, MA: Shambhala.

About the Authors

Diana M. Mendez, PhD, completed her doctorate in Clinical Psychology at the University of Detroit Mercy. She is currently completing a Behavioral Medicine Postdoctoral Fellowship at the University of Miami Miller School of Medicine Department of Psychiatry. Her professional and research interests include those in the areas of spirituality, trauma, and Latino mental health. Email: [email protected] or mendez. [email protected]. Phone: (407) 493-0545., Miami, FL, USA

Douglas A. MacDonald, PhD, is an Associate Professor of Psychology at the University of Detroit Mercy, in

10 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Mendez & MacDonald Connecting the Spiritual and Emotional Intelligences: Confirming an Intelligence Criterion and Assessing the Role of Empathy

David B. King University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada Constance A. Mara Teresa L. DeCicco York University, Trent University, Toronto, ON, Canada Peterborough, ON, Canada

A viable model and self-report measure of spiritual intelligence were previously proposed and supported by King and DeCicco (2009). Despite such advances, evidence is needed demonstrating significant associations with other intelligences. The current study sought to test this criterion in relation to emotional intelligence. Among a sample of 420 Canadian adults, results demonstrated significant associations between spiritual intelligence and two self-report measures of emotional intelligence. Due to the suggestion by some theorists that empathy be included in a model of spiritual intelligence, associations with empathy were also investigated. Results bode well for the inclusion of a spiritual ability set in the broader framework of human intelligence, and further clarify the ways in which these two “alternative” intelligences intersect and digress. Key limitations, including the self-report nature of the current measures, are discussed. Keywords: intelligence, spiritual intelligence, emotional intelligence, spirituality, emotion, personal meaning, empathy, self-report

uman intelligence has long been the subject Although myriad interpretations of spiritual of controversy among psychologists and non- intelligence have been proposed in the past decade psychologists alike (Cianciolo & Sternberg, (e.g., Amram, 2007; Emmons, 2000; Nasel, 2004; H2004). One of the most frequently debated issues is Noble, 2000; Vaughan, 2002; Wolman, 2001; Zohar that of multiple intelligences; specifically, whether & Marshall, 2000), the notion of a spiritual intelligence intelligence is best conceptualized as a single factor has yet to fully satisfy leading intelligence theorists (e.g., (as measured by IQ) or an interrelated set of multiple Gardner, 1999, 2000; Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 2000). intelligences. Of those who support the latter position, Recently, King and DeCicco (2009) have attempted to Howard Gardner (1983) may be the most well-known. overcome preceding limitations and comply with popular His theory of multiple intelligences posits a variety of psychological criteria for intelligence (e.g., Gardner, 1983; human ability sets, each representing key domains of Mayer et al., 2000; Sternberg, 1997), defining spiritual human experience, from language to music. Given intelligence as “a set of mental capacities which contribute Gardner’s (1983) supplementary proposition of criteria to the awareness, integration, and adaptive application for intelligence (including a set of interrelated mental of the nonmaterial and transcendent aspects of one’s abilities as opposed to behavioral tendencies), additional existence” (p. 69). Four core components have been intelligences have since been suggested (Gardner, 1999). proposed: (1) the capacity to engage in critical existential Some have received greater consideration than others, thinking, (2) the capacity to construct meaning and particularly those pertaining to the moral, existential, purpose in all physical and mental experiences, (3) the and spiritual domains of existence. capacity to perceive transcendent dimensions of the self,

ConnectingInternational Spiritual Journal and Emotionalof Transpersonal Intelligence Studies, 31(1),International 2012, pp. 11-20 Journal of Transpersonal Studies 11 of others, and of the physical world (e.g., a transcendent brain’s integrative processes (as involved in meaning self, nonmaterialism, holism, interconnectedness), and making, values, and moral reasoning). Below spiritual (4) the capacity to enter expanded or spiritual states of intelligence are the emotional and social intelligences, consciousness at one’s own discretion (King, 2008; King reflecting the brain’s associative processes. At the bottom & DeCicco, 2009). This model relied on definitions of of the hierarchy are the rational intelligences (i.e., verbal, spirituality as distinct from (but related to) religiosity (e.g., mathematical, spatial, logical) or those that are measured King, Speck, & Thomas, 2001; Koenig, McCullough, & by the intelligence quotient (IQ). With the additional Larson, 2000; Sinnott, 2002), in order to not limit the consideration of Gardner’s (1983) bodily-kinesthetic construct’s universal application and to delineate it from intelligence at the hierarchy’s lowest level, the ensuing preferred ways of behaving. The related development of a model reflects a holistic approach to human intelligence, self-report measure, the Spiritual Intelligence Self-Report integrating factors on the physical, mental, emotional, Inventory (SISRI-24), has revealed psychometric and and spiritual levels. Although lacking scientific consensus statistical support for this four-factor model across two and investigation, it is one of the only theoretical models large university samples (King, 2008; King & DeCicco, to date that describes the relationship between the 2009). Significant inter-subscale correlations have spiritual and emotional intelligences, suggesting that of been confirmed (ranging from .42 to .61), supporting all the intelligences, emotional intelligence is the most established criteria for intelligence (Gardner, 1983; Mayer closely linked to a spiritual ability set. In order to confirm et al., 2000; Sternberg, 1997). Although preliminary the criterion of inter-relatedness among intelligences support for construct and criterion-related validity has also in the case of spiritual intelligence, an investigation of been obtained (King & DeCicco, 2009), little is known its association with emotional intelligence is a logical of the construct’s relationship to other intelligences or starting point. ability sets, such as emotional intelligence. Emotional Intelligence Howard Gardner (1983) claimed that any ollowing Thorndike’s (1920) use of the term social intelligence should be autonomous and independent of Fintelligence to describe one’s ability to relate to other other intelligences. In slight contrast to Gardner, who people, emotional intelligence was conceived by Payne also suggested that intelligences should demonstrate (1985) as one’s ability to relate creatively to fear, pain, some degree of association, Sternberg (1988) argued and desire. The concept was thereafter expanded by that “an intelligent system has to work together” (p. 78), Salovey and Mayer (1990) who formulated a model of suggesting that mental self-management would break emotional intelligence based on how people appraise, down if ability sets were truly independent. This tends communicate, and utilize emotions. According to Salovey to be the popular perspective, so that psychometric and Mayer, emotional intelligence is the capacity to investigations of interrelationships should reveal low both understand emotional information and reason to moderate correlations among intelligences (Mayer et with emotions. It is comprised of four primary abilities: al., 2000). Just as intra-relatedness within ability sets is (1) the capacity to accurately perceive emotions, (2) the a widely maintained criterion (Gardner, 1983; Mayer et capacity to use emotions to facilitate thinking, (3) the al., 2000; Sternberg, 1997), inter-relatedness between capacity to understand emotional meanings, and (4) the various intelligences is equally important. As stated by capacity to manage emotions. Although their linking Mayer et al. (2000), an intelligence should “be related of emotion and intelligence has been heavily criticized, to pre-existing intelligences, while also showing some Mayer and Salovey (1993) argued that many intellectual unique variance” (p. 267), reflecting earlier notions of problems contain emotional information that must also cognitive ability (e.g., Neisser et al., 1996). This repre- be interpreted and processed. Mayer et al. (2000) have sents an important condition that must be met in the further demonstrated that the Salovey and Mayer (1990) validation of a newly proposed intelligence, but has yet model of emotional intelligence meets the standard to be confirmed in the case of spiritual intelligence. criteria for intelligence. A similar model was proposed Although empirical investigations are lacking, by Daniel Goleman (1995), who added the capacity to Zohar and Marshall (2000) have proposed a model of enter and sustain satisfactory interpersonal relationships. human intelligence in which spiritual intelligence is The measurement of emotional intelligence positioned at the top of a hierarchy, representing the varies greatly across studies. Emotional task performance

12 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies King, Mara, & DeCicco is often considered the most reliable indicator, as it report measure of emotional empathy for adolescents measures one’s emotional intelligence during its real-time and adults, intended for the broader and multifaceted manifestation. Emotional perception, for example, is measure of empathy alone. usually measured using a series of emotional recognition Despite theoretical recommendations, recent tasks, in which participants are asked to identify emotions theorists (e.g., Amram, 2007; Amram & Dryer, 2007; in a series of faces (Mayer et al., 2000). In contrast, written Noble, 2000; Vaughan, 2002) have alternatively posited self-report questionnaires can be used to determine one’s empathy as an integral part of spiritual intelligence. Noble perceived emotional intelligence, the score from which (2000), for example, described empathy as a hallmark of is often referred to as one’s emotional quotient (EQ). spiritual intelligence, which was more recently supported Although some have interpreted the finding that self- by Amram’s (2007) inclusion of empathy in the report measures of EQ are poorly related to performance transcendence theme of his spiritual intelligence model. tests (Brackett & Mayer, 2003; Goldenberg, Matheson, Vaughan (2002) further suggested that cultivating & Mantler, 2006) as suggesting a weakness in self- empathy was an important part of developing one’s reports, this remains to be confirmed. Nevertheless, self- inner spiritual life, essentially connecting the emotional report measures have proven valuable to researchers in and spiritual ability sets. This perspective leaves a third their affordability and efficiency, as some studies simply possibility: that in addition to empathy as an exclusive cannot accommodate performance-based testing. Of the component of either emotional or spiritual intelligence, self-report measures developed thus far, the Trait Meta- it may be a factor that is common to both constructs. Mood Scale (TMMS; Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey, Although theory and research on emotional intelligence & Palfai, 1995) is one of the most widely employed. The seem to confirm empathy as a key component, newly TMMS measures three key components of intrapersonal emerging theoretical models of spiritual intelligence emotional intelligence: attention to feelings, clarity, and beg for this issue to be clarified. It is equally possible repair (including emotional regulation). Other popular that a high capacity for empathy is simply a correlate self-report measures include the Assessing Emotions of spiritual intelligence, potentially representing an Scale (AES; Schutte et al., 1998), which is also based adaptive outcome of the construct. This would reflect on Salovey and Mayer’s (1990) model, and the Bar-On recent path analyses by Huber and MacDonald (2011), Emotional Quotient Inventory (Bar-On, 1997). which suggest that empathy is a product of spiritual Empathy development, particularly nonreligious experiences of In their original model, Salovey and Mayer self-transcendence. With the advent of a self-report (1990) noted the important role of empathy in emotional measure of spiritual intelligence, the SISRI-24, a more intelligence, suggesting that empathy was a critical aspect precise examination of the relationship between spiritual in the appraisal of others’ emotions. Although previously intelligence and empathy is now possible. regarded as a dispositional tendency, the authors defined Current Study empathy as “the ability to comprehend another’s feelings o date, no study has investigated the relationship and to re-experience them oneself” (p. 194). Similarly, Tbetween the spiritual and emotional intelligences. Goleman (1995) recommended the ability to read and Given the recent boom in interest in a spiritual be sensitive to others’ emotions as a key component intelligence (e.g., Amram, 2007; Emmons, 2000; King, of emotional intelligence, reflecting Gardner’s (1983) 2008; King & DeCicco, 2009; Noble, 2000; Vaughan, suggestion that individuals in the helping professions 2002; Zohar & Marshall, 2000), as well as established (e.g., therapists) demonstrate a high level of interpersonal theoretical guidelines regarding the interrelationship of intelligence. Indeed empathy appears to be an established multiple intelligences (Mayer et al., 2000; Sternberg, facet of emotional intelligence, as it is also measured by 1988), examining spiritual and emotional intelligence items on the AES (Schutte et al., 1998) and the Bar-On together is a critical step in the theoretical and statistical Emotional Quotient Inventory (Bar-On, 1997). Such investigation of this emerging construct. The initial inclusion is somewhat intuitive, given that empathy purpose of this study was to investigate the strength requires the recognition and accurate identification of the relationship between these two intelligences. of emotional responses in others (Mayer et al., 1990). Because no performance measure of spiritual intelligence Nevertheless, Caruso and Mayer (1998) developed a self- exists, self-report measures of emotional intelligence Connecting Spiritual and Emotional Intelligence International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 13 were deemed most appropriate in order to offer a was advertised to these students in their classes and as methodologically valid comparison of the constructs. part of the psychology participant research pool. The Based on recommendations by Mayer et al. (2000), it was remaining 58 participants were from the community and hypothesized that a low to moderate positive correlation responded to advertisements at local community centers. would be observed between the emotional and spiritual No significant differences were observed between these intelligences, confirming the additional intelligence two groups (university and community) on any of the criterion of inter-relatedness among intelligences. included measures, although related conclusions were This study also sought to bring clarity to the limited by the lack of comparable sample sizes. The issue of empathy as a potential component of spiritual mean age of participants was 26.3 years (SD = 10.76, intelligence. Empathy was not a clearly defined compo- range = 18 – 81). nent of Salovey and Mayer’s (1990) original model of Measures. Measures used included the Spiritual emotional intelligence, which led to its absence in King Intelligence Self-Report Inventory, the Trait Meta Mood and DeCicco’s (2009) model of spiritual intelligence. Scale, the Assession Emotions Scale, and the Multi- Its absence in this model was also supported by the Dimensional Emotional Empathy Scale. lack of broader definitions and conceptualizations Spiritual Intelligence Self-Report Inventory of spirituality which include focused discussions of (SISRI-24; King, 2008; King & DeCicco, 2009). The empathy. Nevertheless, empathy has been proposed by SISRI is a 24-item (α = .94 in the current sample) self- some theorists as relating to a spiritual ability set (e.g., report measure of spiritual intelligence. It is comprised Amram, 2007; Amram & Dryer, 2007; Noble, 2000; of four subscales: critical existential thinking (i.e., the Vaughan, 2002). ability to critically contemplate existential issues such as Method life, death, reality, and existence), measured by 7 items The current study aimed to investigate the (α = .85); personal meaning production (i.e., the ability relationship between empathy and spiritual intelligence, to construct meaning and purpose in all physical and with the expectation that empathy would display a mental experiences), measured by 5 items (α = .84); correlation of comparatively greater size and strength transcendental awareness (i.e., the capacity to perceive with emotional intelligence, reflecting Salovey and transcendent dimensions of the self, of others, and of Mayer’s (1990) original model. In particular, both the the physical world), measured by 7 items (α = .89); and AES (Schutte et al., 1998) and the TMMS (Salovey conscious state expansion (i.e., the capacity to enter et al., 1995) were employed as measures of emotional expanded or spiritual states of consciousness at one’s intelligence in the current study. The TMMS is strictly own discretion), measured by 5 items (α = .92). Item a measure of intrapersonal emotional capacities, responses ranged on a 5-point Likert scale from 0 (“not thereby avoiding overlap between this measure and at all true of me”) to 4 (“completely true of me”), with one of empathy (which is interpersonal). For similar higher responses representing higher levels of spiritual reasons, items directly measuring empathic abilities intelligence. A total spiritual intelligence score can be on the AES were not considered when examining the calculated by summing across all subscales, with a total scale’s association with a separate measure of empathy. range of 0 to 96. Preliminary support for test-retest The lack of sufficient research and theory on empathy’s reliability and both construct and criterion-related relationship with spiritual intelligence prevented further validity has been obtained (King & DeCicco, 2009). speculation on this association. Examining empathy in Trait Meta Mood Scale (TMMS; Salovey the current study will aid in clarifying the relationship et al., 1995). The TMMS is a 30-item α( = .86 in the between the spiritual and emotional intelligences, adding current sample) self-report measure of intrapersonal to an understanding of how these two “alternative” emotional intelligence. It is designed to measure one’s intelligences intersect and/or digress. perceived ability to regulate and manage emotions. Participants. Respondents were 420 (322 Participants rate their perceived ability on a 5-point female, 98 male) adults, the majority of whom (n = Likert scale from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 5 (“strongly 362) were Canadian university students enrolled in agree”), with higher scores indicating higher emotional undergraduate psychology courses at Trent University intelligence (total range = 33-165). The measure includes and Durham College in Ontario, Canada. The study three subscales: attention to feelings (i.e., how aware one 14 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies King, Mara, & DeCicco is of one’s own moods), measured by 13 items (α = .80); in a total empathy score due to a lack of theoretical clarity of feelings (i.e., the ability to differentiate one’s insight regarding these subscales and their relationship mood states), measured by 11 items (α = .86); and mood with other variables of interest. Good reliability and repair (i.e., the ability to maintain good moods and repair validity of the EES were reported by Caruso and Mayer negative mood states), measured by 6 items (α = .30). (1998). When examining the relationship between the These subscales were examined in the current study to Assessing Emotions Scale and the Emotional Empathy more accurately account for the potential interrelationship Scale, one item (“When another person tells me about an between spiritual intelligence and emotional intelligence. important event in his or her life, I almost feel as though Reliability and discriminant validity for each of the I have experienced this event myself.”) was removed from subscales were reported by Salovey et al. (1995). the AES so as to avoid overlap (and therefore potential Assessing Emotions Scale (AES; Schutte et al., inflation of results) between the two scales. 1998). Given that this was the first empirical investigation Procedure of the relationship between the emotional and spiritual University IRB approval was granted prior to all intelligences, multiple measures of emotional intelligence data collection. Participation took place online (using a were included in the current study in order to increase secure SSL enabled server on http://www.surveymonkey. confidence in observed relationships. The AES is a 33- com) at the convenience of participants and required item (α = .90 in the current sample) self-report measure approximately 30 minutes. Each participant was asked of emotional intelligence and includes indicators of to read a consent form prior to participation ensuring emotional awareness, management, and problem-solving confidentiality and the right to withdraw at any time (both intra- and interpersonal). This scale was designed without penalty. Retyping one’s name following this to reflect Mayer and Salovey’s (1993) model of emotional consent form and clicking “I agree” was interpreted intelligence, and has been found to be a valid and reliable as providing consent to participate in the study. Basic measure of the construct (Austin, Saklofske, Huang, demographic information (age, sex) was collected first, & McKenny, 2004; Schutte et al., 1998). Respondents followed by the other aforementioned questionnaires. rate how well the items describe them using a 5-point Results Likert scale from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 5 (“strongly escriptive statistics for all measures, as well as agree”), with higher scores indicating higher emotional Dsubscales of interest to the current study, are intelligence (total range = 33-165). Schutte et al. (1998) presented in Table 1. The current sample reported reported positive correlations between the AES and relatively moderate levels of spiritual intelligence and the TMMS, supporting the construct validity of both its components, with the exception of conscious state measures of emotional intelligence. expansion, the mean of which was comparatively lower. Multi-Dimensional Emotional Empathy Scale (EES; Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Observed Ranges for Key Caruso & Mayer, 1998). The Measures and Relevant Subscales Emotional Empathy Scale is a 30-item Measure: Variable N M (SD) Range (α = .87 in the current sample) self- SISRI-24: Total Spiritual Intelligence 402 59.23 (18.68) 18-114 report measure of emotional empathy. SISRI-24: Critical Existential Thinking 402 178.99 (6.57) 1-35 Participants rate their perceived ability on a 5-point Likert scale from SISRI-24: Personal Meaning Production 402 13.19 (4.21) 2-25 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 5 (“strongly SISRI-24: Transcendental Awareness 402 19.11 (6.05) 2-35 agree”), with higher scores indicating SISRI-24: Conscious State Expansion 402 8.94 (5.26) 0-25 greater empathic tendencies (total range AES: Total Emotional Intelligence 402 128.43 (13.93) 65-164 = 33-165). Although six subscales have TMMS: Total Intrapersonal Intelligence 103 113.82 (12.39) 81-141 been proposed and supported (including TMMS: Emotional Attention 103 51.00 (6.38) 30-63 suffering, positive sharing, responsive TMMS: Emotional Clarity 103 41.58 (6.43) 24-54 crying, emotional attention, feeling for TMMS: Emotional Repair 103 21.23 (2.85) 14-27 others, and emotional contagion), the EES: Emotional Empathy 103 119.35 (12.74) 79-145 current study was primarily interested

Connecting Spiritual and Emotional Intelligence International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 15 Participants scored somewhat higher on the remaining and the TMMS. The emotional attention subscale of measures overall, with moderate-to-high sample means the TMMS was the most highly related to the EES (r on the Assessing Emotions Scale (AES), the Trait Meta = .47), while emotional clarity displayed no significant Mood Scale (TMMS), and the Emotional Empathy relationship with empathy. Scale (EES). Discussion Bivariate correlational analyses (see Table 2) ith regard to a spiritual intelligence, the current revealed significant correlations in the low to moderate Wstudy offers the first empirical support for the range between the Assessing Emotions Scale and both additional intelligence criterion of interrelatedness total and subscale scores on the Spiritual Intelligence among intelligences, at least as the construct relates Self-Report Inventory (rs = .25-.49). Weaker and to emotional intelligence. This lends further support less consistent correlations were observed between to the construct validity of the SISRI-24 (King & the TMMS and scores on the Spiritual Intelligence DeCicco, 2009) and, more generally, to the theoretical Self-Report Inventory (SISRI-24), with the critical model of spiritual intelligence on which it was based. existential thinking and conscious state expansion Both measures of emotional intelligence, the AES and subscales demonstrating no significant relationships the TMMS, displayed significant positive correlations with the TMMS whatsoever. The correlation between with the SISRI-24 in the low-to-moderate range. These the SISRI-24 and the TMMS was also lower than that were comparatively lower than the correlation observed between the SISRI-24 and the AES (r = .26 and .40, between the two emotional intelligence measures. This respectively). Of the TMMS subscales, total SISRI-24 supports earlier suggestions by Sternberg (1988) and scores only correlated significantly with emotional Mayer et al. (2000), who suggested that psychometric attention (r = .30), accompanied by varying and investigations of interrelationships should reveal low to inconsistent correlations among SISRI-24 subscales and moderate correlations among intelligences. Interestingly, TMMS subscales. The correlation between the TMMS a comparatively stronger correlation was revealed between and the AES was higher (r = .59) than that between the the SISRI and the AES, a measure of both intrapersonal SISRI-24 and either emotional intelligence measure (rs and interpersonal aspects of emotional intelligence. = .40 and .26 respectively for the AES and TMMS). This may have occurred due to the ability of the AES to The EES, on the other hand, displayed no significant more accurately capture the full spectrum of emotional correlations with either total or subscale scores on the intelligence (versus the more limited intrapersonal SISRI-24, which is in contrast to the scale’s significant focus of the TMMS), thereby resulting in a somewhat correlations (of equal size; rs = .37) with both the AES larger and more significant correlation with spiritual intelligence. Although Table 2. Bivariate Correlations among Key Measures and Relevant Subscales the precise reason can- Measure: Variable 6 7 8 9 10 11 not be determined from SISRI-24: Total Spiritual Intelligence (1) .40*** .26* .30** .11 .18 .14 this study, correlations SISRI-24: Critical Existential Thinking (2) .25*** .07 .17 -.06 .06 .12 with both emotional intelligence measures SISRI-24: Personal Meaning Production (3) .49*** .43*** .31** .35*** .41*** .17 support the intelligence SISRI-24: Transcendental Awareness (4) .35*** .28** .37*** .12 .13 .12 criterion proposed by SISRI-24: Conscious State Expansion (5) .31*** .11 .17 .01 .07 .05 Mayer et al. (2000), AES: Total Emotional Intelligence (6) — .59*** .39*** .51*** .52*** .37*** which had not previ- TMMS: Total Intrapersonal Intelligence (7) — — — — — .37*** ously met empirical TMMS: Emotional Attention (8) — — — — — .47*** investigation, and lend TMMS: Emotional Clarity (9) — — — — — .14 additional support to TMMS: Emotional Repair (10) — — — — — .24* spiritual intelligence as EES: Emotional Empathy (11) — — — — — — a valid component of Note. N = 402 for correlations between the SISRI and the AES. N = 103 for all other correlations. human intelligence. *p < .05, **p < .01, *** p < .001 Of the com- ponents of spiritual 16 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies King, Mara, & DeCicco intelligence, personal meaning production correlated & DeCicco, 2009). This is in contrast to suggestions made most strongly with both measures of emotional by Amram and Dryer (2007) and Noble (2000), who intelligence. This observation may reflect the intimate implicated empathy as an aspect of spiritual intelligence. connection between emotion and meaning, as it has These authors did not place their theories of spiritual been suggested that personal meaning arises from intelligence within a broader intelligence framework, the reflection on and integration of one’s emotional rather focusing only on experiential information and experiences (Greenberg, 2006). It is speculated that this literature on spirituality. As a result, established criteria is one key point of intersection between the spiritual and for intelligence were overlooked and spiritual intelligence emotional intelligences. Specifically, it is proposed that was left as a broader reframing of spirituality. Although one’s ability to construct personal meaning may aid in additional evidence is needed to fully explore a potential the organization of one’s emotions and, alternatively, relationship between empathy and spiritual intelligence, that one’s ability to accurately perceive and interpret current findings suggest that empathy is not related to emotions contributes to more efficient meaning making, the construct, further limiting its potential as an adaptive at least as it relates to emotional experience. This would outcome of this ability set. Empathy was, however, also appear to hold true on a strictly intrapersonal level, significantly related to both measures of emotional given that personal meaning production was the only intelligence in the current study, confirming its appropriate component of spiritual intelligence to be consistently involvement in models of emotional intelligence (e.g., related to all three factors on the Trait Meta Mood Scale Salovey & Mayer, 1990). These findings also support the (i.e., attention, clarity, and repair). Of these, meaning second hypothesis, which suggested that empathy would production was most strongly related to emotional repair, display a correlation of comparatively greater size and extending support to the notion that the ability to make strength with emotional intelligence. These findings help meaning is intimately tied to the ability to make sense to clarify recent suggestions in the spiritual intelligence of one’s emotional experiences. Although not dependent, literature, and further cast doubt on empathy’s ability to these capacities are likely reciprocal, in so much that they connect the spiritual and emotional intelligences, as was each contribute to the development of the other. These suggested by Vaughan (2002). Indeed, current findings findings may further speak to the adaptive potential of a suggest that empathy is exclusive to the emotional spiritual ability set. capacities. While findings by Huber and MacDonald All components of spiritual intelligence related (2011) posit empathy as a product of spirituality, a significantly to emotional intelligence to some extent, distinction between spirituality and spiritual intelligence at least as measured by the AES. A similar pattern did may explain these differential relationships. not emerge for the TMMS, which displayed significant This study attempted to broaden the scope relationships with personal meaning production and of data collection beyond a university undergraduate transcendental awareness only. Of the TMMS subscales, sample, gathering additional responses from a small transcendental awareness correlated significantly with community-dwelling non-student population. Although emotional attention. This association is likely related future studies should attempt to replicate findings in to the theoretical definitions (and their accompanying larger and exclusively community-based samples, the operationalizations) of these two capacities, both of current lack of statistical distinction between the two which focus on abilities of perception and awareness. In groups is promising in regards to generalizability. Clark particular, transcendental awareness includes the ability and Watson (1995) have claimed, for instance, that to perceive a transcendent or transpersonal self (what has student populations serve as appropriate participant been called a spiritual center), for which the perception of pools for scale development. Nonetheless, readers are one’s emotions is surely a supporting factor. This may be cautioned against generalizing current findings until a second key point of intersection between the spiritual such research has validated these relationships in non- and emotional intelligences. university samples. All participants were also Canadian, Empathy, on the other hand, displayed no resulting in the ongoing need for cross-cultural research significant relationships with either spiritual intelligence on spiritual intelligence and its assessment. More or any of its components, supporting its recent exclusion equalized samples of male and female participants would from a model of spiritual intelligence (King, 2008; King further facilitate meaningful analyses of sex differences. Connecting Spiritual and Emotional Intelligence International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 17 Statistically speaking, the current study may be emotional intelligence, the current study was unable perceived as lacking complexity. Although the statistical to confirm such ranking in terms of associative mental methods employed (i.e., correlations) may be very basic, processes. Nevertheless, the current study does not they were the most suitable tools for examining the negate such a relationship, as a moderate association does intelligence criterion suggested by Mayer et al. (2000). appear to exist between the two intelligences. Future The value of meeting this criterion, however statistically research should investigate the relationship between simple, should not be underestimated. One of the spiritual intelligence and more traditional forms of primary difficulties in establishing spiritual intelligence intelligence, such as verbal intelligence, mathematical as a valid construct worth scientific consideration is its intelligence, and IQ more generally, in order to extend seemingly inherent opposition to the basic notion of support for the interrelatedness criterion. Based on human intelligence (see Gardner’s [2000] criticisms for Zohar and Marshall’s model, one would expect spiritual more explanation). The model proposed by King and intelligence to demonstrate comparatively stronger DeCicco (2009) attempted to overcome this opposition associations with emotional intelligence. From a by offering a universal model of spiritual intelligence conceptual perspective, the connection between the free of particular religious or cultural viewpoints and/ spiritual and emotional intelligences has been somewhat or terminology. The current correlational analyses add illuminated by the current findings. Personal meaning greatly to the support for the validity of this model (and production and transcendental awareness were revealed a spiritual intelligence more generally), for they suggest as potentially key points of intersection between these that spiritual intelligence is not some obscure esoteric two intelligences, while empathy appears to be a concept that has no place in the intelligence literature; point of divergence. While these results bode well for rather, spiritual intelligence appears to be connected to at the inclusion of a spiritual ability set in the broader least one other established intellectual component of the framework of human intelligence, they do so from the human mind, implicating it in the larger contemporary potentially limited perspective of self-report measures. conceptualization of human intelligence. This is a Further investigation, including that of a clinical nature, noteworthy step in the validation of this construct. is needed to more accurately estimate the presence and/ The greatest limitation of the current body or constitution of a spiritual intelligence. of research may be the use of self-report measures of intelligence. As was noted (King & DeCicco, 2009), References no performance-based measure of spiritual intelligence currently exists. Although there is evidence to suggest Amram, Y. (2007, February). The seven dimensions of that performance-based measures of intelligence are spiritual intelligence: An ecumenical, grounded theory. more valid than self-report measures (Brackett & Mayer, Paper presented at the 115th Annual Conference 2003; Goldenberg et al., 2006), too little is understood of the American Psychological Association, San about spiritual intelligence to develop performance-based Francisco, CA. measures at this time. 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About the Authors

David King, MSc, completed his Master’s degree at Trent University and is currently a PhD student at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada. His general areas of interest include health, stress and coping, spirituality, and dreams. Correspondence con- cerning this article should be addressed to David B. King, Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, 2136 West Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4. E-mail: [email protected] k

Constance A. Mara, BSc, MA, is a graduate student in quantitative psychology at York University. Her research interests focus on equivalence testing, structural equation modeling, longitudinal data analysis, and testing statistical mediation, with applied interests in social and personality psychology.

Teresa L. DeCicco, PhD, is an Associate Professor of Psychology at Trent University and Principle Investigator at The University of Pisa, Italy and The University of United Arab Emerits, UAE. Her major areas of interest are dream content and dream therapy as linked to waking life.

20 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies King, Mara, & DeCicco The Scale for Existential Thinking Blake A. Allan University of Florida Gainesville, FL, USA

C. Branton Shearer Multiple Intelligence Research and Consulting, Inc. Kent, OH, USA

This study introduced the construct of existential thinking, which we defined as the tendency to explore the fundamental concerns of human existence and the capacity to engage in a meaning-making process that locates oneself in respect to these issues. We also assessed the psychometric properties of the 11-item “Scale for Existential Thinking” (SET). In two studies, we found the SET to have unidimensional factor structure and good reliability diagnostics in both student and adult samples. Moreover, the SET showed construct validity by correlating with meaning in life, curiosity, and other existential variables. Furthermore, we found meaning in life to mediate the relation of existential thinking and existential well- being, which supports our conceptualization of existential thinking as a meaning-making process.

Keywords: existential psychology, spirituality, religiousness, meaning in life, well-being

ngaging with the fundamental questions of who had earlier proposed eight multiple intelligences, existence, such as the meaning of life and what suggested a new intelligence: existential intelligence. happens after death, is a universal human Existential intelligence was a candidate for inclusion as a Eexperience, and most people have formed beliefs around ninth intelligence, and Gardner (1983/2004) evaluated existential issues. Furthermore, the ability to consider its fit with the eight criteria needed to be considered an and make sense of ultimate issues is valued in every intelligence. Although Gardner asserted that existential culture, especially in areas such as philosophy, the arts, intelligence fit well with the criteria, evidence was too theoretical science, and religion (Gardner, 1999), and sparse to endorse its addition as a multiple intelligence. several scholars have discussed the psychotherapeutic Therefore, we use the term existential thinking in place benefit of addressing existential issues (Frankl, 1963; of existential intelligence. Gardner (1999) defined Spinelli, 2005; Yalom, 1980). Therefore, considering existential intelligence as the tendency, “to be con- existential issues and making sense of one’s existence may cerned with ‘ultimate’ issues of life, …to engage in be important for optimal human functioning. However, transcendental concerns…[and] the capacity to locate people differ considerably in how often they contemplate oneself with respect to the furthest reaches of the these core issues, and modern psychology would benefit cosmos—the infinite no less than the infinitesimal—and from a measure of existential thinking that would allow the related capacity to locate oneself with respect to the us to assess its effects and correlates. Therefore, this study most existential features of the human condition—the aimed to explore the concept of existential thinking significance of life, the meaning of death, the ultimate and examine the reliability and validity of the Scale for fate of the physical and the psychological worlds, such Existential Thinking (SET). profound experiences as love of another human being The idea that people possess differing capabilities or total immersion in a work of art” (Gardner, 1999, p. to explore and understand existential issues arose from 60). research investigating multiple forms of intelligence. In Several aspects of this definition are worthy of his book Intelligence Reframed, Howard Gardner (1999), note. Existential is used here in the sense of pertaining ScaleInternational for Existential Journal Thinking of Transpersonal Studies, 31(1), 2012,International pp. 21-37 Journal of Transpersonal Studies 21 to existence, rather than existential in the philosophical oped many measures concerned with one’s personal sense. Therefore, existential thinking has to do with relationship to existential issues. Many of these have considering issues related to one’s personal existence. assessed the degree to which people have meaning in Gardner (1999) referred to these issues as ultimate and their lives (e.g., Schulenberg, Schnetzer, & Buchanan, transcendental, which describes concerns above and 2011; Steger, Frazier, Oishi, & Kaler, 2006), which has beyond superficial matters. These ultimate concerns also been measured within a number of spiritual and involve one’s relation to the grand organization of the transpersonal constructs (MacDonald & Friedman, cosmos, such as the nature of reality, as well as the most 2002). Other existential constructs have measured fundamental, inescapable parts of the human condition, emotional-existential states, such as existential well- such as the meaning of life and the inevitability of being, existential guilt, existential anxiety, and death death (Yalom, 1980). In this way, existential thinking anxiety (Cohen, Mount, Strobel, & Bui, 1995; Templer, is concerned with aspirations beyond the self (Hartelius, 1970; Weems, Costa, Dehon, & Berman, 2004). Other Caplan, & Rardin, 2007). measures have examined existential beliefs and values, However, Gardner (1999) asserted that existen- such as the nature of reality (Narasimhan, Bhaskar, tial thinking also involves locating oneself in respect to & Prakhya, 2010). Finally, more comprehensive existential issues. This implies that existential thinking assessments have measured the entirety of one’s includes a process whereby people determine their existential status in the world (Reker & Peacock, 1981; personal relationships to, and make meaning out of, Thorne, 1973). For example, Reker & Peacock’s (1981) larger existential issues. As described by Spinelli (2005), Life Attitudes Profile measures life purpose, existential all people derive meaning from their lived experiences vacuum, life control, death acceptance, will to meaning, and reactions to stimuli in the world. In this way, goal seeking, and future meaning to fulfill. However, meanings are tied to the individual, because they are none of these measures have directly assessed the degree constructed relationally. Similarly, existential thinking to which people engage with existential issues. Perhaps involves engaging with the ultimate concerns of the the closest construct to existential thinking is existential human condition and establishing meaning between quest. Existential quest is the willingness of people to these issues and oneself. For instance, when made to reexamine and change their existential beliefs (Van reflect on their deaths, people tend to report a greater Pachterbeke, Keller, & Saroglou, 2012). While similar sense of gratitude (Frias, Watkins, Webber, & Froh, to existential thinking, existential quest measures the 2011). Frias et al. (2011) explained that when people flexibility of one’s existential belief system, rather than confront their mortality they see life as a limited and one’s tendency to consider existential issues. valuable resource, which increases their gratitude for Existential thinking has also been considered their own life. In this example, people create meaning in relation to another of Gardner’s (2000) proposed from their engagement with an existential issue (i.e., intelligences: spiritual intelligence. Authors have death) and apply it to themselves. However, since evaluated and defined spiritual intelligence in multiple meanings are relational and constructed, they cannot ways (Emmons, 2000; King & DeCicco, 2009; be permanent or final (Spinelli, 2005). Similarly, as Vaughan, 2002; Wolman, 2001). Emmons (2000) explained by Gardner (1999), existential thinking does referred to spiritual intelligence as the ability to achieve not presuppose an ultimate truth or end point but transcendence, attain higher states of consciousness, instead describes a process of engagement with existential sanctify everyday experiences, use spiritual resources, concerns. Therefore, following from Gardner’s definition and engage in virtuous behavior. Others have defined of existential intelligence and the discussion above, we spiritual intelligence as “the human capacity to ask define existential thinking as the tendency to engage ultimate questions about the meaning of life, and to with ultimate concerns and the capacity to carry out a simultaneously experience the seamless connection meaning-making process that locates oneself in relation between each of us and the world in which we live” to these existential issues. (Wolman, 2001, pp. 83-84), and as “a capacity for a deep This raises the question as to how existential understanding of existential questions and insight into thinking fits with other existential and transpersonal multiple levels of consciousness” (Vaughan, 2002, p. 19). constructs in the literature. Psychologists have devel- King and DeCicco (2009) described spiritual intelli- 22 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Allan & Shearer gence as “a set of mental capacities which contribute to thinking would be likely to occur within religions, the awareness, integration, and adaptive application of the which are frameworks for meaning-making that supply nonmaterial and transcendent aspects of one’s existence, global beliefs, general goals, situational meanings, and leading to such outcomes as deep existential reflection, coherence to beliefs about ultimate issues (Simpson, enhancement of meaning, recognition of a transcendent 2002; Wortmann & Park, 2009). Specifically, religions self, and mastery of spiritual states” (p. 69). These may provide meanings and explanations for existential definitions contain aspects of existential thinking, from concerns. However, the degree to which people are asking ultimate questions to understanding existential invested in their religions may be more relevant for issues deeply. However, unlike our conceptualization existential thinking. Particularly, existential thinking of existential thinking, these definitions of spiritual may be associated with intrinsic religiosity, which refers intelligence also include an experiential component that to a personal commitment to one’s religion, and thereby references expanded states of consciousness. increase time spent considering existential issues and Indeed, Gardner (2000) rejected the inclusion of engaging in meaning-making (Gorsuch & McPherson, spiritual intelligence as one of the multiple intelligences 1989). For example, meaning-making coping strategies within his model due to its emphasis on the attainment mediate the relationship between religiousness and of affective and phenomenological states and its possible psychological well-being (Park, 2005). Therefore, we implication that certain spiritual truths or paths are expect existential thinking and religiosity to be separate correct. In contrast, existential thinking does not yet overlapping constructs. necessarily have an end goal or state, making it a more If existential thinking involves a meaning- inclusive construct. For example, if one considers the making process, it may be a critical part of understanding Dalai Lama and Carl Sagan, only the Dalai Lama would how people establish, discover, or maintain a sense of be considered high in spiritual intelligence, while both meaning in their lives. However, two distinctions are would be considered high in existential thinking. In needed to hypothesize about this process. First, Steger addition, although much of transpersonal psychology et al. (2006) distinguished between the presence of and focuses on transcendent states of consciousness, it is the search for meaning in life. The presence of meaning often defined more broadly to include relevant behaviors in life reflects a felt sense that one’s life has purpose, and and theory, which are perhaps more amenable to the search for meaning reflects a quest to find meaning quantitative inquiry (MacDonald & Friedman, 2002). in life. Existential thinking likely overlaps with the Regardless, when considering the discussion above, search for meaning, because people who are looking for spiritual intelligence and existential thinking appear purpose and meaning in life would logically spend more to be separate yet overlapping constructs (Halama & time contemplating their life purpose or the meaning Strizenec, 2004). Despite this, no studies have compared of life in general. However, Steger, Dik, and Duffy (in these variables directly. press) also distinguished between making sense of one’s Just as existential thinking relates to spiritual life and feeling that one’s life is meaningful. These do intelligence, it may also relate to religiosity. In a recent not always go together. For example, a person could review, la Cour and Hvidt (2010) suggested that understand existence as a fortunate outcome of blind, spiritual, religious, and secular domains are separate but impersonal evolution, which might make life seem overlapping approaches to meaning-making. Examples ultimately meaningless. In our conceptualization, of secular approaches to meaning-making include existential thinking primarily involves making sense Yalom’s (1980) ultimate concerns and Frankl’s (1963) of one’s existence (Spinelli, 2005), which is what we will to meaning. These ideas are part of a tradition of refer to as meaning-making. However, this may only existential psychology that attempt to locate humanity translate to life purposes or the felt experience of life’s in relationship to ultimate issues. This may suggest meaningfulness in some circumstances. For example, for that existential thinking is primarily associated with some individuals, awareness of one’s death can increase secular thinking. However, since existential thinking perceptions of meaning in life (Taubman-Ben-Ari, 2011). is simply a process of considering existential issues and Taking these distinctions into consideration, existential engaging in meaning-making, it should occur in secular, thinking is likely related to both the search for and the religious, and spiritual domains. Moreover, existential presence of meaning in life. Scale for Existential Thinking International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 23 Furthermore, if existential thinking is related to version of the SET had not been formally assessed, these the presence of meaning in life in some situations, it may analyses were largely exploratory. Second, we examined also relate to well-being. Several existential psychologists convergent validity of the SET by correlating the scale have suggested that addressing existential concerns is to a number of theoretically related variables, including central to well-being, especially because doing so can demographics and measures of intrinsic religiousness, create a sense of meaning in life (Frankl, 1963; Koehn, life satisfaction, the search for meaning in life, and the 1986; Spinelli, 2005; Yalom, 1980). Despite this, presence of meaning in life. Given existential thinking’s the literature exploring the relationship of existential theoretical relationship to religiosity (la Cour & Hvidt, thinking to mental health is essentially non-existent 2010) and meaning in life (Gardner, 1999; Spinelli, (la Cour & Hvidt, 2010). However, scholars have 2005), we expected existential thinking to positively consistently linked the presence of meaning in life to relate to these variables. well-being variables, such as self-esteem, life satisfaction, Method and lack of depression (e.g., Reker, 1997; Steger et al., Psychology undergraduates completed the 11- 2006). Therefore, existential thinking may relate to well- item SET scale, as well as other measures, in an online being through the presence of meaning in life. survey format. Initial Scale Development Participants. The participants were 379 The goal of the following two studies was undergraduate students recruited from a large to assess the reliability and construct validity of the Southeastern university in the United States. The sample Scale for Existential Thinking (SET) and examine the had a mean age of 18.62 (SD = 1.50) and was 42.2% relathionship between existential thinking and other (n = 160) male and 57.8% (n = 219) female; 70.4% (n variables of interest. The SET was developed by Shearer = 267) identified as White, 9.8% as Asian American (2006) in three studies. Shearer used the approach (n = 37), 9.0% as African American (n = 34), 4.2% as employed for the Multiple Intelligences Developmental Cuban (n = 16), 3.7% as Caribbean (n = 14), 3.7% as Assessment Scales (MIDAS), which is an established, South American (n = 14), 2.9% as Puerto Rican (n = reliable, and valid measure of the multiple intelligences 11), 2.1% as American Indian (n = 8), 1.6% as Middle (Shearer, 2005, 2006; Wiswell, Hardy, & Reio, 2001; Eastern (n = 6), 1.3% as Central American (n = 5), 1.3% Wu, 2007; Yoong, 2001). In Study 1, Shearer used four as Pacific Islander n( = 5), 0.3% as Mexican (n = 1), and domains of existential inquiry (Religious, Philosophical, 1.3% as Other (n = 5). Artistic, and Scientific) to generate items, which were Procedure. The study was conducted via online reviewed by experts, including Gardner. The new 14- survey. Participants were students who joined the study item measure was tested on a small group of teachers and from the psychology undergraduate participant pool in students. Shearer found two primary factors representing the Fall 2010 semester and received course credit for existential thinking applied to philosophical concerns, their participation. and existential thinking applied to the self. In Study 2, Instruments. Shearer recruited a large sample (N = 584) of participants Measures included demographics, the SET, and ranging from teenagers to adults. He found a one-factor scales assessing life satisfaction, meaning in life, and solution was the best fit for the entire sample. In Study internal versus external religiosity. 3, Shearer replicated results from his previous two Demographics. In the demographics section, studies. He also found the SET to have a test-retest we assessed gender, age, parental income, and parental reliability of .91. These studies found the SET to have level of education. Parental income was assessed with internal consistencies ranging from a = .88 to a = .94. a single question: “On average, what do you estimate Shearer recommended that three items be removed due is your parents’ combined yearly income over the last to redundancy, item missingness, and low item-scale five years?” Participants responded on a 9-point scale correlations. This resulted in the current, 11-item scale. ranging from Less than $25,000 per year to $200,000+ Study 1 per year, with a final item I don’t know. Parental level tudy 1 had two main goals. First, we intended to assess of education was assessed with two questions, “What is Sthe psychometric properties and factor structure of the highest level of education achieved by your mother/ the SET in a student population. Given that the current father?” which participants answered on a 7-point scale

24 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Allan & Shearer ranging from Grade school to Graduate school, with a ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Sample final item, Not applicable/I don’t know. items include, “I enjoy reading about my religion” and Existential thinking. The current SET is an “It is important to me to spend time in private thought 11-item measure with scores ranging from 11 to 55 and prayer”. The scale has good internal consistency a( (Appendix A). Participants rate how often they engage in = .83) and is related to other measures of religiousness various existential thinking behaviors on a 6-point scale (Worthington et al., 2003). In the current study, the ranging from no or every once and awhile to all the time. three negatively worded items did not load on the entire The final item was I don’t know. Sample items include, factor, so only the five positively worded items were used “Do you ever reflect on your purpose in life” and “Do for analysis. The 5-item measure in this study had an you ever think about life’s Big Questions?” internal consistency of a = .94. Life satisfaction. Life satisfaction was measured Results with the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), developed The factor structure of the 11-item SET was by Diener, Emmons, Larsen, and Griffin (1985), which examined through an exploratory factor analysis. consists of 5-items on 7-point scale ranging from strongly Principal axis factoring of the SET revealed a single disagree to strongly agree. Sample items include, “I am factor with an eigenvalue over one, and the scree plot satisfied with my life” and “The conditions of my life clearly indicated one factor. This factor explained are excellent.” Diener and colleagues (1985) found good 65.31% of the variance in SET scores (eigenvalue = internal consistency (a = .87) and test-retest reliability (r = 7.18), and all items loaded at .69 or above. Internal .82). The scale correlated expectedly with other measures consistency as measured by Cronbach’s alpha was of well-being, including positive and negative affect. The excellent (a = .95). Therefore, the SET appears to be internal consistency in the present study was a = .87. measuring a unidimensional construct with good Meaning in life. Meaning in life was assessed internal reliability. using the Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ), which We summed items on the SET to create existen- is a 10-item scale assessing the presence of and search tial thinking scores. Responses answered “I don’t know” for meaning in life (Steger et al., 2006). Responses are were considered missing. The mean of the SET was on a 7-point scale ranging from absolutely untrue to 30.60 (SD = 11.16). The visually inspected distribution absolutely true. Sample items from the presence subscale of SET scores appeared normal and had a skewness include, “I understand my life’s meaning,” and “My life of .42 (SE = .13) and a kurtosis of -.46 (SE = .25). An has no clear purpose.” Samples from the search subscale independent samples t-test found no significant gender include, “I am searching for meaning in my life” and difference on SET scores, t(377) = -.50, ns. In addition, “I am always searching for something that makes my life feel significant.” Steger and Table 1. Descriptive information and correlations of existential colleagues reported good internal consistency thinking, meaning in life, life satisfaction, and intrinsic religiosity (presence: a = .82; search: a = .87) and test- retest reliability (presence: r = .70; search: r = 1 2 3 4 5 .73). The reliability in the current study was 1. Existential thinking - comparable (presence: a = .87; search: a = .88). Steger et al. (2006) also found presence of 2. Presence of meaning .25 - meaning to correlate in the expected directions with life satisfaction, depression, self-esteem, 3. Search for meaning .21 .08 - and other measures of life purpose. The search 4. Life satisfaction .12 .46 -.05 - for meaning in life correlated negatively with these variables. 5. Intrinsic religiosity .25 .31 .05 .25 - Intrinsic religiosity. Religiosity was M 30.60 23.79 24.25 25.96 28.88 measured with the Intrinsic/Extrinsic Revised Scale (I/E-R) developed by Gorsuch and SD 11.16 6.24 6.43 5.94 8.07

McPherson (1989), which is an 8-item measure Note. Correlations in bold are significant (p < .01) administered using a 7-point Likert scale

Scale for Existential Thinking International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 25 SET scores were not significantly correlated to age r( = SET established in Study 1, assess the validity of the .03, ns), parental income (r = .05, ns), father’s level of SET with a broader range of constructs, and establish education (r = .07, ns), or mother’s level of education (r = the reliability of the SET in a diverse, adult sample. .10, ns). Given the number of correlations conducted, the To establish construct validity, we correlated the SET alpha level was adjusted to p < .01. As shown in Table to demographic, meaning, personality, and well-being 1, existential thinking was positively correlated with the variables. We also correlated the SET with a measure of presence of meaning in life, the search for meaning in life, spiritual intelligence and its critical existential thinking and intrinsic religiosity. However, SET scores were not subscale. correlated with the measure of life satisfaction (SWLS). In terms of demographic variables, it was Discussion predicted that existential thinking would be positively The first goal of Study 1 was to explore the related to age. As people get older, they may consider factor structure and reliability of the SET in a student existential issues more readily, perhaps due to the loss population. The scale showed variability, had excellent of loved ones (Kim, Kjervik, Belyea, & Choi, 2011). internal consistency, was normally distributed, and However, we did not expect existential thinking to be loaded on a single factor. Therefore, the SET appears to associated with gender, level of education, or income. be a reliable assessment of existential thinking in college- For the SET to have divergent validity, aged students. existential thinking must represent more than just The next goal of the study was to establish a desire to gain knowledge or engage in complex convergent validity by correlating scores on the thought. Some personality variables that reflect these SET to several theoretically related constructs. As tendencies include curiosity, the need for cognition, and hypothesized, SET scores correlated positively with openness to experience. Litman and Spielberger (2003) measures of the search for meaning in life and the differentiated two types of curiosity: curiosity based on presence of meaning in life, even though these two a joy of learning new things (Interest-type) and curiosity constructs often negatively correlate with one another based on the avoidance of uncertainty and ignorance (Steger et al., 2006). This suggests that existential (Deprivation-type). Generally, I-type curiosity correlates thinking could play a role in both searching for, with positive traits whereas D-type curiosity correlates discovering, and/or maintaining meaning in life. As with negative traits (Litman, 2008, 2010). While suspected, the SET also moderately correlated with a curiosity may predict some consideration of existential measure of intrinsic religiousness, which supports the issues, it reflects a much broader and less specific search notion that spending time engaged with one’s religion for knowledge. Therefore, we expected existential is associated with considering existential issues. thinking to show small to moderate correlations with Contrary to our predictions, existential thinking was both types of curiosity, since people should pursue not related to life satisfaction. Therefore, a satisfactory existential questions both out of intrinsic enjoyment and life may not require regular thinking about existential avoidance of uncertainty. issues. Similar to curiosity, we expected existential Several limitations of this study prevented us thinking to differ from the need for cognition, which from drawing conclusions regarding the validity of the refers to the tendency to enjoy complex and analytical SET and our follow-up analyses. First, the study only thinking (Cacioppo, Petty, & Kao, 1984). Although a included college-aged students who may not be at a tendency to analyze complex issues may be associated stage in their lives when they are thinking about and with considering complex existential issues, the need struggling with existential issues. Moreover, the limited for cognition is much broader and less specific than the age range restricted the generalizability of the results. tendency to consider core issues about one’s existence. Finally, the variables used for construct validity should Therefore, we expected existential thinking to show be expanded to provide broader validation of the SET. a small to moderate correlation with the need for This led to the development of Study 2. cognition. Finally, we predicted that existential thinking Study 2 would differ from openness to experience. Openness to tudy 2 had several goals. Specifically, we planned to experience, a member of the big five personality traits, is Sconfirm the unidimensional factor structure of the similar to intellect but is defined more broadly to include 26 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Allan & Shearer sensitivity to art and beauty, a need for variety, and a may be associated with anxiety for some people, perhaps tendency toward unconventional thought (Donnellan, those without meaning in life. Therefore, we predicted Oswald, Baird, & Lucas, 2006; McCrae, 1992). As small correlations between existential thinking and mentioned by Garner (1999), existential thinking could existential anxiety and death anxiety. involve profound experiences, like immersion in artwork, As previously discussed, spiritual intelligence and a need for intellectual variety could relate to a quest and existential thinking are similar constructs, with for existential answers. However, openness to experience spiritual intelligence emphasizing expanded states of would not necessitate thoughts or experiences about consciousness and existential thinking emphasizing existential issues specifically, so we predicted openness engagement with ultimate concerns in a meaning- to experience and existential thinking to have a small to making process. However, some authors have subsumed moderate correlation. existential thinking under spiritual intelligence. King Building off of Study 1, measures of well-being and DeCicco (2009) developed and factor-analyzed the were expanded to include both life satisfaction and Spiritual Intelligence Self-Report Inventory (SISRI-24), existential well-being. Existential well-being is defined which measures four subscales: critical existential as the “perception of purpose, meaning in life, and the thinking, personal meaning production, transcendental capacity for personal growth and transcendence” (Cohen awareness, and conscious state expansion. In this model, et al., 1995, p. 208). Given both existential thinking’s the authors defined critical existential thinking as the relation to meaning in life (Study 1) and meaning in life’s ability to contemplate existential issues critically and relation to well-being (Steger et al., 2006), we expected analytically. Although critical existential thinking was existential thinking to relate to existential well-being highly related to most other subscales, the authors did through meaning in life. Therefore, the goal was to not conduct a higher order factor analysis to confirm examine if existential thinking related to existential well- that these subscales loaded onto a spiritual intelligence being and if meaning in life mediated the relationship factor. Therefore, the authors did not provide evidence between existential thinking and existential well-being. that critical existential thinking is part of spiritual Similar effects have been observed for religious variables. intelligence. Regardless, given critical existential For example, Steger and Frazier (2005) found meaning in thinking’s interrelationship with the other subscales life to mediate the relationship between religiousness and of the SISRI-24, we predicted existential thinking to life satisfaction, and Park (2005) found meaning-making relate highly to spiritual intelligence. We also expected coping strategies to mediate the relationship between existential thinking to relate highly to the SISRI-24’s religiousness and psychological well-being. Therefore, critical existential thinking subscale. if existential thinking leads to increases in meaning Method in life (la Cour & Hvidt, 2010), these findings may be A diverse adult sample was recruited through replicable for existential thinking. Finally, despite the social media, classified websites, and an online data results from Study 1, we again predicted that existential collection service, and completed the 11-item SET scale thinking would correlate with life satisfaction in adults. and additional measures in an online survey format. We also planned to assess the relationship Participants. A total of 316 participants aged between existential thinking and existential anxiety and 18 to 81 completed the survey (M = 32.39, SD = 12.35). death anxiety. In addition to citing the potential benefits Of this group, 45.3% were male (n = 143) and 54.7% of considering existential issues, some authors (e.g. were female (n = 173); 56.3% identified as White n( = Yalom, 1980) have suggested that awareness of ultimate 178), 31.3% as Asian (n = 99), 3.8% as Multiracial concerns could lead to anxiety. Moreover, searching for (n = 12), 3.2% as Hispanic (n = 10), 2.2% as African meaning in life and thinking about death without a sense American (n = 7), 1.3% as Other (n = 4), 0.9% as Middle of life meaning is associated with general anxiety and Eastern (n = 3), 0.9% as Native American (n = 3), 0.6% death anxiety (Routledge & Juhl, 2010; Steger, Mann, as Pacific Islander n( = 2), and 0.6% were missing (n = Michels, & Cooper, 2009). Finally, existential anxiety, 2). Of the participants, 50.6% were American (n = 160), which is anxiety about the ultimate meanings of life and 24.7% Indian (n = 78), 12.4% Canadian (n = 39), 2.5% death, includes thoughts of death, meaninglessness, and British (n = 8), 2.5% Other Asian (n = 8), 2.2% Western guilt (Weems et al., 2004). Therefore, existential thinking European (n = 7), 1.6% Eastern European (n = 5), 1.3% Scale for Existential Thinking International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 27 Australian (n = 4), 1.0% South American (n = 3), 0.6% It is measured with 24-items on a 4-point scale ranging Mexican (n = 2), and 0.6% South African (n = 2). from Not true of me to Completely true of me. Sample items Procedure. In order to collect data from a include “I recognize aspects of myself that are deeper diverse, adult sample we recruited participants in two than my physical body,” and “I have developed my own ways. First, a link to the survey was posted on social techniques for entering higher states of consciousness or networking and online classified websites. In this case, awareness.” King and DeCicco reported good internal people volunteered to complete the survey. Other reliability (a = .97) and test-retest reliability (r = .89) individuals joined the study through the online data and found spiritual intelligence to positively correlate collection service Mechanical Turk (MTurk). This service with the presence of meaning, the search for meaning, allows people from across the globe to be compensated mysticism, and religiosity. The internal consistency for for completing surveys online. Buhrmester, Kwang, and the present study was a = .94. Gosling (2011) reviewed this form of data collection Existential anxiety. Existential anxiety was and concluded that samples from MTurk were more assessed with the Existential Anxiety Questionnaire diverse than other internet survey methods but were (EAQ) developed by Weems et al. (2004). The equally valid and reliable. Participants who completed EAQ consists of 13 true-or-false statements on three the survey this way received $0.40 for completing the subscales: fate/death, emptiness/meaninglessness, and survey. All participants were given the opportunity to guilt/con-demnation. Examples include, “I often think include their email address for a one-month follow-up about death and this causes me anxiety,” and “I often survey, which re-administered the SET for test-retest think that the things that were once important in life reliability. Participants were provided with informed are empty.” Weems and colleagues reported adequate consent and were able to drop out of the study at any internal consistency (a = .71-.76) and two week test- time without penalty. In total, 51.58% (n = 163) of the retest reliability (r = .72) and found that the scale participants joined from the first method, and 48.42% predicted general anxiety and depression. The internal (n = 153) of the participants joined from MTurk. consistency for the present study was a = .73. Instruments. As in study 1, assessments Death anxiety. Death anxiety was measured measured existential thinking (SET; a = .93), the search with Templer’s (1970) Death Anxiety Scale (DAS). The for meaning (MLQ; a = .91), the presence of meaning scale consists of 15 true-or-false statements. Examples (MLQ; a = .89), and life satisfaction (SLS; a = .89). include, “I am very much afraid to die,” and “The Their corresponding internal consistencies for this study subject of life after death troubles me greatly.” Templer are in parentheses. In addition, the following constructs reported an internal consistency of a = .76 and a test- were also measured: retest reliability of r = .83. The measure correlated with Demographics. The demographics section general anxiety and other measures of death anxiety. assessed gender, age, income, level of education, and The scale’s internal consistency for the present study was the country in which participants were currently living. a = .71. Income was assessed with a single question: “On average, Existential well-being. Existential well-being what is the combined yearly income of your household?” was measured with the 6-item existential subscale of the Participants responded on a 9-point scale ranging from McGill Quality of Life Questionnaire (MQOL; Cohen Less than $25,000 per year to $200,000+ per year. Level et al., 1995; Cohen et al., 1997). Participants respond of education was assessed with a single question, “What is to statements by rating how close their answers fit with the highest level of education you achieved?” Participants two separate poles ranging from 0 to 10. Examples answered on a 7-point scale ranging from Grade school to include, “My life to this point has been... 0 = completely Graduate school, with a final item, Not applicable. worthless/10 = very worthwhile,” and “To me, every day Spiritual intelligence. Spiritual intelligence seems to be... 0 = a burden/10 = a gift.” Cohen and Mount was measured with the Spiritual Intelligence Self-Report (2000) reported internal consistencies of the subscale Inventory (SISRI-24) developed by King and DeDicco from a = .75 to a = .81 and a test-retest reliability of r = (2009). The scale consists of four subscales: critical .76. Existential well-being correlated with other quality existential thinking, personal meaning production, of life measures. The internal consistency in the present transcendental awareness, and conscious state expansion. study was a = .86. 28 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Allan & Shearer Depression. To assess depression, participants Results completed the 20-item Center for Epidemiological To confirm the unidimensional factor structure Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977). found in Study 1, a confirmatory factor analysis was Statements are answered based on the previous week on conducted using AMOS 18. For all models AMOS a 4-point scale ranging from Rarely or none of the time estimated missing data with Full Information Maximum (less than 1 day) to Most or all of time (5-7 days). Sample Likelihood, which uses all available data to impute items include, “I felt lonely,” and “I felt sad.” Radloff missing values. All items significantly loaded on the reported internal consistency from a = .85 to a = .90 and existential thinking factor at values of .59 and above (p a one-month test-retest of r = .67. The scale correlated < .001). The chi-square test suggested poor fit, c²(44) = in the expected direction with positive affect, negative 169.71, p < .001, but this test is sensitive to multivariate affect, and other measures of depression. The internal non-normality and sample sizes over 200 (Tabachnick & consistency in this study was a = .90. Fidell, 2007). Although the Comparative Fit Index (.94) Openness to experience. Openness to indicated good fit, the chi-square/df ratio (3.85) and the experiences was assessed with the intellect/imagination Root Mean Square Residual (.10, p < .001) indicated subscale of the Mini-International Personality Item poor fit. We examined modification indices and found Pool (Mini-IPIP; Donnellan et al., 2006). The that several errors correlated with each other. Since the subscale consists of 4 items rated on a 5-point scale suggested item pairs shared similar content, we allowed ranging from Very inaccurate to Very accurate. Sample the errors of the following item pairs to covary: 3 and items include “Have a vivid imagination” and “Have 8; 2 and 9; 8 and 9; and 9 and 11. This substantially difficulty understanding abstract ideas” (reverse coded). improved model fit: c²(40) = 83.98, p < .001, chi-square/ Donnellan and colleagues (2006) reported acceptable df ratio = 2.10, CFI = .98, and RMSEA = .06, ns. internal consistency (a = .65) and good test-retest Therefore, evidence suggests that the one factor solution reliability (r = .77). The subscale positively correlated for the SET is a good fitting model. with imagination, artistic interest, emotionality, However, as recommended by methodological adventurousness, intellect, and liberalism. The internal experts (Martens, 2005), our model should be tested consistency in the present study was a = .78. against a plausible alternative. Shearer (2006) found some Need for cognition. Need for cognition was evidence for a two factor model of existential thinking measured with the short form of the Need for Cognition with one factor reflecting existential issues applied to Scale (NCS; Cacioppo et al., 1984). The NCS consists philosophical concerns and another factor representing of 18 items on a 9-point Likert scale ranging from Very application of existential issues to one’s personal life. For strong disagreement to Very strong agreement. Sample items example, factor 1 (items 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, and 9) includes include “I would prefer complex to simple problems,” items about the meaning of life, what happens after and “I prefer my life to be filled with puzzles that I must death, and if there is a grand plan for humanity, whereas solve.” Cacioppo et al. (1984) found an internal reliability factor 2 (items 3, 4, 5, 10, and 11) includes questions of a = .90. The internal reliability in the present study about life’s Big Questions and the nature of reality. This was also a = .90. two factor model was tested in AMOS 18. We retained Curiosity. Interest and deprivation curiosity the correlated error variances from the one factor model was assessed with Litman and Spielberger’s (2003) 10- to maintain continuity. This model had very similar fit item Epistemic Curiosity Questionnaire (ECQ). The to the one factor model: χ²(39) = 83.59, p < .001, chi- ECQ is answered 4-point scale ranging from Almost square/df ratio = 2.14, CFI = .98, and RMSEA = .06, never to All the time. Sample items include “I enjoy ns. However, given that the one factor model is more exploring new ideas,” and “I feel frustrated if I can’t figure parsimonious, we contend that this one best describes out the solution to a problem, so I work even harder to the factor structure of the SET. solve it.” Litman and Spielberger (2003) reported good Cronbach’s alpha showed the SET to have internal consistency for both the interest subscale (a = good internal consistency (a = .93). SET scores for each .80-.81) and the deprivation subscale (a = .71-75). The participant were created by summing each item. Items corresponding reliabilities for the present study were a = answered “I don’t know” were considered missing. The .81 and a = .84 respectively. scale was normally distributed with a skewness of .11 (SE Scale for Existential Thinking International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 29 = .15) and a kurtosis of -.87 (SE = .30). The mean SET including a variable indicating if participants were from score was 33.96 (SD = 10.95). An independent samples India or not, β = .28, SE = 1.96, t(250) = 3.83, p < .001, t-test found no gender differences on the measure t(257) = source of data ceased to have a relation with SET scores, .49, ns. Also, the SET did not correlate with age (r = β = -.03, SE = 1.61, t(250) = -.35, ns. -.08, ns), income (r = -.12, ns), or level of education (r The significant difference in SET scores = .02, ns). The diverse sample allowed investigation of between people from India and those from the United regional differences in existential thinking, but due to States, Canada, and Europe could mean that the SET’s low numbers in some groups, comparisons were only factor structure does not hold for all groups. To test made between participants from the United States, factorial invariance, we followed the guidelines of Little Canada, Europe, and India. A one-way analysis of (2008). Little suggested the multiple group confirmatory variance revealed significant differences in SET scores factor analysis approach, which involves using AMOS among geographic regions, F(3, 239) = 7.24, p < .001. to specify the same factor model simultaneously for Bonferroni adjusted post hoc tests found that SET scores multiple groups while gradually adding more constraints were significantly higher in India (M = 39.46, SD = 9.72) between the two groups. Changes in fit indices are compared to Canada (M = 31.17, SD = 11.43), t(239) evaluated at each level. Little proposed testing three = 3.58, p < .01, the United States (M = 32.99, SD = levels of invariance: configural (pattern of fixed and 10.80), t(239) = 3.79, p < .001, and Europe (M = 28.71, free parameters are constrained to be the same), weak SD = 11.23), t(239) = 3.48, p < .01. The United States, factorial (factor loadings are constrained across groups), Canada, and Europe did not differ significantly. Testing and strong factorial (indicator means are constrained was done to determine whether the two sources of data across groups). Given the limited numbers of participants (i.e., social networking sites and MTurk) differed in SET in each group, we decided to compare only the largest scores. There was a significant relation between source of two groups, those from the United States and India. The data and SET scores, β = .14, SE = 1.35, t(257) = 2.29, p configural model is essentially an average between the < .05. However, this effect was likely due to the fact that two groups and showed good fit, χ²(80) = 149.29, p < the majority of the MTurk sample was from India. After .001, chi-square/df ratio = 1.87, CFI = .95, and RMSEA

Table 2. Descriptive information and correlations of existential thinking, spiritual intelligence, meaning variables, well-being variables, and personality variables. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1. Existential thinking - 2. Spiritual intelligence .67 - 3. Critical existential thinking .67 .82 - 4. Presence of meaning .37 .50 .29 - 5. Search for meaning .28 .28 .24 -.16 - 6. Life satisfaction .15 .29 .10 .51 -.08 - 7. Existential anxiety .07 -.15 .01 -.41 .24 -.38 - 8. Death anxiety .10 -.09 .01 -.24 .07 -.18 .50 - 9. Existential well-being .27 .41 .16 .66 -.06 .67 -.47 -.18 - 10. Openness to experience .14 .22 .27 .15 -.15 -.00 -.10 -.10 .02 - 11. Need for cognition .07 .08 .19 .05 -.09 .04 -.16 -.11 -.02 .61 - 12. Interest curiosity .20 .25 .32 .12 .04 .05 -.09 -.08 .10 .46 .65 - 13. Deprivation curiosity .35 .30 .28 .08 .20 .02 .11 .03 .02 .05 .27 .40 - M 33.96 52.92 16.51 24.64 23.06 23.03 4.67 6.72 17.91 15.72 18.23 15.94 12.71 SD 10.95 19.56 5.94 6.87 7.86 7.40 2.94 3.15 10.72 3.37 23.22 2.94 3.72 Note. Correlations in bold are significant (p < .001)

30 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Allan & Shearer = .06, ns. In the weak factorial condition, factor loadings Discussion were constrained to be the same across groups. This The first goal of Study 2 was to investigate the slightly improved the fit of the model, χ²(90) = 156.05, p SET’s psychometric properties in an adult sample. As in < .001, chi-square/df ratio = 1.73, CFI = .96, and RMSEA the student sample, the measure demonstrated strong, = .06, ns, but this change was not significantly different unidimensional factor structure and excellent internal from the configural model, χ²(10) = 6.76, ns. The strong consistency. It also had good test-retest reliability. This factorial model constrained the indicator means to be provides evidence that the SET is a reliable measure of equal. This restriction degraded the fit of the model, existential thinking in adults. χ²(101) = 229.01, p < .001, chi-square/df ratio = 2.27, Next, we investigated existential thinking’s CFI = .91, and RMSEA = .07, p < .01. This change was relationship to demographic variables. Contrary to significantly different from the weak invariance model, our hypothesis, SET scores were unrelated to age and, χ²(21) = 79.72, p < .001. as expected, did not relate to gender, income, or level Table 2 depicts the correlations amongst the of education. Therefore, existential thinking does study variables. As hypothesized, SET scores were not appear to increase as people get closer to death, significantly related to spiritual intelligence, critical and gender and socioeconomic status do not seem to existential thinking, the presence of meaning in life, influence the level of existential thought. In terms of the search for meaning in life, existential well-being, geographic differences, India had significantly higher interest curiosity, and deprivation curiosity. However, levels of existential thinking than the United States, contrary to our hypotheses, it was not correlated with Canada, and Europe. This was corroborated by our test measures of life satisfaction, existential anxiety, death of factorial invariance between Americans and Indians. anxiety, depression, openness to experience, or need for The model fit did not degrade significantly when cognition. A total of 29 participants completed the test- SET items were restricted to load on the same, single retest follow-up survey at a one-month interval. Only the factor with the same weights. This suggests that the SET was included in the follow-up survey. The test-retest factor structure may hold up across these two groups. reliability was r = .74, and a paired samples t-test revealed However, when we restricted the SET’s indicator means that the mean SET scores did not differ significantly to be equal, the fit degraded. This again indicates that from time 1 (M = 30.90, SD = 10.25) to time 2 (M = SET scores are different for Indians than Americans. 28.62, SD = 8.58), t(28) = 1.76, n.s. The reason for this is unknown. However, spiritual or Finally, a mediation analysis was conducted exam- existential issues may be more central to Indian culture ining whether the presence of meaning in life mediated (Bhawuk, 2003), which would be associated with higher the relationship between existential thinking and levels of existential thinking. Although the impact of existential well-being. Using the SPSS mediation macro culture on existential thinking is beyond the scope of developed by Preacher and Hayes (2008), a mediation this article, this finding opens up an interesting avenue analyses was performed based on 5000 bootstrapped for future research. samples using bias-corrected 95% confidence intervals. Our third goal was to establish construct validity Existential thinking had significant, direct paths to by correlating SET scores to measures theoretically presence of meaning in life (β = .24, SE = .04, p < .001) related to existential thinking. As predicted, SET and existential well-being (β = .26, SE = .06, p < .001). scores highly correlated with spiritual intelligence and Presence of meaning in life also had a significant direct critical existential thinking. However, these correlations path to well-being (β = .99, SE = .08, p < .001). When were not high enough to make the SET redundant, meaning in life was included in the model, existential which supports the notion that existential thinking thinking ceased to have a relation with existential well- and spiritual intelligence are separate yet highly related being (β = .02, SE = .05, ns), and this indirect effect was constructs. Furthermore, critical existential thinking significant SE( = .04, CI = .16-.33). Therefore, the presence was highly related to existential thinking, although the of meaning in life fully mediated the relationship between two constructs showed a differing pattern of correlations existential thinking and well-being. The total model was with other variables. Namely, existential thinking was significant (F(2, 243) = 102.19, p < .001) and explained more related to meaning and existential well-being 45.68% of the variance in existential well-being. whereas critical existential thinking was more related Scale for Existential Thinking International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 31 to personality variables, such as openness to experience in life (Routledge & Juhl, 2010; Steger et al., 2009). and need for cognition. Existential thinking was Therefore, future research should explore if meaning more related to deprivation curiosity and less related in life moderates the relationship between existential to interest curiosity than critical existential thinking. thinking and anxiety. However, these two measures may be reflecting the same General Discussion underlying construct, and future research should explore his study introduced the concept of existential this possibility. Regardless, the SET demonstrated Tthinking, which we defined as the tendency to convergent validity by correlating with spiritual consider the core issues of human existence and the intelligence and critical existential thinking. ability to engage in a meaning-making process that In addition, SET scores showed small to locates oneself in respect to ultimate concerns. We also moderate correlations with meaning in life, the search assessed the reliability and validity of a measure for for meaning in life, interest curiosity, and deprivation existential thinking, the 11-item Scale for Existential curiosity. However, contrary to our hypotheses, it did Thinking (SET). The SET demonstrated individual not correlate with the need for cognition or openness to variability, unidimensional factor structure, good experience. Existential thinking’s relationship to interest internal consistency, and good test-retest reliability in and deprivation curiosity is not surprising since a drive both student and adult samples. The SET also showed for knowledge should be somewhat related to a drive to construct validity by correlating with conceptually understand existential dilemmas. However, the moderate related variables, including spiritual intelligence, critical correlation of SET with curiosity suggests that existential existential thinking, meaning in life, intrinsic religiosity, thinking reflects a focus on existential issues, rather existential well-being, and curiosity. These results suggest than only representing general curiosity. Furthermore, that the SET reliably assesses individual differences in the although we expected need for cognition and openness underlying construct of existential thinking. to experience to be related to thoughts about existential The SET’s psychometrics throughout the study, problems, the lack of relationships here also suggest that including a unidimensional factor structure, good existential thinking is different from the tendencies to internal consistency, and evidence of construct validity, enjoy cognitive endeavors or abstract ideas. suggest that existential thinking may represent a unique In terms of well-being, existential thinking personality trait. This is in line with Gardner’s (1999) was positively related to existential well-being but assertion that existential intelligence may have a unique was unrelated to life satisfaction, death anxiety, or location in the brain and a distinct evolutionary history. existential anxiety. Again, satisfaction with one’s One also sees exemplars of existential thinking in wider life seems to be unrelated to the degree of existential culture, including spiritual leaders and philosophers. thinking. In addition, the relation of existential However, why is considering existential issues different thinking to existential well-being was mediated by than considering other issues? What is special about meaning in life. This generally supports the idea that issues related to one’s personal existence? In some ways, existential thinking represents a process whereby people this study has brought up more questions than it has generate meaning in life by placing oneself in respect answered. The construct of existential thinking is to ultimate concerns (Gardner, 1999; Spinelli, 2005). underdeveloped, and when more scholars and researchers Establishing meaning in life may subsequently lead to begin exploring this topic with newly developed well-being (Steger et al., 2009). These are preliminary measures, an expanded and richer understanding of results but provide initial support for the validity of our existential thinking can be established. conceptualization of existential thinking as a meaning- Although the concept existential thinking making process. Contrary to our hypotheses, existential should be further explored and developed, study thinking did not relate to death anxiety or existential findings generally supported our conceptualization anxiety. This was somewhat surprising considering of existential thinking. SET scores correlated with that these variables should be related to some thoughts measures of constructs that also assess an engagement about death and the purpose of existence. However, with existential issues, such as spiritual intelligence as previously discussed, existential thinking may and critical existential thinking. In addition, we only relate to anxiety when people have low meaning showed that existential thinking represents more

32 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Allan & Shearer than curiosity, openness to experience, and need for result, studies should validate the SET in representative cognition. Moreover, both studies revealed a relation North American samples as well as specifically explore between existential thinking and meaning variables. cross-cultural differences. However, the moderate correlations between existential Furthermore, in both studies, the validity of the thinking and meaning in life suggest that though SET was based only on questionnaires, and the SET only existential thinking would involve making sense of considered behavioral thought patterns. Therefore, we did ultimate concerns, this does not always translate into not consider specific interests, skills, or tasks associated the presence of meaning in life. Rather, variables may with existential thinking. Not only does restricting moderate the relation between existential thinking and our methods to thinking behaviors and questionnaire meaning in life such that some people are better able to methods create the possibility of inflated correlations translate existential thinking into concrete life purposes between the SET and other variables, it also restricts our or meanings. For example, religiousness may act as such conceptualization of existential thinking. Future studies a moderator because religions provide a framework for should address this concern by using SET scores to understanding existential questions (Simpson, 2002; predict observed behavioral measures. Self-report ratings Wortmann & Park, 2009). In addition, existential could also be corroborated with secondary informants. thinking’s relationship to existential well-being via Finally, this study did not include measures of social meaning in life suggests that existential thinking could desirability and response bias. Therefore, we cannot be lead people to develop a sense of meaning in life, which sure if all participants’ responses were reflecting true subsequently relates to well-being. differences in existential thinking. Future studies should Limitations and Future Directions take this into account when further validating the SET. This study should be considered in light of a References number of limitations that suggest directions for future research. All data were cross-sectional, so existential Bhawuk, D. S. (2003). Culture’s influence on creativity: thinking’s causal relationships to other constructs cannot The case of Indian spirituality. International Journal be determined. In particular, our meditation results of Intercultural Relations, 27(1), 1-22. doi:10.1016/ should be interpreted with caution. Both longitudinal S0147-1767(02)00059-7 data and controlled studies would reveal important Buhrmester, M., Kwang, T., & Gosling, S. D. 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E., Schnetzer, L. W., & Buchanan, E. Thorne, F. C. (1973). The existential study: A M. (2011). The Purpose in Life Test–Short Form: measure of existential status. Journal of Clinical Development and psychometric support. Journal of Psychology, 29(4), 387-392. doi:10.1002/1097-4679 Happiness Studies, 12(5), 861-876. doi:10.1007/s109 (197310)29:4<387::AID-JCLP2270290402>3.0. 02-010-9231-9 CO;2-8 Scale for Existential Thinking International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 35 Van Pachterbeke, M., Keller, J., & Saroglou, V. (2012). 3= Often. Flexibility in existential beliefs and worldviews: 4= Almost all the time. Introducing and measuring existential quest. 5= All the time. Journal of Individual Differences, 33(1), 2-16. doi:10. 6= I don’t know. 1027/1614-0001/a000056 Vaughan, F. (2002). What is spiritual intelligence? Circle answers that best fit for you either now or in Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 42(16), 16-33. doi: the past. 10.1177/0022167802422003 Weems, C. F., Costa, N. M., Dehon, C., & Berman, S. L. 1. Do you ever reflect on your purpose in life? (2004). Paul Tillich’s theory of existential anxiety: A 2. Do you ever think about the human spirit or what preliminary conceptual and empirical examination. happens to life after death? Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal, 3. Have you ever spent time reading, thinking about, or 17(4), 383-399. doi:10.1080/10615800412331318616 discussing philosophy or beliefs? Wiswell, A., Hardy, C. R., & Reio, T. G., Jr. (2001, 4. Do you have a philosophy of life that helps you to March). An examination of the Multiple Intelligences manage stress or make important decisions? Developmental Assessment Scales (MIDAS). Paper 5. Do you think about ideas such as eternity, truth, presented at the annual conference of the Academy justice and goodness? of Human Resource Development, Tulsa, OK. 6. Do you spend time in meditation, prayer, or reflecting Wolman, R. N. (2001). Thinking with your soul: Spiritual on the mysteries of life? intelligence and why it matters. New York, NY: 7. Do you discuss or ask questions to probe deeply into Harmony Books. the meaning of life? Worthington, E. L., Wade, N. G., Hight, T. L., 8. Do you ever think about a “grand plan” or process that Ripley, J. S., McCullough, M. E., Berry, J. W., . . . human beings are a part of? O’Connor, L. (2003). The Religious Commitment 9. Have you ever thought about what is beyond the “here Inventory–10: Development, refinement, and and now” of your daily life? validation of a brief scale for research and counseling. 10. Do you ever think about life’s Big Questions? Journal of Counseling Psychology, 5(1), 84-96. 11. Have you ever reflected on the nature of reality or Wortmann, J. H., & Park, C. L. (2009). Religion/ the universe? spirituality and change in meaning after bereave- ment: Qualitative evidence for the meaning making About the Authors model. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 14(1), 17-34. doi:10.1080/15325020802173876 Blake Allan, MS, is currently attending the counseling Wu, W.-T. (2007). Manual for C-MIDAS Chinese psychology doctorate program at the University of Florida. translation. Taipei, Taiwan: Psychological Publishing. In addition to working as a therapist and academic Yalom, I. D. (1980). Existential psychotherapy. New York, adviser within the university, he conducts research on NY: Basic Books. the intersection of positive, existential, counseling, and Yoong, S. (2001, November). Multiple intelligences: A vocational psychology. In particular, he investigates how construct validation of the MIDAS scale in Malaysia. having meaning and purpose in life relates to well-being Paper presented at the International Conference on and work-related outcomes. He may be reached at PO Measurement and Evaluation in Education, Penang, Box 112250, Department of Psychology, University of Malaysia. Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-2250, Email: ballan3@ ufl.edu, Phone: 352-246-5992. Appendix A Branton Shearer, PhD, is an internationally recognized Scale for Existential Thinking authority on multiple intelligences assessment and its practical applications in academic settings. Dr. Shearer 1= No or rarely. is a neuropsychologist whose work provides insights into 2= Sometimes. how each person’s strengths can be activated so as to

36 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Allan & Shearer maximize success, achievement, and personal satisfaction. He created the Multiple Intelligences Developmental Assessment Scales (MIDAS™) in 1987, which has since been translated into 12 different languages and has a global reputation as the “gold standard” for providing a richly detailed understanding of a person’s intellectual disposition. MIDAS™ profiles are now being used at all levels of education, in the workplace, and by the U.S. military. He has published numerous books and articles in English, Danish, Chinese, and Korean. His recently revised The MIDAS Handbook for Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom (Shearer, 2011) provides a wealth of practical examples for interpreting both individual profiles as well as whole class MI profiles. He is also a published poet.

About the Journal

The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies is a peer-reviewed academic journal in print since 1981. It is published by Floraglades Foundation, and serves as the official publication of the International Transpersonal Association. The journal is available online at www. transpersonalstudies.org, and in print through www. lulu.com (search for IJTS).

Scale for Existential Thinking International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 37 Trauma and Transformative Passage Reed A. Morrison Private Practice Baltimore, MD, USA The strategic introduction of stressors to intentionally produce targeted psychological states has a long history among indigenous peoples. Rites of passage ceremonies commonly involve subjecting individuals to controlled violence to attain desired transformative outcomes. In this context, violence is held to be sacred and generative, ritually introducing distress in the service of loosening orientation and preparing the individual for spiritual advancement and the acquisition of a new identity. Traditional ritual initiation ceremonies are typically tripartite and characterized by stages of Separation, Ordeal, and Return. This article suggests that accounts of the experiences of initiates in Separation and Ordeal stages bear striking correspondences to trauma disorder phenomena, yielding insights that may contribute to improving the effectiveness of modern trauma interventions.

Keywords: trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), ritual, passage, initiation

sychological trauma is surely a problem of the ages. its neurological development to its social, cultural, and The psychological impact of disease, war, and natural religious expressions, can be attributed to adaptations to disasters has been a perennial concomitant of human trauma.1 Surviving trauma has been a prime organizing Pexperience. Early recorded history and religious writings were principal for biological and social evolution. The first rife with references to traumatic events and representational manifestations of culture and religion developed within interpretations of their origins and meanings. In the modern contexts of attempts to come to terms with greater era, trauma first belonged to anthropology and comparative forces that, if not appeased, stamped-out life (Hart & religion until it was usurped by the science of psychology. Sussman, 2005). Following this line of thinking, early Before the current age of scientific hegemony, deities and societies became deeply engaged in activities aimed demons instigated traumatic events, and shamans and their at preventing traumatic losses and coping with the equivalents treated the fallout. In 1931, C. G. Jung noted aftermaths of trauma. Stated in contemporary terms, the passing of that era when he observed that “the gods have human beings have always needed to diagnose and treat become diseases” (1957/1967, p. 37). Jung’s comment was trauma in order to live. Diagnoses were generally drawn a metaphoric lament for the shift in symbolic language, from mythic etiologies populated by legions of deities from the pre-scientific to the scientific, which corresponded and demons, while treatment became the evolvements of to a loss of intimate, direct relationships to psychological ritual practices. Concerning the latter, anthropologists and spiritual phenomena and their powers to convey have reported on the correspondences between needs personal and cultural meaning. Modern thought welcomes for preventing and treating the fallout from traumatic the transfer of cultural lore to the scientific paradigm and events and the proliferation of indigenous ritual practices calls it progress, but has it prematurely or too exclusively (Turner, 1969/1995). escorted trauma disorders to the non-Olympian realm of In fact, the cultural propensity for creating the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders coping solutions to trauma may be anatomically hard- (DSM)? Or do pre-scientific practices for dealing with wired. D’Aquila and Laughlin (1996), a neuroscientist trauma disorders, although considered obsolete, still have and an anthropologist, argued for a neurobiological the power to inform contemporary psychological methods? imperative for the development of myths and rituals:

Trauma and Psychological Adaptation given an organism in which the neural mechanisms uccessful adaptation to trauma has been a determinant for abstract thought have evolved . . . that organism of survival throughout human evolution. It can be S must necessarily use these mechanisms in an attempt argued that the evolvement of the human species, through

38 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies , 31(1), 2012, pp. 38-46 Morrison using terms such as oceanic and ineffable. To summarize to explain his existential situation. Such explanation this line of thinking, neural substrates, when presented involves the obligatory structuring of myths, com- with trauma, endogenously create explicative myths, plete with the organization of the world into . . . which call for neural mediation via ritual behaviors. The observed reality that man calls gods, spirits, demons neurological expressions of rituals can provide means and the like. These mechanisms are not a matter of for processing trauma symptoms from levels of high choice but are necessarily generated by the structure activation to those characterized by tension reduction of the brain in response to the cognitive imperative. and emblematic of problem resolution. (p. 144) Myths, according to this logic, are spontaneously D’Aquila and Laughlin contended that the generation of generated and impel the creation of rituals to supply myths seeks to identify/diagnose a problem by placing resolutions to mythic dilemmas.2 Rituals answer a it within a context of a god-man conflict, that is, a neurobiological need for creating a treatment for the confusion of god-mortal boundaries. Donald Kalsched mythically diagnosed problem. If rituals are not avail- (1996), in The Inner World of Trauma, observed: able, then the deities become autonomous unconscious “Mythology and all the great religions of the world are forces. As such, they make themselves known as preoccupied with one essential question–the question psychopathological symptoms, hence Jung’s (19571967) of the relationship between the human and divine and observation. If the CNS spontaneously gives rise to how it is maintained in the face of human suffering” (p. myths and rituals as palliatives and defenses against 142). God-mortal boundary questions have traditionally trauma, then the structure of the human psyche must arisen around traumatic events where loss of control has correspondingly reflect and evidence this activity. threatened loss of reason: What caused the trauma? Was The term archetype was used, primarily by Jung and trauma the result of a mortal transgression into godly his followers, to describe the nexus of biology and domains? Are the gods and goddesses simply angry? psychology. This is the liminal psychological space How can they be appeased? where mortals encounter gods. Mythic explanations narratively differentiate The image of the archetype may offer the realms of the deities from the mundane domains of humans’ best cognizance of that which cannot be mortals and proffer clarifying explanations for otherwise further reduced or articulated except by the imaginal. inexplicable phenomena. This kind of folk diagnosis, Pursuing this line of inquiry, Wilson (2004) described although anxiety reducing, usually cannot completely trauma as an archetypal phenomenon and imaged the solve problems because analysis alone is a passive activity. experience evoked by the archetype of trauma an “Abyss Ritual naturally followed myth as an active mode for Experience,” characterized by “the core set of fear based reducing tension and initiating resolution in the forms of emotional responses inherent in traumatic experiences experiencing unified wholeness, harmony, appeasement, and integral to understanding the unconscious dynamic and spiritual justice. Because rituals typically involve of trauma’s impact to psychological functioning” (p. intensely arousing repetitive behaviors, D’Aquila and 51). In Wilson’s view, trauma is associated with an Laughlin (1996) associated the neural basis of myth- autonomous archetypal reaction that constellates in a making phenomena with ergotrophic (energy expend- human psyche by way of a trauma complex. The trauma ing) sympathetic and central nervous system (CNS) complex, in context of Jungian theory, becomes a cluster activation. The trophotropic (energy conserving) systems of emotions and images surrounding the archetypal that extend to parasympathetic and CNS regions are event. In the case of trauma, the complex describes ordinarily reciprocal to the ergotrophic processes. the impact of the Absyss Experience upon the human However, upon maximal excitation, the ergotrophic psyche: “the undifferentiated state of death, profound system “spills-over” and stimulates intense trophotropic psychological uncertainty and the potential for psychic reactions. The mutual activations, according to D’Aquila disintegration” (p. 56). and Laughlin, translate to dual hemispheric stimulation Ritual and Death in high arousal states, which can lead to experiential he psychological experince of death is common solutions to problems posed by myth. In this condition, Tto both modern posttrauma symptomatology and individuals have reported feelings of unity and well-being to certain ritual practices, particularly those involving Trauma and Transformative Passage International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 39 initiation. In indigenous initiation rites, it was (and still is tripartite initiation process, described by van Gennep, today3), common for controlled trauma to be introduced is in itself archetypal, rooted in instinct and “wired into to produce desired effects upon candidates. In puberty human beings” (p. 39). The ceremonies serve as containers initiation ceremonies described by Eliade (1958/1995), for what may be called archetypal neuropsychological candidates in some initiation rites were deliberately manifestations (Bion, 1962/1984). They make the frightened until they were certain that death was archetypal dimension accessible to conscious experience imminent. Proximity to death prepared the candidate and cultural life. to advance to new stages of spiritual development by Van Gennep (1960) found these stages occurring loosening the candidates’ ego-dependent bearings on across cultures, throughout time, and across continents: foundations for maintaining personal and tribal identity. “Beneath a multiplicity of forms, either consciously When everything familiar and safe was stripped away by expressed or merely implied, a typical pattern always trauma, the candidates became vulnerable and more apt recurs: the pattern of the rites of passage” (p. 191). He to adopt new identities and new beliefs. The inclusion defined the three stages as preliminal, liminal, and of trauma in initiation ceremonies accomplished more postliminal and corresponded them to “rites of separation, than mere manipulation of youthful psyches. It prepared transition rites and rites of incorporation” (p. 11). The the individual for a world where the threat of traumatic renowned ethnologist Victor Turner (1969/1995) also death was recognized as real and ubiquitous. The initiate, elaborated upon the concept of liminality. Turner called by virtue of encountering ritual trauma, was prepared liminality the state of transition and those in liminal to meet real-life trauma on terms that were integrative states as “neither here nor there; they are betwixt and to the tribe’s social system and spiritual beliefs. Rather between . . . thus liminality is frequently likened to than encounter trauma as senseless and random, as death, to being in the womb, in invisibility, to darkness, many tend to do today, the initiate could meet trauma to bisexuality, to the wilderness, and to an eclipse of the as an opportunity for meaningful participation with the sun or moon” (p. 95). greater spiritual powers. Initiation rites often forced initiates from Arnold van Gennep (1960), in his seminal work preliminal mundane life into experiences of abject loss Rites of Passage, described the role of death in Australian and death in order to set the stage for profound spiritual aboriginal initiation ceremonies: transformations. The liminal stage was key to losing all vestiges of ordinary identity and to creating a spiritual In some tribes the novice is considered dead, and psychological vacuum to be filled by new teachings, and he remains dead for the duration of his no- new identities of self, and a new postliminal place in a vitiate. It lasts for a fairly long time and consists world that is sacred and of the deities. of a physical and mental weakening which is un- Stages of Initiation doubtedly intended to make him lose all recol- orld religion historian Mircea Eliade’s (1958/1995) lection of his childhood existence. Then follows accounts of initiation rites conformed to the positive part: instruction in tribal law and W patterned stages he called Separation, Ordeal, and Return. a gradual education as the novice witnesses to- Initiation, for Eliade, was a series of structured, culturally tem ceremonies, recitations of myths, etc. The prescribed procedures through which an individual final act is a religious ceremony. . . . Where the became a full human being. To be fully human, within novice is considered dead, he is resurrected and this context, meant entering, enduring, and completing taught how to live, differently than in child- a triadic process through which the individual gained hood. Whatever the variations of detail, a series access to the religious life of the culture. Initiation, for which conforms to the general pattern of rites of Elaide, was the “fundamental existential experience” (p. passage can always be discerned. (p. 75) 3) that made the human condition possible. Initiation rites intentionally incorporate ceremonial Separation activities that lead initiates from life to death and back According to Eliade (1958/1995), the pattern to life again. Rites typically include three sub-phases typically begins with a phase of Separation or, in certain to accommodate the tripartite transitional nature of cases, actual abduction from the candidate’s community. the process. Robert Moore (2001) maintained that the The initiates are brought, by elders, to a location that

40 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Morrison is deliberately unfamiliar and frightening. They are throughout their lives. Most importantly, through the separated, often violently, from all that is familiar, safe, transformation of individuals, the society as a whole is and known and thrust into a space that becomes wild, enriched and renewed. dark, dangerous, and threatening. Trauma and Transformation Ordeal he ideas that psychotherapy is a therapeutic ritual The Ordeal stage is where spiritual death Tand that there are corresponding methods for and rebirth are encountered. Eliade (1958/1995) performing psychotherapeutic rituals have been well conceptualized it as containing two sub-phases. The documented in the literature (Cole, 2003; Krippner first involves the induction of trauma and leads to the & Feinstein, 2006; Moore, 1983; Wyrostok, 1995). precipitation of a profound spiritual crisis; the second However, it is not an aim of this article to reiterate these phase engenders spiritual rebirth and resolution. assertions or to prescribe methods for the practice of The first sub-phase of the Ordeal stage (i.e., the psychotherapy with trauma victims, but rather to invite unfamiliar/hostile location where the separation stage psychotherapists to examine trauma symptoms within is enacted) is conceptually analogous to what Kalsched a context of the progressions of ritual. The template of (1996) called profane space. In terms of ritual, it is ritual phases allows the psychotherapist to re-discover the site where trauma is intentionally introduced and trauma symptoms as belonging to a progressive and strategically sustained. Within the context of initiation, purposeful arc, a natural and autonomous movement trauma moves from profane to sacred when it is used in the direction of intrinsic transformative healing. to prepare the initiate for sacred transformation. In the This notion is consistent with analyst Robert Moore’s second sub-phase of the Ordeal stage, the appointed insistence that the psychotherapist must find, amid the elders, at an opportune time, introduce the candidates patient’s chaos and suffering, the “germ of a creative to sacred space via a new spiritually informed vision adaptive response” (p. 289). Here, the recognition of of reality and identity, a second birth (Moore, 2001). a ritualizing adaptation to trauma is the creative germ. Sometimes the candidates are physically moved to a new The job of the psychotherapist then becomes, in Moore’s location, a physical analog to sacred space, but actual words, to provide a “special kind of transformative physical re-location is not necessary. It is in this space space for the individual in therapy” (p. 289) that in where tribal secrets, cosmic stories and interpretations this case supports and allows for participation with of mysterious symbols are revealed and experienced. the natural ritualizing process. The psychotherapist’s The candidates, now initiates, are given symbolic keys own orientation, training, and preferences determine for decoding the mysteries of life. Through this process, what “ritual” methods will be used. However, while the initiates undergo profound changes. Often they are psychotherapeutic methods are constantly evolving and given new names. They emerge with new understandings mutating, ritual structure and its properties are ancient, of their places in the community and in the cosmos. timeless, and paradigmatic. Herein dwells the crux of its Return creative power. In this final stage, the new initiates have returned There are striking parallels between the from psychological death to a spiritual rebirth that has phenomenology of traumatic incidents and the structure important individual and social ramifications. When of ritual initiation that suggest common archetypal roots. the new initiates return to the community, they are The Separation and Ordeal stages have characteristics typically welcomed by tribal ceremonies that recognize that correspond to those of typical anecdotal reports of and honor their initiation experiences. The initiates trauma survivors. Trauma, whether born of initiation may have new names that validate their new identities ceremonies, pre-meditated criminal actions, or natural and new social positions; other members of the society causes, abducts victims and initiates alike from the know to no longer use the initiate’s old name. Although confines of their day-to-day lives. It is socially separating initiates may enjoy a new status as individuals, initiation and often psychologically dissociating. Suddenly, and grants them a deeper, more profound connection to without warning, trauma victims and ritual initiates their communities. The process of initiation has carried are forcibly removed from familiar circumstances and them through a state of sacred community, a communitas involuntarily deposited into unfamiliar psychological (Turner, 1969/1995) that remains a spiritual influence environments. Trauma victims next undergo ordeals Trauma and Transformative Passage International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 41 of suffering and pain. They are held against their wills upon us. Birth, coming of age, marriage, and death and subjected to alienating (and often life-threatening) are widely anticipated as precarious moments assaults upon physical and psychological survival. requiring rites for their successful negotiation. But Unfortunately, the paths followed by trauma victims there are other treacherous occasions less regularly and initiates are rarely coterminous. Most initiates do handled by ritual means: the start of school, abortion, not actually die during initiation rites. Real-life trauma a serious illness, divorce, job loss, rape, menopause abducts too many of its victims into situations that and retirement. More often than not, these events can only end in horrible and tragic death. Biological especially when they arrive unanticipated are death is the worst outcome of trauma, but not the only undergone without benefit of ritual. (p. 5) maleficent one. Trauma victims who become survivors Following this logic, “treacherous” events that can be hostages of “living deaths” marked by protracted become traumatic are most likely attended passively psychological and spiritual torment. and undergone without the containment of ritual The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual enactment. In the case of trauma, ritual enactment of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR; American can provide symbolic means for incorporating and Psychiatric Association, 2000) diagnostic description co-opting otherwise violent events for transformation. of posttraumatic stress disorder could well describe the According to Eliade (1958/1995), ritual violence takes experiences of candidates for initiation in the first sub- on a transitional function that leads to the symbolic phase of the Ordeal stage. The DSM-IV-TR diagnostic death of the profane identity and rebirth of a sacred criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) include one. Rene Girard (1977) called this kind of violence the following: the “secret soul of the sacred” (p. 30) and distinguished 1) re-experiencing the trauma via intrusive thoughts, between degenerative violence and generative violence. dreams, hallucinations, and dissociative flashbacks; Generative violence is the intentional and purposeful 2) persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with violence of sacred ritual that is instrumental in creating the trauma; 3) numbing of general responsiveness the transformative passage. including restricted range of affect, feelings of Degenerative violence is associated with detachment and estrangement; and 4) persistent psychopathology. Following the indications of D’Aquila symptoms of increased arousal which may include and Laughlin (1996), degenerative violence must impairments to sleep, and concentration, emotional correspond to a spontaneously created pathological outbursts, hypervigilance, exaggerated startle mythology, which in turn, prompts pathological rituals. response. (pp. 467-468) These are the cognitions, behaviors, and symptoms of PTSD. The therapeutic task, therefore, must begin with From the perspective of rites of passage, modern day the identification of the extant pathologizing mythology trauma victims are stuck in an aborted ritual, waylaid and its corresponding rituals. The pathologizing myth- in liminal sacred space and awaiting passage through to ology will usually represent a limiting story that ends a transformative identity.4 These are victims of “failed with the suspension of the trauma survivor in an ordeal initiations” who suffer from a protracted “chronic of liminal suffering. The trauma-bound story cannot liminality” (Moore, 2001, p. 31). If these trauma tolerate and symbolize a complete passage. The following survivors are to achieve a full initiation experience, they case, from the author’s psychotherapy practice, serves as must be able to move forward through the initiation an illustration. process. Trauma must become a rite of passage. Calvin: An Unsuccessful Passage This is too rarely the case, as Ronald Grimes alvin was 55 when he began psychotherapy to treat (2000) observed, we can go through life passages without heroin addiction. He had been using alcohol and transformative ritual passage: C marijuana since age 12 and heroin since he was 30. Heroin Not every passage is a rite of passage. We undergo addiction quickly became the organizing principle in his passages, but we enact rites. Life passages are rough, life, numbing his pain, but bringing chaos to his family fraught with spiritual potholes, even mortal dangers. and his professional career. Later, in psychotherapy, Some passages we know are coming; others happen he came to recognize that heroin provided a way to

42 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Morrison anesthetize the psychological and social consequences of to strip away his defenses, making him vulnerable an early life of physical and emotional abuse by his father not just to pain, but to spiritual experiences. He was and multiple rapes by an older boy in his neighborhood shedding a profane identity based upon a trauma-based beginning at age eight. Calvin fit the PTSD profile. His pathologizing mythology and opening to a new life story. symptoms, when he was not self-medicating, included Although Calvin’s success in psychotherapy and NA was periods of intense depression with frequent flirtations predictably punctuated by setbacks and relapses typical with suicide, free-floating anxiety, intrusive memories of an Ordeal stage of ritual initiation, the degenerative of sexual abuse, periodic flashbacks to sexual abuse violence that had dominated his life had begun to give episodes, compulsive sex with prostitutes, compulsive way to a generative progression of meaning and healing. use of pornography, and global insomnia. At this point, I was optimistic; it appeared that Calvin Separation. Calvin, like many addicts, was was advancing through the second sub-phase of the coerced into psychotherapy; his wife insisted he get help Ordeal stage, working towards resolution and rebirth. or move out. I agreed to meet with him and perform I was wrong. an assessment. Since his addiction was powerful and Return. Success proved Calvin’s undoing. active, I referred him to an inpatient detoxification and Calvin had a charismatic personality that encouraged substance abuse treatment program; completion was others in his NA home group to place him on a high, prerquisite for beginning therapy. In my experience, precarious pedestal as a role model and confidante. psychotherapy with substance dependent patients cannot Calvin did nothing to discourage them; he loved the be effective until physical dependency is addressed and attention and basked in the adulation. Ritual initiation, until the patient receives an exposure to substance abuse when successful, supplants an immature pre-initiation education and treatment that establishes a language identity with a maturing spiritually-oriented one, and framework for recovery. Inpatient treatment also analogous to the Jungian notion of the ego within an served the ritual initiation schema by affecting its initial individuating psyche submitting to the authority of stage, that of Separation from preliminal life. Separation the Self (Edinger, 1972). This is the critical shift that operated on multiple levels for Calvin: separation from precedes and allows for a sacred return to a profane drugs, the drug subculture, and his distressed family. It world. Calvin, however, ultimately found it impossible also helped introduce an internal boundary, separating to allow a heroic, adolescent-like ego identification to him from identification with his symptoms 5, containing die and surrender to a rebirth into a mature postliminal them and placing them in a context where they could identity. His recovery waxed and waned as he fought be exploited for the psyche’s rituals. Calvin successfully pitched battles against the relentless demons of trauma completed treatment and reported for psychotherapy and addiction, all the while suspended in an abysmal clean and sober. chronic liminality from which he would never effectively Ordeal. Early in my work with Calvin, I return. I was grief stricken when I learned that Calvin recommended that he participate in Narcotics Anony- was found dead of a heroin overdose in a downtown mous (NA). A 12-Step program can supply the all- motel. important element of communitas, in this case, a From Death to Life spiritually oriented social structure with the requisite The limiting mythic container must be companionship and mentoring to act as a ritual container. supplanted by a larger narrative that can hold and Communitas is essential for surviving the first sub-phase symbolically structure a complete ritual passage that of Ordeal stage, that of creating a sacred space where the leads to transformation. Kalsched (1996) observed: pain and chaos that routinely bombard an addict’s life “The symbol is itself a bridge or link between us and the can be exploited for a purposeful suffering that is the mystery of existence” (p. 142). An effective mythology hallmark of a transformative passage. contextually places the individual in relationship to Calvin complied with the recommendation and the greater mysteries of life in such a way that personal attended faithfully; he acquired a sponsor, diligently meaning is connected to the transcendent (White, worked the steps, and achieved substantial “clean time.” 1997). The new mythology must encompass the threat Through his step work and dream work, he began to see of death in a portrayal of sacred ritual death. It must that when drug-free he could allow trauma symptoms move death from the physical to the psychological,

Trauma and Transformative Passage International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 43 transitioning death from the ultimate threat to life into and sometimes of a re-experiencing, flashback nature. a prerequisite opportunity for initiation into a new life. Kathy also reported occasionally seeing ghosts or visions, The following is a case from the author’s practice that primarily of an old woman who watched her. The illustrates a transformative outcome. visions frightened her because she realized no one else Kathy: A Case of a Successful Passage could see them and feared they signaled severe mental athy, a 44 year old woman, entered psychotherapy illness. Therapy aimed at helping her create a temenos, Kcomplaining of panic attacks, dissociative episodes for the second sub-phase of the Ordeal stage, by first of flashbacks to early trauma experiences, hypervigilance, focusing upon self-regulation (diaphragmatic breathing pervasive anxiety that unpredictably erupted into and meditation) to help her contain and withstand the episodes of agitation and anger, global insomnia, periods onslaught of symptoms. Further exploration entailed of depression with suicidal ideations, and a deteriorating dreamwork, active imagination, and grief counseling. marriage. Her symptoms were lifelong, but now As the experiences of her Ordeal stage became threatened a 20-year marriage she cherished. She found generative, Kathy came to see that her psyche was relief, temporarily, by literally escaping—impulsively engaged in a healing process that was transformative. In jumping into her car and driving hundreds of miles, the beginning, she only wanted the symptoms to stop usually at night. She typically called her husband the and to “be normal like everyone else.” Gradually, she next day to arrange to come home. came to an understanding that her trauma history both Separation. Kathy, at the beginning of her wounded her and granted her unique opportunities to psychotherapy, asked that her husband attend with her. achieve the self-acceptance and self-esteem that had The husband was supportive by his own account and always eluded her. She learned that she could actively by hers; she insisted he was the only person she trusted participate with what she came to recognize as a and that she could not possibly come to therapy without natural healing process. During her course of therapy, him. After a few months, she felt comfortable enough she successfully let go of her pathologizing mythology: to attend by herself. The therapeutic relationship had fear-based strategies for managing her life and old self- begun to provide a protective temenos that paralleled the images relating to failure and inadequacy. As a result, she preliminal Separation stage of ritual initiation. The term assumed a spiritual outlook that granted new purpose temenos is an alchemical allusion, used by Jung and his and meaning to her life. followers, to describe the sacred dimensions of intra- Return. The traumatic incidents of her past came psychic or relational containment (Samuels, Shorter, & to be viewed as events that ultimately, though painfully, Plaut, 1986). Gradually, within well-defined boundaries, forged a unique identity and created exceptional gifts. she became able to relate and reflect upon historical She felt that she had metaphorically died and had been information that supported a complex posttrauma reborn. At the close of her six years of psychotherapy, disorder diagnosis (van der Kolk, Roth, Pelcovitz, Kathy was no longer afraid to identify herself as a healer Sunday, & Spinazzola, 2005). of animals and no longer afraid of her visions. She Kathy also revealed that she felt an unusual came to view her envisioned old woman as a wise spirit closeness to animals, that is, she felt she could guide whose presence comforted her and gave her the communicate with them. She worked as a veterinary confirming sense of security that her mother never could technician and maintained that animals, particularly offer. Kathy’s debilitating symptoms relinquished, and dogs, could tell her what was wrong with them. Her she became serene and confident. Her passage through intuitive diagnoses were nearly always borne out by trauma enriched her marriage and the lives of many her boss, the veterinarian. The veterinarian trusted her others she touched, including her psychotherapist. intuitive abilities and sometimes asked Kathy to consult Transformative Passage on difficult cases. This was very satisfying to Kathy. liade (1958/1995) wrote: “It is only in initiation that Ordeal. Kathy’s first Ordeal sub-phase was Edeath is given positive value” (p. xix). In the language a living hell. She reported intact memories of brutal of traditional ritual passage, it must narrate a way for the sexual molestation by her father, from ages 4 through survivor and the gods to mend their differences and live 8. Her mother knew of the molestation, but failed to together. The survivor, of course must submit to the deities protect her. She described the memories as intrusive and learn to live on their terms. A new relationship to the

44 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Morrison gods and goddesses and to one’s own life is required. It Krippner, S., & Feinstein, D. (2006). Psychotherapy is this new relationship that allows for the integration in a mythic key: The legacy of Carl Gustav Jung. of the traumatic past into a new posttrauma identity. ReVision, 28(4), 2-16. When the gods are discovered in the disease, trauma Kalsched, D. (1996). The inner world of trauma: is made sacred and ritual passage becomes possible. In Archetypal defenses of the human spirit. London, UK: contemporary terms, the subsequent psychotherapeutic Routledge. acquisition of new identity is analogous to the ritual Moore, R. L. (1983). Contemporary psychotherapy as work of the Return stage. Identity, moral values, self- ritual process: An initial reconnaissance. Zygon, image, social standing, occupation, relationships of all 18(3), 283-293. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9744.1983.tb00515.x kinds, and spiritual beliefs are all subject to revision and Moore, R. L. (2001). The archetype of initiation: Sacred re-integration. It is a ritualized therapeutic enactment space, ritual process and personal transformation. that reveals, transforms, and heals. Philadelphia, PA: Xlibris. Paulson, D. S. (2005). Walking the point: Male initiation References and the Vietnam experience. New York, NY: Paraview. Pfaller, R. (2003). Little gestures of disappearance: American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic Interpassivity and the theory of ritual. Journal of and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.– European Psychoanalysis, 16, 3-16. Text Revision). Washington, DC: Author. Samuels, A., Shorter, B. & Plaut, F. (1986). A critical Bernstein, J. S. (2005). Living in the Borderland: The dictionary of Jungian analysis. New York, NY: evolution of consciousness and the challenge of healing Routledge & Kegan Paul. trauma. New York, NY: Routledge. Somé, M. P. (1994). Of water and the spirit: Ritual, magic Bion, W. R. (1962). Learning from Experience. London, and initiation in the life of an African shaman. New UK: William Heinemann. York, NY: Penguin. Cole, V. L. (2003). Healing principles: A model for the Turner, V. (1995). The ritual process: Structure and anti- use of ritual in psychotherapy. Counseling and Val- structure. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyere. ues, 47(3), 184-194. doi:10:1002/j.2161-007x.2003. (Original work published 1969) tb00265.x van der Kolk, B. A., Roth, S., Pelcovitz, D., Sunday, S., D’Aquila, E. G., & Laughlin, C. D. (1996). The neuro- & Spinazzola, J. (2005). Disorders of extreme stress: biology of myth and ritual. In Grimes, R. L. (Ed.), The empirical foundation of complex adaptation to Readings in ritual studies (pp. 132-146). Upper trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18, 389-399. Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. van Gennep, A. (1960). The rites of passage. Chicago, IL: Edinger, E. F. (1972). Ego and archetype. Boston, MA: University of Chicago Press. Shambhala. Wallace, J. (1985) Working with the preferred defense Eliade, M. (1995). Rites and symbols of initiation: The structure of the recovering alcoholic. In Zimberg, mysteries of birth and rebirth. Woodstock, CT: S., Wallace, J., & Blume, S., Practical approaches to Spring. (Original work published 1958) alcoholism psychotherapy (2nd ed.; pp. 23 -35). New Girard, R. (1977). Violence and the sacred. Baltimore, York, NY: Plenum Press. MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Wilson, J. P. (2004). The abyss experience and the trau- Grimes, R. L. (2000). Deeply into the bone: Re-inventing ma complex. Journal of Trauma and Dissociation, rites of passage. Berkeley, CA: University of California 5(3), 43-68. doi:10.1300/J229v05n03_04 Press. White, R. A. (1997). Dissociation, narrative, and Hart, D., & Sussman R. W. (2005). Man the hunted. exceptional human experiences. In Krippner, S. C., Cambridge, MA: Westview Press. & Powers, S. M. (Eds.), Broken images, broken selves: Jung, C. G. (1967). Commentary on the secret of the Dissociative narratives in clinical practice (pp. 88-121). golden flower. (R. F. C. Hull, Trans.). In H. Read Washington, DC: Brunner/Mazel. et al. (Series Eds.), The collected works of C. G. Jung Wyrostok, N. (1995). The ritual as a psychotherapeutic (Vol. 13, p. 37). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University intervention. Psychotherapy, 32(3), 397-404. doi:10. Press. (Original work published 1957) 1037/0033-3204.32.3.397

Trauma and Transformative Passage International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 45 Notes of Proficiency in addictions and is a charter member of APA Division 56 (Trauma Psychology). His writings 1. Jerome Bernstein (2005) made the case that passage have appeared in: the Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, through trauma can play a role in a new evolvement of the Association for the Study of Dreams Newsletter, the the human psyche. Trauma, according to Bernstein, Humanistic Psychology Institute Review, and Alcoholism can open a portal to a domain of exceptional and Spirituality. He has presented workshops nationally consciousness that he referred to as Borderland. since 1977. Cello, dreamwork, grandparenting, and Borderland phenomena, as differentiated from marriage (alphabetically!) prioritize his personal life. Borderline psychopathology, may be concurrent with the debilitating symptoms of posttraumatic About the Journal stress disorder (PTSD); however, it represents a perspective and a body of new attributes that can The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies is a enrich and enhance the trauma survivor’s life. peer-reviewed academic journal in print since 1981. It is 2. The sequential generation of myths followed by ritual published by Floraglades Foundation, and serves as the may not be universally supported. Research exists official publication of the International Transpersonal (Pfaller, 2003) identifying rites occurring without Association. The journal is available online at www. corresponding myths. transpersonalstudies.org, and in print through www. 3. For an eloquent and dramatic account of a modern lulu.com (search for IJTS). indigenous initiation, see Of Water and the Spirit: Ritual, Magic and Initiation in the Life of an African Shaman by Malidoma Somé (1994). 4. Far too many soldiers who have returned from today’s wars tragically belong to this group. For a powerful account linking battlefield trauma to incomplete initiation, see Walking the Point: Male Initiation and the Vietnam Experience by Daryl Paulson (2005). 5. For the original presentation of this classic concept in the psychotherapy of substance abuse, see John Wallace’s (1985) chapter on theoretical orientation in Practical Approaches to Alcoholism Psychotherapy.

About the Author

Reed Morrison, PhD, is a licensed psychologist in private practice in Baltimore, Maryland, specializing in the treatment of addiction and trauma. He received his doctorate in psychology from Saybrook University in 1978. His postdoctoral studies include the Advance Studies Seminar of the Philadelphia Jung Society (2000- 2002) and the Maryland Psychological Association Post Doctoral Institute on Psychological Trauma (2007- 2009). He co-founded and directed a publically funded drug treatment program in Baltimore (1973-1983), served as adjunct faculty in the Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine (1979-1986), and is currently collaborating on research in conjunction with the Johns Hopkins University Center for Learning and Health. Dr. Morrison holds the APA-CPP Certificate

46 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Morrison Introduction to Special Topic Section: Parapsychology

arapsychology could be defined as those aspects There is significant overlap between para- of psychology that are marginalized for the psychology and transpersonal psychology, since many of simple reason that they are not congruent with a the phenomena studied by parapsychologists are related Pmechanical materialist model of mind implicit within in some way to spirituality. Precognition, telepathy, much of mainstream psychology. To orthodox believers in clairvoyance, and psychokinesis are experiences this sort of materialism, parapsychological phenomena are reported by and about mystics and spiritual adepts, necessarily the product of experimental errors magnified while apparitional experiences, near-death experiences, by the wishful thinking of uncritical researchers. From a and experiences suggestive of reincarnation are fre- transpersonal perspective, such critiques seem as if they quently interpreted as having spiritual significance. might be based in an irrational attachment to certain Parapsychologists tend to view these phenomena separate philosophical assumptions about the nature of reality. from their spiritual context, whereas transpersonal An empirical attitude follows the evidence where it leads researchers are more likely to be interested also in how with both curiosity and skepticism, and greets challenges such experiences relate to spirituality as an aspect of to its own fundamental assumptions with an openness human functioning. to dialogue and reconsideration. Parapsychology has The issue of relationship between parapsych- risen admirably to the challenge of pursuing exceptional ology and transpersonal scholarship is the topic human experiences with both experimental rigor and of the first paper, by MacDonald and Friedman, openness of mind, and in this way has set an example entitled Transpersonal Psychology, Parapsychology, and that is worthy of emulation. Neurobiology: Clarifying their Relations. The authors

IntroductionInternational Journalto Parapsychology of Transpersonal Special Studies Section, 31(1), 2012,International pp. 47-48 Journal of Transpersonal Studies 47 suggest that nebulousness and lack of consistency in visualization coupled with normalization through scientific constructs within transpersonal psychology psychoeducation about what OBEs are and are not can and parapsychology have contributed to the lack of rigor assist the client to reintegrate such experience(s) in ways and clarity in both fields. They examine ways in which that allow meaningful spiritual interpretations. transpersonal psychology and parapsychology are more Reincarnation, a topic of interest to both para- alike than dissimilar in their goals, suggesting that both psychology and transpersonal psychology, is the topic might find common ground through neurobiology. of Slavoutski’s paper, which asks, Is the Reincarnation The next paper, by Dein, considers what its Hypothesis Advanced by Stevenson for Spontaneous Past- title suggests: Mental Health and the Paranormal. He life Experiences Relevant for the Understanding of the points to the rather remarkable fact that, despite the Ontology of Past-life Phenomena? The author undertakes frequent denigration of paranormal experiences as some a careful, critical, and thorough review of the relevant departure from soundness of mind, there is little research literature, then concludes that the past-life hypothesis is, examining the relationship between mental health and in fact, the most complete and parsimonious one that such beliefs and experiences. He cites evidence that has been advanced to explain these experiences. Finally, Luke’s paper on Psychoactive Substances paranormal experiences are widespread within the and Paranormal Phenomena: A Comprehensive Review, general population, then examines the relationship of delivers on its title and provides an excellent overview these to psychopathology in a number of areas including of literature in the parapsychology field that relates to psi and the unconscious, dissociation and fantasy psychedelic experiences—chiefly drug-induced experi- proneness, schizoptypy, transliminality and reality ences of extrasensory perception, OBEs, and NDEs. This monitoring, child abuse, reasoning and information extensive paper brings together research not only from processing and transpersonal psychology. He concludes the fields of parapsychology and transpersonal studies, that there is no evidence that paranormal experiences, but also anthropology, ethnobotany, phytochemistry, or belief in such experiences, is pathological per se, psychiatry, psychotherapy, psychopharmacology, and despite the fact that some paranormal experiences can neurobiology, and should serve as an invaluable resource mimic symptoms of psychosis, and that such experiences for research in this interdisciplinary area of study. may trigger psychopathology or may also occur in the This collection of contemporary works in mentally ill. For this reason, it is important to be aware parapsychology is timely and relevant. It reflects the ways of the inherent differences between genuine paranormal in which the field has evolved and adapted to not only experiences in a healthy individual and in someone who the demands of a dominant worldview that is threatened is clinically ill. by psi phenomena but also to the steadily evolving field Following is a clinically-oriented paper by De of transpersonal studies. We hope that you are inspired Foe, titled with the practical question: How Should and moved. Therapists Respond to Client Accounts of Out-of-Body Experience? Despite the fact that nearly 10% of the Sean Avila Saiter, Special Topic Editor population has had an out-of-body experience (OBE) Burlington College at least once in their lifetime, few therapists have an adequate or confident sense of how to approach or Glenn Hartelius, Editor treat a client who reports such an experience. DeFoe Sofia University distinguishes OBEs from dissociation, autoscopy, and near-death experiences, all of which can be confused by a therapist unaware of what makes them different. After clarifying the nature of the OBE, DeFoe proposes two clinical approaches can be utilized in such cases: person-centered dialogue, and guided visualization. With the former, the therapist works to create an open and welcoming environment in order for the client to feel that he or she can talk freely about an experience that is often misunderstood or ignored. Similarly, guided

48 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Kumar Transpersonal Psychology, Parapsychology, and Neurobiology: Clarifying their Relations

Douglas A. MacDonald1 University of Detroit Mercy Detroit, MI, USA

Harris L. Friedman Walden University Minneapolis, MN, USA

Neurobiological advances have resulted in growing interest in many psychological phenomena heretofore resistant to scientific scrutiny, including within transpersonal psychology and parapsychology. These advances perhaps can resolve longstanding tensions between these two psychological subdisciplines, which have generally been treated as disparate. To implement such a rapprochement requires more than just additional empirical findings, as theoretical development is also needed. Consequently, we identify some important theoretical problems, such as conventional assumptions about scientific naturalism and materialism that potentially undermine substantive advances in further understanding such phenomena through neurobiology. We also discuss links between parapsychology and transpersonal psychology that can be forged through neurobiology (e.g., identifying specific brain regions that can serve as candidates for future investigations in parapsychology and transpersonal psychology).

Keywords: transpersonal psychology, parapsychology, neurobiology, science

ainstream psychology has long been suspicious scholar within the academic mainstream (Friedman, of the worth of one of its subdisciplines, 2010). transpersonal psychology (e.g., Ellis & Yeager, Nevertheless, both of these psychological M1989). However, this suspiciousness is exceeded by the subdisciplines share much in common, namely almost stark rejection of another of its subdisciplines, almost all spiritual traditions studied by transpersonal parapsychology. This is exemplified by how parapsycho- psychologists discuss so-called supernatural events such logy is often used in introductory psychology texts to as the siddhis of Hindu yoga (Feuerstein, 1989) and debunk pseudoscience and illustrate supposed problems miracles of Judeo-Christianity (Wilber, 1980), which are in critical thinking (e.g., Wade & Tavris, 2008), while obviously similar to what parapsychologists study as so- specific educational programs meant to dissuade called psychic events. Both subdisciplines also bring into students from any beliefs in parapsychological findings question fundamental assumptions about the nature are designed to rectify so-called errors in proper thinking (or possible “supernature”) of the world, such as Tart’s (Beins, 2002). As an example of this effect, one of us (2009) questioning of the fundamental assumptions was openly allowed to pursue research on transpersonal of materialism that underlie most contemporary phenomena as part of his doctoral studies within a scientific efforts, including being the basis of most mainstream psychology department; simultaneously, contemporary approaches to psychology. However, he was discouraged from publishing parapsychological instead of being viewed as closely related subdisciplines, data—as that was seen by his advisor as an act that would there instead appears to be an interesting tension end all chances for his future acceptance as a legitimate between parapsychology and transpersonal psychology, Transpersonal,International Journal Parapsychology, of Transpersonal & Neurobiology Studies, 31(1), 2012,International pp. 49-60 Journal of Transpersonal Studies 49 despite the occasional works by scholars who attempt specifically, while we ourselves are somewhat critical to bridge across them (e.g., Braud, 2004; Tart, 2002). about the appropriateness of applying only naturalistic Our purpose in this paper is to juxtapose transpersonal and materialistic assumptions inherent in contemporary psychology into closer alignment with parapsychology science to the study of spirituality and transpersonal by grounding both within a neurobiological perspective. states (MacDonald & Friedman, 2001), as well as to By this, we do not mean to imply that either of these psychic experiences (Krippner & Friedman, 2010b), subdisciplines can be reduced to just neurobiology, as we are nevertheless excited and highly supportive of the radical implications of both point beyond such a efforts to identify robust neurobiological correlates of reduction. Rather we think a neurobiological approach these expressions of consciousness through conventional provides a useful lens to see some of their similarities scientific investigative methodologies. and differences, as could other approaches (e.g., social Thus the currency of transpersonal psychology, psychological). at least as seen in the light of the growing popularity of Both prior and subsequent to the emergence spirituality as a field of study, appears to be ascending, of psychology as a formal discipline, scientists and while parapsychology largely remains in disrepute. laypersons alike have demonstrated a fascination with Given the overlap between the two psychological psychic phenomena (Broughton, 1991; Leahey, 1987).2, 3 subdiscipines, however, we expect eventually some This fascination is quite controversial, and there are benefit of the astounding success of spirituality studies ample published commentaries generated by both to eventually inure to parapsychology. Review of the counteradvocates (e.g., Alcock, 1990) and advocates extant literature, however, reveals to us two overlapping (e.g., Tart, 2002) of parapsychology. Occasionally trends that temper our enthusiasm and even raise these advocates and counteradvocates have engaged some red flags pointing to potential problems. First, in dialogue with each other, but most commonly they while parapsychological phenomena often have been approach their positions from incommensurate, starting tied to religion and spirituality (as seen in both the assumptions (e.g., that all can or cannot be explained psychological and religious literature; MacDonald, by materialistic reductions) and frequently even cast 2000), little rigorous research has been done to firmly aspersions on each other’s credibility and character (see establish the conceptual boundaries between these areas. Krippner & Friedman, 2010a). That is, how are they related, and how are they different? However, over the past three decades, significant Also, should they be viewed as parts or facets of a larger changes in the attitude of the scientific establishment construct domain or process? toward spiritual and transpersonal phenomena have Upon first thought, the distinction between occurred (e.g., with the huge number of scientific these areas might seem somewhat straightforward. For papers recently published on spirituality), with an example, it may be argued that spirituality is generally accompanying and refreshing openness to seriously and best seen as reflecting a universal aspect of human examining such areas as spirituality, mysticism, and functioning concerning experience of what has been anomalous/non-ordinary experience, much of this considered sacred and transcendent (as has been resulting from new avenues of investigation opened by advanced by Pargament, 2007), while parapsychological advances in neurobiology (see Krippner & Friedman, phenomena reflect expressions of consciousness that 2010b). It is now not only relatively commonplace to see involve anomalous transfer of information and/or empirical and theoretical studies on these topics in many energy, and similar phenomena. of psychology’s and psychiatry’s most respected journals, Unfortunately, such delineation does not find but there are also several subdisciplines in psychology clear representation in, or support from, the literature. that have emerged dedicating themselves to investigating From a neurobiological vantage, some argue for a model such topics.4 As proponents of transpersonal psychology wherein experiential states and possibly even beliefs (i.e., one of the emergent subdisciplines concerned associated with all three areas are linked to activation of with spiritual experiences), we see the current climate specific regions of the brain (e.g., Persinger, 1983, 1984a, b; in the psychological sciences as a boon for research on Neppe, 1984, 1990). Alternatively, others assert that all aspects of human functioning that have been typically such experiences are the product of the fundamental marginalized by the broader field of psychology. More transpersonal (and non-material) nature (or supernature)

50 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies MacDonald & Friedman of consciousness that itself is intrinsically disposed presumptions of scientific naturalism to the explanation toward facilitating non-ordinary states as a function of of spirituality and parapsychological phenomena. There an innate developmental potential toward self-realization are two manifestations of this trend. In its extreme and and self-transcendence (e.g., Grof, 1988, 1992; Grof & traditional form, naturalism is reified and treated as the Grof, 1990; Wilber, 1980). Others still discuss these areas only basis for which phenomena of any sort can be defined as being comprised of complex experiential, cognitive, as knowable by science (see Friedman & Pappas, 2006). social, biological, and/or behavioral components (e.g., As applied to any and all aspects of human experience, MacDonald, 2000; Tart, 1979; Walsh & Vaughan, this expresses itself as a form of reductionism (e.g., the 1993). cause of any human experience is attributed wholly and To further illustrate with a more concrete completely to a neurobiological structure, mechanism, or example, there is a startling array of definitions and process and/or its significance is linked to its functional assessment tools available to measure parapsychological, adaptive and survival value). An example of this as it spiritual, and transpersonal constructs that not only relates to spiritual and/or parapsychological experience demonstrate little congruence in conceptualization but comes from the work of Michael Persinger (e.g., 1983), also tend to have generally weak evidence supporting who since the early 1980s has been generating evidence their validity. In several surveys of the available testing in support of a putatively reductionistic neurobiological literature, we uncovered over 100 measures relevant to model that explains such phenomena as a product of this area of inquiry (MacDonald, LeClair, Holland, non-ordinary activity in the amygdaloid-hippocampal Alter, & Friedman, 1995; MacDonald, Friedman, & regions of the temporal lobe. For Persinger, spirituality, Kuentzel, 1999; MacDonald, Kuentzel, & Friedman, religion, and parapsychological experience can be totally 1999) and our ongoing literature reviews5 indicate many understood as aberrant activities of the brain. more have been developed since 1999. A more recent variation of naturalistic By extension, the lack of conceptual consistency reductionism can be found in the area of evolutionary across instruments and studies has contributed to psychology where religion and spirituality, but not so the appearance of a divergent, muddled, and even much parapsychological phenomena, are viewed in contradictory body of scientific knowledge concerning terms of their functional adaptive and survival value, the relation of transpersonal and parapsychological beliefs rather than as being non-normal and, by implication, and experiences to conventional areas of psychological pathological (e.g., Kirkpatrick, 2005). Regardless, such functioning (MacDonald & Friedman, 2002). Moreover, theories still assume that such experiences and their the nebulousness of the constructs and their relations sequelae/outcomes serve wholly biological, rather than to one another have contributed to a tendency of many perhaps transpersonal, purposes. mainstream researchers and practitioners to selectively The second manifestation, one that upon first look at spirituality/transpersonality as distinct from glance seems to skirt the problems with reductionism, parapsychology and to exclude the latter from the relates to arguments maintaining that spiritual and domain of study (e.g., Miller, 1999; Paloutzian & parapsychological experience is ontologically real if Parks, 2005; Pargament, 2007; Plante & Sherman, a link can be found between subjective reports of 2001; Richards & Bergin, 1997). However, since almost experiential states and identifiable neurobiological all religious and spiritual traditions acknowledge the activity occurring at the time of the self-report. Andrew existence of parapsychological phenomena (e.g., siddhis Newberg and colleagues (Newberg, D’Aquili, & Rause, and miracles), the possibility of such phenomena, even 2002) are perhaps the best-known proponents of this outside of a strictly religious and spiritual context, stirs a form of naturalism (though certainly not the only sense of awe that can only be seen as germane to religious, examples—see the work of Beauregard & O’Leary, spiritual/transpersonal studies. 2007). In their brain imaging research of meditators The second and perhaps more insidious and religious practitioners engaged in prayer, Newberg trend that we have noticed, one that is essentially the et al. found evidence of differential brain activity at product of the growing interest of contemporary science the time when the research participants were reporting focused on these phenomena, concerns the manner in a sense of expanded or transcendent sense of self. which mainstream psychology has been applying the They concluded, based upon their data, that “mystical Transpersonal, Parapsychology, & Neurobiology International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 51 experience is biologically, observably, and scientifically Delineating the Relationship between real” (p. 7). To their credit, and unlike those who engage the Transpersonal and the Paranormal5 in more extreme reductionism, Newberg and others s we hope the reader can appreciate, there are many have not used their findings to argue that spirituality or Areasons to view conventional scientific approaches anomalous experience should be understood in terms of to spirituality/transpersonality and parapsychological neurobiology alone. Rather, they appear to have left open phenomena with some reservation, if not outright skepti- the possibility that such experience may reflect legitimate cism. The problems with simple naturalism, reification, transcendent realities. That is congruent with the position reductionism, and poor delineation and description of of one of us, who has argued that transpersonal psychology the phenomena of interest appear to us to be very real should limit itself to naturalistic methods but not discount limitations of the available research. If these are not the possibility of the importance of that which may dutifully and diligently addressed and addressed soon, legitimately be beyond the limits of naturalistic science they will likely result in much of the current work having (Friedman, 2002). little impact or lasting influence within science—outside While we are more comfortable with the latter of encouraging future scientists to make the same errors expression of naturalism, since it permits a view of the in thinking. experience-brain relationship as being correlative rather The history of psychology is replete with cul-de- than causal, both the extreme and moderate versions sacs of theory and research wherein the well-intentioned (of which we will refer to as simple naturalism) do not efforts of bright and capable people were usurped and provide satisfying accounts of spiritual/transpersonal and ultimately wasted by the groupthink mentality and parapsychological experiences. In particular, and despite ostensible hard-science envy characteristic of much of efforts on the part of investigators like Newberg et al. the scientific, psychological establishment (see Krippner (2002) to accommodate the esoteric spiritual literature & Friedman, 2010a). We believe that transpersonal (e.g., they make reference to the concept of neti neti or and parapsychological phenomena are too important “not this not that”), they are as guilty as the extremists in to risk any further marginalization; as such, we need to engaging in representationalism or in confusing expres- find solutions to these problems. Though we are of the sions of anomalous experience with the experience itself. mindset that the paradigmatic assumptions of science Coming at this from another angle and following will ultimately need to be revised to accommodate the the argumentation of Ken Wilber (1990), a preeminent study of transpersonal and parapsychological phenomena transpersonal theorist (although he now disavows con- (especially those assumptions concerning naturalism nection to the transpersonal movement), these researchers and the relationship of language/symbol to experience), are engaging in category errors: they confuse methods, this will require extensive discussion, which goes beyond levels of knowing, and levels of being—and end up the scope of this paper. Alternatively, the definitional reducing the inherent complexity of experience to only issues appear to be fairly straightforward to address and one level. Finally, it seems premature to advance either seem to us to hold the greatest promise of furthering causal or correlative neurobiological models of spiritual/ the goals of legitimate inquiry, mostly through the use transpersonal or parapsychological experience when of the burgeoning work on spirituality as a means of psychological and medical sciences are still grappling generating meaningful hypotheses for exploring possible with basic issues about how the brain relates to mind and parapsychological-neurobiological connections. experience (e.g., it is becoming increasingly apparent that While there has been a tendency of researchers simple structural models of the brain do not explain any (at least within the mainstream) to differentiate and psychological function adequately and that the brain is as compartmentalize spiritual/transpersonal and parapsych- much shaped by experience as it causes experience; Shapiro ological data, there is growing theoretical and empirical & Walsh, 2003). This approach of using neurobiology in literature to support the integration of the two with a reductive way seems to us to run the risk of preempting parapsychological data being subsumed as an emergent alternative formulations about the nature and meaning of part of spiritual development (e.g., Beauregard & spiritual and parapsychological experience in a manner O’Leary, 2007; Braud, 2004; Griffin, 1997; Levin, 2001). that will discourage creative and possibly more fruitful One of the earliest and most systematic expositions theoretical and empirical developments. supporting this position comes from the work of

52 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies MacDonald & Friedman Patanjali, one of the founders of yoga, who referred to More substantively, MacDonald (2000) devel- siddhis, or paranormal powers, as something often seen oped a factor-analytically derived measurement model as aspiring practitioners proceed along the spiritual path wherein he defined spirituality as a construct domain (Feuerstein, 1989; Taimni, 1961). It is also important to relatively independent of conventional personality that note that the development of such powers is generally is comprised of five broad order dimensions labeled seen as distractions (and perhaps even impediments) from Cognitive Orientation toward Spirituality (i.e., belief in the a transpersonal perspective, such as pursuit of so-called existence of spirituality and its relevance to daily living), spiritual enlightenment. Yogic systems are also by no Experiential/Phenomenological Dimension (i.e., spiritual, means the only religious/spiritual ones to recognize the mystical, transcendent experiences), Existential Well-Being existence of parapsychological phenomena as an integral (i.e., perception of self as having meaning and purpose in part of spirituality. In his impressive and highly influential life and as having the resources to cope with adversity), spectrum model of development, Wilber (1980) contended Religiousness (i.e., religious practices and general beliefs of that all spiritual and religious systems, both Eastern a relationship to a higher power), and Paranormal Beliefs and Western, acknowledge such potentials. Within his (i.e., belief in the reality of parapsychological phenomena). model, Wilber placed the emergence of parapsychological When he completed a second order factor analysis of these capabilities (ESP, psychokinesis, and other forms of psi) at five dimensions, MacDonald found that Paranormal the level of the low subtle self, a stage of development that Beliefs and the Experiential/Phenomenological Dimension is witnessed as adepts move past integrated mindbody self loaded appreciably on the same factor while Cognitive to higher causal levels of consciousness and awareness. Orientation toward Spirituality and Religiousness loaded Other seminal transpersonalists, most notably Grof (1992) on a separate factor. He ended up identifying the former and Tart (1969), have also advanced models of human factor as a dimension reflecting non-ordinary beliefs and consciousness that accommodate parapsychological capa- experiences. bilities as a natural part of humanity’s developmental MacDonald and Friedman (2002) subsequently potential. Last in this regard, indigenous healing systems summarized the findings of the initial research have always posited such capabilities, but have tended using MacDonald’s (2000) model and an associated to emphasize they be used to help others rather than measurement tool, the Expressions of Spirituality for personal aggrandizement (Krippner, Johnson, & Inventory (ESI). The ESI data revealed that the dimensions Friedman, 2009). concerning spiritual experience and paranormal beliefs Turning to more empirically-based research, produce somewhat similar patterns of associations to there is evidence supporting (a) an association between a variety of psychological and personality variables paranormal beliefs and other more conventional compo- (e.g., they are both positively correlated to measures nents of spirituality/transpersonality, (b) increased eleva- of openness to experience, self-transcendence, and tions in belief in parapsychological phenomena concurrent epileptic-like signs; both are unrelated to boredom to increases in other recognized areas of spirituality/ proneness and social desirability). Interestingly, more so transpersonality and, perhaps most importantly, (c) than the other ESI dimensions, the Paranormal Beliefs inclusion of paranormal beliefs and experiences proper in dimension has been the most likely to show significant measurement models of spirituality/transpersonality. For relations to measures of psychopathology (e.g., paranoid instance, Mathew, Mathew, Wilson, and Georgi (1995) ideation; MacDonald & Friedman). developed a measure of spirituality for use in substance In addition, Friedman (e.g., Friedman, 1983; abuse research that defined spirituality in terms of six Pappas & Friedman, 2007) has developed a naturalistic, facets, including the following: belief in God, religious materialistic model of transpersonal self-expansiveness, practices, mystical experiences, existence of the soul one that explicitly allows for non-material or paranormal after death, the value of altruism and unselfishness, and implications to be considered. These are also discussed belief in paranormal phenomena. When using their in terms of the traditional philosophical duality of tool in a study of 12-step programs such as Alcoholics immanence in relation to transcendence with the Anonymous, they found that scores for all six facets argument that there is no inherent superiority to either increased in people demonstrating more positive a materialistic or naturalistic model as compared to a outcomes in reducing addictive behaviors. supernatural model (Friedman & Pappas, 2006). Transpersonal, Parapsychology, & Neurobiology International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 53 Neurobiological Correlates hippocampus specifically; Persinger & Makarec, 1993) of Spirituality but has even developed a magnetic helmet (known aving hopefully established that the domains of as “the God helmet”). This device has been used to Hspiritual/transpersonal and parapsychological data purportedly induce non-ordinary states (such as a felt are strongly related, we now present an overview of what sense of presence and mystical experiences) by changing some of the more salient research has shown with regard the magnetic fields around the temporal lobes (Persinger to neurobiological correlates of spirituality.7 As we stated & Healey, 2002).8 As it stands, the temporal lobes and previously, our intention is to help identify potential brain the associated limbic system structures are viewed as structures/regions for which more focused prospective one of the most common brain regions implicated in parapsychological research may be attempted. spiritual and paranormal experiences (Neppe, 1984, It is important to note up front that much of 1990; Saver & Rabin, 1997). the extant research examining neurobiological correlates EEG studies. In general, EEG studies have has tended to center on spiritual experiences and non- shown brain wave changes in people engaged in ordinary states of consciousness associated with spiritual meditation (Hood, Spilka, Hunsberger, & Gorsuch, practices (e.g., meditation, prayer). Less research has 1996; Paloutzian & Park, 2005; Tart, 1969). More involved beliefs, attitudes, and self-appraisal of function- specifically, in their review of the meditation research, ing (all of which seem to be associated with the Existential Shapiro and Walsh (2003) summarized the findings Well-Being dimension of the ESI). With that in of several studies that show “enhanced alpha and theta mind, most of the existing research can be classified EEG power and coherence in frontal and central regions into one of three categories: (a) clinical neurology and of the brain” (p. 98) during meditation. One study neurobiological research involving known brain path- of particular interest that they discuss was reported ologies, most notably temporal lobe epilepsy and/ by Travis (2001) who found that varying EEG and or stimulation of the brain, (b) examination of brain autonomic nervous system patterns are found with activity using electroencephalography (EEG) during different types of self-reported experiential states or immediately following a self-reported spiritual/ during Transcendental Meditation with self-reported transpersonal experience and (c) examination of brain “transcending” experiences showing elevated EEG alpha activity during or immediately following a self-reported amplitude and greater levels of alpha coherence relative non-ordinary state of consciousness using brain imaging to other self-reported experiences. A second interesting technologies such as Single Positron Emission Computed project was reported by Dunn, Hartigan, and Mikulas Tomography (SPECT) and Functional Magnetic Reso- (1999) who found EEG differences between meditators nance Imaging (fMRI). We will look at each of these in and people engaged in closed eye relaxation and between turn. different forms of meditation (i.e., concentrative versus Brain Pathologies and Manipulation mindfulness). of Brain Operations Beauregard and O’Leary (2007) described a Research and clinical cases involving quantitative EEG study of Carmelite nuns encouraged dysfunctional or damaged brain structures has led to to self-induce a mystical experience while in an isolation a number of hypotheses regarding the relation of brain chamber. They reported that increased theta activity regions to spiritual/transpersonal and paranormal experi- was found in several brain regions including the insula, ences and beliefs including, most generally, right hemi- the right inferior parietal lobe, the superior parietal spheric activity and, more specifically, aberrant temporal lobe, the right inferior and medial temporal lobe, the lobe activation (Fenwick, 2001). As noted earlier, one of anterior cingulated cortex, and the medial prefrontal the more widely known psychological investigators of cortex. Finally, Persinger and colleagues have published this area is Persinger. He has not only built his temporal findings indicating that a variety of non-ordinary states, lobe continuum model (e.g., Persinger, 1983; Persinger, including mystical experience and glossolalia (i.e., 1984b; Persinger & Makarec, 1993) on the work done speaking in tongues), are associated with unique EEG with temporal lobe epileptics (e.g., see Bear & Fedio, profiles for the temporal lobes, but not for other regions 1977; Geschwind, 1983) and on direct stimulation of of the brain (Persinger, 1984c; Persinger & Makarec, structures within the temporal lobes (amygdala and 1993).

54 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies MacDonald & Friedman Brain imaging studies. Turning next to the the research presented here provides several excellent work utilizing complex imaging technology, Newberg leads on neurobiological, especially anatomical, struc- et al. (2001) and Newberg, d’Aquili, and Rause (2002) tures that may be implicated in psi phenomena and examined changes in blood flow in cerebral regions experiences involving the appearance of anomalous using SPECT in samples of seasoned meditators and information transfer. Brain regions involved in executive nuns engaged in prayer both before and immediately functions (e.g., prefrontal and frontal cortices), sensory- after a meditative/prayer session. They found significant motor and self-boundary maintenance (parietal lobes), increases in blood flow in several areas including the and emotions (e.g., limbic system and temporal lobes cingulate gyrus (implicated in executive functioning with particular emphasis on amygdaloid-hippocampal and involved with attentional processes), the frontal structures, especially in the right cerebral hemisphere) cortex (both inferior and orbital areas), the prefrontal seem particularly worthy of further investigation. With cortex (dorsolateral areas), and decreased blood flow that stated, recent neuroimaging research suggests that to the posterior superior parietal lobe (which they call efforts to identify a specific brain organelle (or a limited the orientation association area). For the latter finding, number of brain areas) associated with spirituality in Newberg and colleagues hypothesized that decreased general or parapsychological events in particular might activation of the association area seems to account for the not be the most fruitful avenue for research. Instead, it dissolution of a separate self-sense leading to self-reported may be better to approach the study of neurobiological mystical and transcendent states of consciousness. connections with both parapsychology and spirituality/ In another study, Lazar et al. (2000) used transpersonality in terms of complex interactions between fMRI to examine brain activity during a session of multiple neurobiological structures and phenomenolo- kundalini meditation in a small sample of experienced gical experience, as well as possible psychic events. meditators. Several specific brain structures were found Nevertheless, and in closing, we are very pleased that to demonstrate increased activation including the mainstream science has started to direct its attention midbrain, the putamen, the anterior cingulate cortex, toward exploring anomalous experiences (see Cardena, and hippocampal structures. Additional analyses done Lynn, & Krippner, 2004) from a neurobiological vantage during steady state meditation (as opposed to meditation that includes the topic of spirituality/transpersonality. induction) reported an increased activation in a number We hope that an interest in this area will flourish and of brain organs in the prefrontal, parietal, and temporal be increasingly productive in future years, including lobes (Shapiro & Walsh, 2003). Last, Beauregard and facilitating an increasing rapprochement between the O’Leary (2007) reported the results of fMRI studies of psychological subdisciplines of transpersonal psychology Carmelite nuns asked to recall and relive (in essence self- and parapsychology. inducing) a significant past mystical experience. Findings indicated that several brain regions are implicated in References mystical experience, including, but not limited to, the temporal lobes, the inferior parietal lobe, the visual Alcock, J. E. (1990). Science and the supernatural: A cortex, and the caudate nucleus. They concluded that critical appraisal of parapsychology. Amherst, NY: such experiences “are complex and multidimensional Prometheus Press. and mediated by a number of brain regions normally Bear, D. M., & Fedio, P. (1977). Quantitative analyses implicated in perception, cognition, emotion, body of interictal behavior in temporal lobe epilepsy. representation, and self-consciousness” (p. 272). Archives of Neurology, 34, 454-467. doi:10.1001/ Conclusion archneur.1977.00500200014003 espite the fact that there is still considerable Beauregard, M., & O’Leary, D. (2007). The spiritual debate about whether or not parapsychological brain: A neuroscientist’s case for the existence of the phenomena are veridical (see end note 6 and soul. New York, NY: Harper Collins. Despecially the description of the recently published study Bem, D. J. (1994). Anomaly or artifact? Comments by Moulton & Kosslyn, 2008), in so far as they are on Bem and Honorton’s Response to Hyman. seen to be associated with spirituality/transpersonality, Psychological Bulletin, 115, 25-27. doi:10.1037/0033- 2909.115.1.25 Transpersonal, Parapsychology, & Neurobiology International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 55 Bem, D. J., & Honorton, C. (1994). Does psi exist? Friedman, H. (2010). Parapsychology studies. Replicable evidence for an anomalous process of EXPLORE: The Journal of Science and Healing. 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56 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies MacDonald & Friedman MacDonald, D. A. (2000). Spirituality: Description, Newberg, A., Alavi, A., Baime, M., Pourdehnad, M., measurement, and relation to the five factor model Santanna, J., & d’Aquili, E. (2001). The measurement of personality. Journal of Personality, 68, 153-197. of regional cerebral blood flow during the complex doi:10.1111/1467-6494.t01-1-00094 cognitive task of meditation: A preliminary psychiatry MacDonald, D. A., & Friedman, H. (2001). The research study. Neuroimaging, 106, 113-122. scientific study of spirituality: Philosophical Newberg, A., d’Aquili, E., & Rause, V. (2002). Why God and methodological considerations. Biofeedback won’t go away: Brain science and the biology of belief. Newsmagazine, 29(3), 19-21. New York, NY: Ballantine Books. MacDonald, D. A., & Friedman, H. L. (2002). Paloutzian, R. F., & Park, C. L. (Eds.) (2005). Handbook Assessment of humanistic, transpersonal and of the psychology of religion and spirituality. New York, spiritual constructs: State of the science. Journal of NY: Guilford Press Humanistic Psychology, 42(4), 102-125. Pappas, J., & Friedman, H. (2007). The construct of self- MacDonald, D. A., & Friedman, H. L. (2008, August). expansiveness and the validity of the Transpersonal Spirituality, the paranormal, and the brain: Clarifying Scale of the Self-Expansiveness Level Form. The the relations. Paper presented at the 116th Annual Humanistic Psychologist, 35, 323-347. Convention of the American Psychological Pargament, K. I. (2007). Spiritually integrated psycho- Association, Boston, MA. therapy: Understanding and addressing the sacred. MacDonald, D. A., Friedman, H., & Kuentzel, J. New York, NY: Guilford Press. G. (1999). A survey of measures of spiritual and Persinger, M. A. (1983). Religious and mystical transpersonal constructs: Part one—research update. experiences as artifacts of temporal lobe function: A Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 31, 137-154. general hypothesis. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 57, MacDonald, D. A., Kuentzel, J. G., & Friedman, H. 1255-1262. doi:10.2466/pms.1983.57.3f.1255 (1999). A survey of measures of spiritual and trans- Persinger, M. A. (1984a). Propensity to report paranormal personal constructs: Part two—additional measures. experiences is correlated with temporal lobe signs. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 31, 155-177. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 59, 583-586. MacDonald, D. A., LeClair, L, Holland, C. J., Alter, A., Persinger, M. A. (1984b). People who report religious & Friedman, H. L. (1995). A survey of measures of experience may also display enhanced temporal- transpersonal constructs. Journal of Transpersonal lobe signs. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 58, 963-975. Psychology, 27, 171-235. doi:10.2466/pms.1984.58.3.963 Mathew, R. J., Mathew, G., Wilson, W. H., & Georgi, Persinger, M. A. (1984c). Striking EEG profiles from J. M. (1995). Measurement of materialism and single episodes of glossolalia and Transcendental spiritualism in substance abuse research. Journal of Meditation. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 58, 127-133. Studies on Alcohol, 56, 470-475. doi:10.2466/pms.1984.58.1.127 Miller, W. R. (Ed.). (1999). Integrating spirituality into Persinger, M. A., & Healey, F. (2002). Experimental treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychological facilitation of the sensed presence: Possible Association. doi:10.1037/10327-000 intercalation between the hemispheres induced by Moulton, S. T., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2008). Using complex magnetic fields. Journal of Nervous and neuroimaging to resolve the psi debate. Journal of Mental Disease, 190, 533-541. Cognitive Neuroscience, 20, 182-192. Persinger, M. A., & Makarec, K. (1993). Complex partial Myers, F. W. H. (1903). Human personality and its survival epileptic signs as a continuum from normals to of bodily death. New York, NY: Longmans, Green. epileptics: Normative data and clinical populations. Neppe V. M. (1984). The temporal lobe and anomalous Journal of Clinical Psychology, 49, 33-45. experience. Parapsychological Journal of South Africa, Plante, T. G., & Sherman, A. C. (Eds.). (2001). Faith 5(1), 36 - 47. and health: Psychological perspectives. New York, NY: Neppe, V. M. (1990). Anomalistic experience and the Guilford Press. cerebral cortex. In S. Krippner (Ed.), Advances in Ratcliffe, M. (2006). Neurotheology: A science of what? In parapsychological research (Vol. 6, pp. 168-183). P. McNamera (Ed.), Where God and science meet: How Jefferson, NC: McFarland. brain and evolutionary studies alter our understanding Transpersonal, Parapsychology, & Neurobiology International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 57 of religion (Vol. 2): The neurology of religious experience. leakage in the PRL autoganzfield experiments. (pp. 81-104). Westport, CT: Praeger. Journal of Parapsychology, 60, 97-128. Richards, P. S., & Bergin, A. E. (1997). A spiritual strategy for counseling and therapy. Washington, DC: Notes APA Press. Saver, J. L., & Rabin, J. (1997). The neural substrates of 1. This is based on MacDonald, D. A., & Friedman, H. religious experience. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and L. (2008, August). Correspondence regarding this Clinical Neurosciences, 9, 498-510. paper should be send to the first author at University Shapiro, S. L., & Walsh, R. (2003). An analysis of recent of Detroit Mercy, Department of Psychology, meditation research and suggestions for future 4001 West McNichols Road, Detroit, Michigan, directions. The Humanistic Psychologist, 31(2-3), 86-114. 48221-3038, USA. Phone (313) 578-0388; email Storm, L. (2000). Research note: Replicable evidence of [email protected] psi: A revision of Milton’s (1999) meta-analysis of the 2. By psychic phenomena, we are referring to transpersonal Ganzfield databases.Journal of Parapsychology, 64, 411-416. states and modes of consciousness and experience that Storm, L., & Ertel, S. (2001). Does psi exist? Comments indicate that consciousness may operate in a non-local on Milton and Wiseman’s (1999) meta-analysis of fashion (i.e., is not limited to the location and sensory Ganzfield research. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 424-433. parameters of the physical body or the brain) and/or Storm, L., & Ertel, S. (2002). The Ganzfield debate involve anomalous information or influence transfer continued: A response to Milton and Wiseman (i.e., transfer of information or influence that does not (2001). Journal of Parapsychology, 66, 73-82. follow typical sensory and neurological avenues). This Taimni, I. K. (1961). The science of yoga. Wheaton, IL: includes such phenomena as out-of-body experiences, Theosophical. near-death-experiences, mystical/spiritual experiences, Tart, C. T. (Ed.). (1969). Altered states of consciousness. as well as possible events, such as ESP (i.e., New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. precognition [including precognitive dreams], Tart, C. T. (1979). Transpersonal experience: Realities psychokinesis, telepathy, clairvoyance] past-life or neurophysiological illusions? Journal of Indian reports, and spiritualist phenomena (e.g., apparitions, Psychology, 2(2), 93-113. hauntings, ghosts). The term “psi” only includes Tart, C. (2009). The end of materialism: How evidence of ESP, psychokinesis, and putative life-after-death the paranormal is bringing science and spirit together. phenomena, such as past-life reports and spiritualist Oakland, CA: New Harbinger. phenomena. Tart, C. (2002). Parapsychology and transpersonal 3. For example, many of the important figures in the psychology: “Anomalies” to be explained away or history of psychology, including G. T. Fechner spirit to manifest? Journal of Parapsychology, 66, 31- 47. (generally considered the founder of psychophysics, Travis, F. (2001). Autonomic and EEG patterns a discipline that arguably represents the beginning distinguish transcending from other experiences of psychology as an experimental science, and during Transcendental Meditation practice. author of the Little Book of Life after Death published International Journal of Psychophysiology, 42, 1-9. in 1836), F. W. H. Myers (who published the doi:10.1016/S0167-8760(01)00143-X impressive text Human Personality and Its Survival of Wade, C., & Tavris, C. (2008). Psychology (9th ed.). Bodily Death in 1903, one of the first formal efforts Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. to provide a comprehensive study of anomalous Walsh, R. N., & Vaughan, F. E. (1993). On transpersonal psychological events), William James (considered to definitions.Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 25, 199-207. be the founder of American psychology who served Wilber, K. (1980). The Atman project: A transpersonal as president of the American Society for Psychical view of human development. Wheaton, IL: Quest. Research founded in the late 19th century), and Carl Wilber, K. (1990). Eye to eye: The quest for the new Jung (an associate of Freud who broke from him paradigm. Boston, MA: Shambhala. and developed his own comprehensive theory of the Wiseman, R., Smith, M., & Kornbrot, D. (1996). human psyche, one that addressed psychic events Exploring possible sender-to-experimenter acoustic as legitimate expressions of human psychology)

58 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies MacDonald & Friedman invested considerable energy toward the description veridical because they did not show any identifiable and elucidation of what are now generally called neurobiological basis. However, Moulton and parapsychological or psi-related phenomena. Kosslyn’s data was characterized by non-significant 4. These subdisciplines include parapsychology (i.e., results, bringing into question whether or not this the study of psi including organism-organism and is any sort of definitive test, as they claimed. Thus, organism-environment interactions that appear to the debate over the veridicality of purported psi transcend contemporary science’s understanding of phenomena continues. time, space, and energy), transpersonal psychology 7. While research has examined a variety of genetic, (i.e., the study of consciousness, experience, and physiological, and neurobiological functions and behaviors that appear to transcend conventional systems in relation to different aspects and forms of notions of self and identity), and, most recently, spirituality (e.g., see Comings, Gonzales, Saucier, neurotheology (i.e., the study of religious and Johnson, & MacMurray, 2000; Shapiro & Walsh, spiritual constructs in terms of their neurobiological 2003), we have elected to only cover work examining functions and correlates; see Newberg, D’Aquili, & the relation of spirituality to specific brain structures. Rause, [2002]; Ratcliffe [2006]; Shapiro & Walsh 8. As discussed at length by Beauregard and O’Leary [2003] ). Humanistic psychology and the psychology (2007), efforts to replicate Persinger’s findings with of religion are two other psychological subdisciplines the God helmet have not been always successful. that have actively embraced studies of spirituality In particular, they cite a study by Pehr Granqvist and associated phenomena, though with much less and colleagues who attempted to repeat Persinger’s emphasis than the other areas described. findings using a double blind study and concluded 5. At the time of writing this paper, we along with a that personality factors, most notably suggestibility, third collaborator are continuing our literature and not the God helmet itself, seem to best account survey updates intended to provide information on for Persinger’s results. new instrumentation as well as summaries of the findings of empirical research using tests described About the Authors in our already published articles. 6. While there is still considerable debate regarding Harris L. Friedman, PhD, supervises dissertation research supporting the ontological validity of research at Walden Univeristy, and is Research Professor parapsychological phenomena (e.g., Bem 1994; Bem of Psychology (Retired) at University of Florida and & Honorton, 1994; Bierman, Broughton, & Berger, Professor Emeritus at Saybrook University, as well as 1998; Hyman, 1994; Storm, 2000; Storm & Ertel, a Florida licensed psychologist. He received his PhD 2001, 2002; Wiseman, Smith, & Kornbrot, 1996), in Clinical Psychology at Georgia State University, for the sake of this paper, we simply assume that the holds the Diploma in Clinical Psychology, as well as in reality of such phenomena is potentially veridical. Organizational and Business Consulting Psychology, With that stated, a study by Moulton and Kosslyn from the American Board of Professional Psychology, and (2008) is worth mentioning. Their investigation is a Fellow of the American Psychological Association. involved the use of fMRI to investigate whether He is past President of the International Transpersonal or not psi phenomena are linked to any specific Association, and serves as the Senior Editor of the neurobiological changes. This study is noteworthy International Journal of Transpersonal Studies and the because of their efforts to make their design highly Associate Editor of The Humanistic Psychologist. He sensitive to the presence of psi by utilizing emotionally chairs the Transpersonal Psychology Interest Group charged stimuli (presumably conducive to the and co-chairs the Positive Psychology Interest Group elicitation of psi) and biologically and emotionally of the American Psychological Association’s Society for related research participants (e.g., twins), but they Humanistic Psychology (Division 32). He has published found no differences in neuronal responses to psi- over 200 professional books, book chapters, and articles. conducive stimuli compared to non-psi conducive Currently he is co-editing The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook stimuli and concluded that their findings provide of Transpersonal Psychology, The Praeger Handbook of compelling evidence that psi phenomena are not Applied Transpersonal Psychology (2 vols.), The Praeger Transpersonal, Parapsychology, & Neurobiology International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 59 Handbook on Social Justice and Psychology (2 vols.), and Advances in Parapsychological Research (Volumes 9 & 10).

Douglas A. MacDonald, PhD, is an Associate Professor of Psychology at the University of Detroit Mercy, in Detroit, Michigan, USA and a licensed psychologist in Ontario, Canada. He has been doing research in the area of spirituality for the past 20 years and is involved in an editorial capacity with a number of scholarly journals. Email [email protected] or pneumaticscope@ gmail.com. Phone: (313) 578-0388, Address: 4001 West McNichols Road, Detroit, MI 48221-3038 USA.

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The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies is a peer-reviewed academic journal in print since 1981. It is published by Floraglades Foundation, and serves as the official publication of the International Transpersonal Association. The journal is available online at www. transpersonalstudies.org, and in print through www. lulu.com (search for IJTS).

60 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies MacDonald & Friedman Mental Health and the Paranormal

Simon Dein University College London and Durham University London and Durham, UK

To date, there has been a dearth of work examining the relationships between paranormal experiences and mental health. After defining paranormal experience and its prevalence, I examine a number of areas related to paranormal experience and psychopathology: psi and the unconscious, dissociation and fantasy proneness, schizotypy, transliminality and reality monitoring, child abuse, reasoning and information processing, and transpersonal psychology. Finally, I discuss the clinical implications of these findings.

Keywords: mental health , paranormal, anomalous , schizophrenia, transpersonal, clinical applications

nnette, a woman in her sixties, reported an including thought insertion, thought broadcasting, and experience that typically would be referred to as third person auditory hallucinations. He was started on telepathic. She had been separated from husband antipsychotic medication, and after several weeks, his AlanA for many years and had no contact with him. When “psychotic” symptoms largely disappeared. the couple separated, she continued to live in the family How might both these experiences be home in London while he had immigrated to Melbourne. understood? In the first instance there are several She suddenly awoke from her sleep one night with the possible explanations: coincidence, a vivid dream, ESP, distinct feeling that something was seriously wrong with fabrication, and/or unresolved attachment issues. In Alan. Rather concerned, she phoned Alan at home to the second instance, it is likely that most people would find that he had been admitted to a hospital with a heart consider Mark mad, in the lay sense, in view of his bizarre attack. A few days later when she contacted the hospital, experiences. Whereas Annette was able to function, this she was able to speak to Alan who told her that he had was not the case for Mark. There are, however, similarities been thinking of her before his heart attack. This was by between the two cases. Both individuals claimed to have no means the first time that Annette had such experiences. experiences that are not readily accounted for in terms of She claimed that she would generally sense that one of her folk psychology, that is, the information that lay people friends or relatives was experiencing a difficult problem have about the mind. In both instances, they were in their lives even though, she emphasized, they had not convinced that thoughts could travel though space from physically contacted her, and, in some instances, she had one person to another breaching the boundaries between not communicated with them for some time. Her mental the self and the outside world. Both experiences could health did not suffer as a result of these experiences. be defined as anomalous. What makes people cross the Mark, a 25-year-old man, had recently been psychotic threshold is not necessarily the content but the admitted to a hospital in a very agitated state. For several consequences of their beliefs. As Peters (2001) rightly months, he had neglected himself and become convinced pointed out, it is not what you believe, it is how you that neighbors were interfering with his thoughts. He believe it. maintained that strangers could read his thoughts. His Anomalous Experiences neighbors were able to replace his thoughts with theirs, an in the General Population experience that he found very traumatic. In addition, he nomalous experience is an umbrella term for types claimed that he could hear his neighbors’ voices coming Aof strange experiences, which science does not in through the walls of his house. The psychiatrist yet fully understand or cannot yet explain. They are looking after him made a diagnosis of schizophrenia assumed to deviate from ordinary experiences or from based upon classical, Schneiderian, first rank symptoms the usually accepted explanations of reality and are often MentalInternational Health Journal and the of ParanormalTranspersonal Studies, 31(1), 2012,International pp. 61-74 Journal of Transpersonal Studies 61 seen as bizarre. Experiences are anomalous on account much as half, of the population) or clairvoyance (in of the fact that they are not explicable by “normal,” folk about a fifth of the population). The systematic study of psychology or conventional scientific processes including spontaneous paranormal experiences has developed also folk physics. Both psychiatry and parapsychology focus through the study of numerous collections of individual on anomalous phenomena such as visions, voices, and case reports beginning in the late 1800s and continuing thought processes, and there is obvious overlap between until the present. The large volume of these case studies them. In this paper, I will outline the relationship between reinforces the view of paranormal experiences as the two disciplines. Psychiatrists have a longstanding widespread in the general population (adapted from Targ interest in anomalous phenomena (Murray, 2012). et al., 2000, pp. 222-223). In the USA, a poll of belief in In contrast to the traditional categorical paranormal phenomena based upon 1,236 adults (Gallup approach to psychosis adopted in the Diagnostic and & Newport, 1991) reported that one out of every four Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), Americans believes in ghosts and one in six Americans there is emerging interest in a more dimensional view, has felt that they have been in touch with someone who which proposes that psychosis-like beliefs, perceptual has died. In the UK, an opinion poll of 1000 British distortions, and idiosyncrasies of thought and adults (Daily Mail, 2/2/98) found that 64% maintained communication, considered characteristic diagnostic that some people have powers that cannot be explained criteria for psychosis, are distributed (albeit to varying by science, 47% believe in thought reading, and 34% degrees) throughout the general population (for a believe in psychokinesis. Moore (2005) found that three recent systematic review of this topic, see van Os, in four Americans continue to believe in the paranormal. Linscott, Myin-Germeys, Delespaul, & Krabbendam, A substantial minority of the population claim to have 2009, and Nuevo et al., 2010). Alexander Moreira- had a direct personal experience of the paranormal Almeida and Etzel Cardeña (2011) noted that evidence (Blackmore, 1984; Clarke, 1995; Palmer, 1979). of a high prevalence of psychotic experiences in the The reported prevalence, however, varies in general, non-clinical population and several other recent different cultural groups. Culture determines the types research findings have fueled sophisticated criticisms of of experiences reported, the ways in which they are the current concepts of schizophrenia and the diagnostic reported, and their impact on subsequent behavior. criteria used by the International Statistical Classification Generally, however, the experiences appear compelling, of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10) and meaningful, and personally significant and occur in the DSM-IV. This approach views florid psychosis as waking consciousness, sleep, and in dreams. They comprising the most extreme pole of the population can relate to an event taking place at the time (i.e., spectrum. Phenomena that psychiatrists regard as truly are contemporaneous) or refer to the future (i.e., are pathological have been found to be prevalent in the precognitive). It is important to note, however, that just general population. One question, which arises from this because an experience is widely reported, it does not mean dimensional view, is how such anomalous experiences that this experience is genuine and reported correctly. become clinically significant. I will not attempt to add to the already controversial Reports of paranormal experiences are prevalent scientific discourse on the ontology of paranormal in the general population with over half of the population phenomena. Rather in this paper, I will discuss the reporting at least one such experience (Ross & Joshi, mental health implications of these phenomena. 1992). According to Targ, Schlitz, and Irwin (2000), in First, a brief note on terminology. Here I deploy most countries where surveys have been conducted, psi the term paranormal rather than spiritual or religious related experiences have been reported by over half the with its implications of attribution to a higher power. population. A prevalence of over 50% has been found As Tobacyk and Milford (1983) noted, religious and in surveys undertaken in North America, Great Britain, paranormal belief systems share overlapping constructs other countries in Europe, especially Iceland, the Middle and notions, for example, belief in a spiritual world and East, Brazil, South Africa, Asia, and Australasia (Cardeña, belief in experiential metaphysics, which is the belief Lynn, & Krippner, 2000). The most commonly reported that some individuals are able to experience aspects of paranormal experiences involve apparent telepathy a spiritual world. However, religion and spirituality are (acknowledged by about a third, and sometimes as generally considered to be separate from paranormal

62 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Dein beliefs (Sobal & Emmons, 1982) and separate from each psychopathology, particularly the writings of Ehrenwald other (Emmons & Paloutzian, 2003). (1948), Ullman (1949, 1973), Greyson (1977), and Thalbourne (2003), a psychologist and a Eisenbud (1970), there is very little recent literature prominent researcher in the field, defined paranormal: discussing specifically the prevalence of paranormal beliefs and experiences in psychiatric patients and the A phenomenon is paranormal if it refers to psychiatric interpretation of subjective paranormal hypothesized processes that in principle are physically experience. Those who report paranormal phenomena impossible and outside the realm of human or animal have been found to experience higher levels than normal capabilities as presently conceived by conventional of psychological symptoms (McCreery & Claridge, 1995), scientists . . . often used as a synonym for “psychic,” and those with mental disorders report unusually strong “parapsychological,” “attributable to psi,” or even convictions about supernatural phenomena (Ekblad & “miraculous” (though shorn of religious overtones). Chapman, 1983; Thalbourne, 1994). Stronger beliefs (pp. 83-84) in the paranormal have been associated with higher Measures of paranormal belief deployed in research range scores on schizophrenia relevant measures in the general from extremely narrow with some assessing belief only in population (Thalbourne & French, 1995; Tobacyk & ESP, to very broad measures that cover belief in magic, Wilkinson, 1990; Windholz & Diamant, 1974). People religious phenomena, extraordinary life forms, ghosts, who have been diagnosed with psychotic disorders superstition, and so on (Irwin, 1993). Here I focus upon (bipolar, brief reactive psychosis, and schizophrenia) a number of diverse phenomena ranging from typical demonstrate a high phenomenological overlap with psi psi experiences such as telepathy, clairvoyance, and related experiences. Such individuals frequently report precognition to more complex phenomena such as sense receiving telepathic messages (American Psychiatric of presence, out-of-body experiences, and near death Association, 1994) and are frequently distressed by experiences. the experience. Schizophrenia itself is associated with Paranormal Experience unusual beliefs of a paranormal nature such as thought and Mental Health broadcasting and mind reading. here has been surprisingly little research examining Thalbourne’s (1994) study of university students Tthe associations between anomalous experience found that those whose scores indicated higher belief in and psychopathology1. The extant literature focuses the paranormal tended to score significantly higher on upon two areas: the immediate emotional impact of the Magical Ideation Scale (which measures proneness anomalous experiences and the relationship between such to psychosis), the Perceptual Aberration Scale (which experiences and various measures of psychopathology. In assesses a variety of nonpsychotic body image and a study of psychological impact of telepathic experiences, perceptual distortions), and the combined Perceptual Stevenson (1970) found the most common emotional Aberration-Magical Ideation (Per-Mag) Scale. However, responses were anxiety and depression. More generally, the correlation with the MMPI’s Schizophrenia Scale the most commonly reported emotions are anxiety and reached significance for males only. In a survey of the happiness (Irwin, 1999; Milton, 1992). There is, however, correlates of belief in (and alleged experience of) the limited evidence that having a psi related experience paranormal, Thalbourne and Delin (1994) examined, per se induces long-term psychological or physical after among other variables, the clinical status of their subjects. effects (Stokes, 1997), but their interpretation is highly In addition to a comparison group of 241 university culture dependent. In the USA, for example, there is students, the sample included 86 persons with manic- evidence that some members of the general population depression and 38 with schizophrenia. The correlations are fearful of psi related experiences. between the Australian Sheep-Goat Scale (Thalbourne There is currently controversy concerning & Delin, 1993) and the Manic-Depressiveness Scale whether unusual experiences are symptoms of a mental (Thalbourne & Delin, 1994 as well as the Magical disorder, if mental disorders are a consequence of Ideation Scale (Eckblad & Chapman, 1983) were such experiences, or if people with mental disorders positive and, for the most, significant in all three groups. are especially susceptible to or even looking for these Thalbourne and French (1995) in an English sample of experiences. Although some literature deals with psi 114 university students, using as measures of belief in the Mental Health and the Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 63 paranormal the Australian Sheep-Goat Scale, reported people may well be inclined to endorse paranormal that paranormal belief was significantly correlated with beliefs (Greyson, 1977; Persinger, 1987), the converse is measures of manic-depressive and manic-depressive not always the case. experience, as well as magical ideation. It was noted, Psi and the Unconscious moreover, that manic-depressive experience was When the (British) Society for Psychical moderately correlated with magical ideation, suggesting Research was founded in 1882, there was great interest some overlap between the relevant conditions groups. in hypnosis focusing not only on its use for investigating Mischo (1996) reported that while half of the people with the unconscious and latent aspects of human personality belief in unusual experiences investigated did not show but also in its relationship to paranormal perception any psychologically striking behavior, the other half had (Ullman, 1977). Early researchers, including T. Weir significant scores on different schizotypal scales. Thus, Mitchell (1922), W. F. Prince (1916), and Pierre Janet although the data suggest that belief in the paranormal (1886), focused on the relationships between psi and is associated with some measures of psychopathology, altered states of consciousness and investigated this there is a need for additional research to further assess relationship through a number of phenomena: hypnosis and understand these relationships. (Janet, 1886), hysteria (Mitchell, 1922), multiple The belief in unusual experiences alone, personality (Mitchell, 1922; Prince, 1916), and paranoia however, does not indicate psychological disorder. Neppe (Prince, 1927). Myers’ classic two-volume study, Human (1984) proposed a category termed subjective paranormal Personality (1903), explored the evidence for survival experience psychosis to describe individuals with a long and provided a comprehensive survey of the relationship history of psi related experiences that deteriorate into between disordered internal states, including hysteria frank psychosis. There is little known about the factors and insanity, and man’s supraliminal (the term used to that drive individuals from paranormal experiences to connote psi ability) capacities. Psychoanalytic writings psychotic states. Targ and colleagues (2000) proposed on psi and psychiatry have focused upon the dynamics that the healthy experient of psi may be at risk of of psi events as they arise in a clinical context. Only a developing a delusional or paranoid explanation in the few have gone so far as to theorize about the role psi may context of lack of support or education concerning the play in the evolution and symptomatology of the major nature of these experiences. I propose that this education psychoses. could consist in pointing out (a) that there is a genuine Throughout his professional life, Freud (1921) ontological basis for paranormal phenomena, and had an interest in various paranormal phenomena (b) that there is a genuine danger of being mislead by including prophetic dreams, telepathy, and superstition such experiences or of jumping to wrong or premature (although not typically labelled as paranormal). conclusions. He described what he felt might be telepathic and There is, however, some evidence that clairvoyant perceptions by patients that appeared to be paranormal experiences reported by clinical groups related to important repressed material. However, his are more negative, bizarre, detailed, and disturbing biographers are undecided whether or not he accepted (Bentall, 2000; Targ et al., 2000). Emotional reactions these phenomena; it appears that he, for the most part, to paranormal experiences, content, and locus of control explained paranormal phenomena rationally in terms of appear to be different among clinical and non-clinical unconscious conflicts. There is evidence, nonetheless, subjects. Also, individuals diagnosed with psychosis that he was open to their scientific validation. At the age appear less likely to have insight into the strangeness of 65, he mentioned: of their paranormal experiences compared to healthy I do not belong with those who reject in advance experients (Targ et al., 2000). In contrast, other studies the study of so-called occult phenomena as being have found no link between paranormal experiences and unscientific, unworthy, or harmful. If I were at mental health disorders (Goulding, 2004), and one study the beginning of my scientific career, instead of at suggested that such experiences could actually improve the end of it, as I am now, I might perhaps choose mental wellbeing, reduce fear of death, contribute to no other field of study—in spite of its difficulties. optimism about the future, and bring meaning in life (Mitchell, 1989, p. 25) (Kennedy & Kanthamani, 1995). While psychotic

64 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Dein If there is some uncertainty about Freud’s level in the close relationship of psi to dissociative states such of belief, there is no doubt that his followers particularly as occur in hypnosis, hysteria, and psychosis (see, for Carl Jung and Sandor Ferenzi devoted much time to the example, Bender, 1935; Ehrenwald, 1948; Janet, 1886; study of the occult (Jung, 1953). Jung is well known for Moser, 1935; Myers, 1903). Although he accepted the his writings on synchronicity or meaningful coincidences association between the tendency to dissociative states (Jung, 1952/1973). In addition, he described his own and the occurrence of various automatisms and psi personal anomalous experiences, which he took to be phenomena, he is critical of the nature of the correlation. real: mystical union, telepathy, spirit mediums, and near He noted, for example, that in cases of multiple death experiences (Jung, 1963/1989). Main (1997) wrote: personality, genuine psi effects are rare and interpreted the relationship as a contingent one rather than a Paranormal events accompanied his decision to causal one. Furthermore, he proposed that proneness to make a career in psychiatry, his conflict and eventual dissociative states and guessing ability (e.g., ESP) are two breach with Freud, his relationship with his ghostly distinct entities. Having discussed relationships between guru Philemon, the writing of Septem Sermones and paranormal experiences and psychopathology, I shall Mortuos in which he adumbrated much of his later move on to examine factors that might underlie these psychology, his formulation of the concept of the self associations. as the centre of psychic totality, and his heart attack Dissociation and Fantasy Proneness and transformative near death experience of 1944. Two constructs have been linked to paranormal (p. 7) beliefs: dissociation and fantasy proneness. Dissociation Ehrenwald (1948) was the first in the modern has been defined by the DSM-IV as: “A disruption era to examine the significance of telepathy for an in the usually integrated functions of consciousness, understanding of paranoia and the schizophrenic memory, identity, or perception of the environment. psychoses. He considered psi as an archaic, regressive, The disturbance may be sudden or gradual, transient or primitive faculty and considered telepathy or or chronic” (American Psychiatric Association, 1994, p. heteropsychic input, as he called it, as evidence of some 766). In clinical practice, the term dissociation is applied impairment of a filtering mechanism designed to ward to a wide range of altered states of conscious. off such influence. He proposed that heteropsychic Ross and Joshi (1992) argued for a relationship stimuli operating in adult life posed a potential threat between paranormal experience and dissociation, putting to one’s sense of intactness and definition as a discrete forward a model in which paranormal experiences are entity. For him, telepathic awareness emerged as a conceptualized as an aspect of normal dissociation. Like compensatory mechanism. Telepathic sensitivity, dissociation generally, paranormal experiences can be according to Ehrenwald, played its most significant role triggered by trauma, especially childhood physical or at the onset of a psychotic process and during the later, sexual abuse. Such experiences discriminate individuals more deteriorated phases of the disorder. In the early with childhood trauma histories from those without stage of illness, telepathically perceived content may at high levels of significance. Dissociativity has been appear in the emerging delusional material, in which case correlated with paranormal belief in a number of the delusion cannot be completely understood on the studies (e.g., Irwin, 1994; Pekala, Kumar, & Marcano, basis of projection. At a more advanced stage, Ehrenwald 1995; Wolfradt, 1997; Ross & Joshi, 1992; Richards, interpreted the picture of deterioration as resulting from 1991), although a few studies have not demonstrated the disorganizing effect of the intrusive flooding by both such a relationship (e.g., Groth-Marnat, Roberts, autopsychic and heteropsychic stimuli. Similarly Ullman & Ollier, 1998-99). Makasovski & Irwin (1999) (1949, 1952), in a clinical context, noted that patients suggested that pathological dissociation predicts belief who functioned close enough to a psychotic breakdown in parapsychological and spiritual concepts, but that to be aware of its possible imminence, manifested psi non-pathological dissociative tendencies (absorption) ability in the therapeutic context more frequently and do not correlate with paranormal belief. Rattet and more consistently than do other patients. Bursik (2001) reported that dissociative tendencies were In his review of parapsychology and psychopath- related to paranormal belief, but not to self-reported ology, Alberti (1974) re-examined the longstanding belief precognitive experiences. Mental Health and the Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 65 High levels of dissociation are found in those a multidimensional construct that appears to be on a with other types of anomalous experiences. Powers continuum with psychosis (Claridge, 1997). Of the nine (1994) has shown that a group of alleged alien abductees diagnostic criteria for schizotypal personality disorder demonstrated higher levels of dissociativity than a specified in the DSM–IV (American Psychiatric matched sample of non-abductees. Similarly, French, Association, 1994), several resemble possible forms of Santomauro, Hamilton, Fox, and Thalbourne (2008) psi related experiences. High scores on the schizotypy found higher levels of dissociativity in a group of people scales indicate an increased risk of developing claiming alien contact compared to a matched control schizophrenia. There is a large amount of research group. Children reporting past-life memories have been indicating a link between schizotypy and paranormal shown to have higher levels of dissociative tendencies in beliefs and experience (Chequers, Joseph, & Diduca, both Sri Lanka (Haraldsson, Fowler, & Periyannanpillai, 1997; Goulding, 2004, 2005; Schofield & Claridge, 2000) and Lebanon (Haraldsson, 2002). Greyson (2000) 2007; Thalbourne & French, 1995; Wolfradt & Watzke, has reported that although people reporting near-death 1999). experiences (NDEs) are generally psychologically There is some evidence that the biological healthy, some do manifest non-pathological signs of correlates of schizotypy and paranormal experiences are dissociation. Gow (2006) found that those reporting similar. Schizotypy (Buschbaum et al., 2002; Cannon, out-of-body experiences were more fantasy prone, higher van Erp, & Glahn, 2002) and paranormal beliefs and in their belief in the paranormal and displayed greater experiences (Persinger, 1984; Persinger & Valliant, 1985) somatoform dissociation. are associated with temporal lobe dysfunction. Right A fantasy prone person is reported to spend a hemisphere dysfunction has been posited to play a role large portion of his or her time fantasizing, has vividly in schizophrenia (Cutting, 1992) and has also been intense fantasies, paranormal experiences, and intense posited to play a role in anomalous experience. Neppe religious experiences (Merckelbach, Horselenberg, & (1984) pointed out the similarities of many psi-related Muris, 2001). Fantasy proneness was first identified by experiences to symptoms of temporal lobe epilepsy. Wilson and Barber (1983) as being a characteristic of Child Abuse and Trauma highly hypnotically susceptible individuals and is highly Paranormal beliefs and experiences have also correlated with absorption (Lynn & Rhue, 1988). From been associated with childhood trauma (Irwin, 1992; the early 1990s, psychologists and parapsychologists Wilson & Barber, 1983), abuse (Lawrence, Edwards, were aware that fantasy proneness correlates with both Barraclough, Church, & Hetherington, 1995; Perkins & paranormal belief and a tendency to report paranormal Allen, 2006; Ross & Joshi, 1992), need for interpersonal experiences (e.g., Irwin, 1990, 1991). As Berenbaum, control (Irwin, 1994), and a perceived lack of childhood Kerns, and Raghavan (2000) asserted: control (Watt, Watson, & Wilson, 2007). Relatively few studies have addressed specifically the links between Individuals with high levels of absorption are at paranormal experiences and trauma. Paranormal increased risk of having anomalous experiences experiences have also been associated with negative affect because they may intentionally be trying to have and negative experiences (Lindeman & Aarnio, 2006). them or may be more likely to explore aspects of their Perkins (2006) compared paranormal belief systems in phenomenological worlds that other people would not individuals with and without childhood physical abuse explore. Potentially these explorations might develop histories. Psi, precognition, and spiritualism, which into full blown anomalous experiences. (p. 39) are thought to provide a sense of personal efficacy and

control, were among the most strongly held beliefs in Glickson and Barrett (2003) found that the trait abused subjects and were significantly more prevalent in of absorption underlies hallucinatory experience, abused versus non-abused subjects. The results suggest dissociation and anomalies of belief and experience that by providing a sense of control, certain paranormal including paranormal belief. beliefs may offer coping strategies to individuals who Schizotypy endured the stress of physical abuse in childhood. Much of the work on paranormal beliefs and Negative life events have been associated with paranormal mental illness has deployed the concept of schizotypy, experiences. Rabeyron (2006) found in a qualitative 66 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Dein study that paranormal experiences occur after negative of mundane coincidences are more likely to misinterpret life events. Rabeyron and Watt (2010) found significant normal events as paranormal. correlations between paranormal experiences and mental Paranormal beliefs may provide a framework boundaries, traumas, and negative life events. This that facilitates a sense of meaning and control. Believers finding requires further empirical validation. in the paranormal are more inclined to attribute personal Transliminality and Reality Monitoring involvement in randomly determined processes than Thalbourne and Delin (1994) presented evidence non-believers (Brugger et al., 1994). Brugger and Taylor that paranormal belief and experience correlated with traits (2003) reviewed studies suggesting that believers perceive such as creativity and mystical experience. They postulated more meaningful patterns in random stimuli and a single common factor underlying these experiences: perceive more meaningful relationships between distant transliminality, the extent to which the contents of some associated events and objects compared to non-believers. preconscious (or unconscious or subliminal) region of the Notions of causality associated with the paranormal mind are able to cross the threshold into consciousness. beliefs of patients with schizophrenia differ from the Thalbourne and Maltby (2008) defined transliminality as causality thinking non-clinical believers. Whereas the a hypersensitivity to psychological material originating in former demonstrated a reliance on the role of chance (a) the unconscious, and/or (b) the external environment. in everyday life, the latter framed their causal concepts Using subliminal stimuli, Crawley, French, and Yesson in terms of personal responsibility and in seeking (2002) provided evidence supporting the idea that non- meaningful connections (Williams & Irwin, 1991). conscious processing may sometimes create the illusion Others have associated lack of critical evaluation of paranormal powers. Another useful framework for of hypotheses and the suspension of reality testing with understanding paranormal experience is that of reality the development of paranormal beliefs. Langdon and monitoring—referring to the ability to distinguish Coltheart (2000) asserted that pathological beliefs or between mental events that are internally generated and delusions arise in part through a failure of the person to those reflecting external reality. In the perceptual domain subject a hypothetical explanation of sensory experience this would result in a tendency to hallucinate while in the to critical testing. Relatedly, some commentators (e.g., memory domain it would reflect a susceptibility to false Alcock, 1981, 1995; Goode, 2000; Vyse, 1997; Zusne memories (Johnson & Raye, 1981; Johnson, Hashtroudi, & Jones, 1982) have argued that this is also the case & Lindsay, 1993). for paranormal beliefs. In other words, when a person Reasoning and Information Processing Bias proposes a paranormal explanation for an experience, in Delusions and Hallucinations this hypothesis might not then be subject to the usual and in Paranormal Experiences processes of rigorous critical evaluation either at the time Bentall (2000) presented an excellent overview of its formulation or when further relevant information of how reasoning and information biases are involved later becomes available. In this way, an observed event in delusions and hallucinations in schizophrenia. The may become the basis for a paranormal belief by the following discussion derives from his work (see also individual. Irwin (2003, 2004) found that paranormal French and Wilson, 2007, for a useful discussion). He believers have a pattern of reality testing deficits that is asserted that sufferers from delusions demonstrate characteristic of the formation of psychotic beliefs— preferential recall or information related to their delusions some people interpret an anomalous event as paranormal and attributional biases in which negative events are without critical testing of the logical plausibility of this attributed to the actions of others. In hallucinations belief. On such a basis, people who endorse paranormal there is misattributed inner speech. In a similar way, beliefs would therefore be predicted to show some deficit those believing in the paranormal exhibit such biases in reality testing. including poor probability reasoning and the belief A recent study by Irwin and Young (2002) that they have control over random events (Blackmore suggested that, when an anomalous experience gives & Trosianco, 1985; Brugger, Regard, Landis, Krebs, rise to an attribution involving paranormal processes, & Niederberger, 1994). Probability mismanagement is people with a habitual intuitive-experiential information a cognitive bias that might result in the formation of processing style (Epstein, Pacini, Denes-Raj, & Heier, paranormal beliefs. Those who misjudge the probability 1996) will be satisfied with the attribution’s intuitive Mental Health and the Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 67 appeal and, therefore, will not subject it to reality ego-inflation, and so on, whereas trans-rational has to do testing. Thus, the suspension of reality testing may be with truly mystical states of consciousness. Ken Wilber integral to a broader cognitive style of the person. Irwin (1996) discussed the pre-trans fallacy, the difference (2004), using a questionnaire survey of 161 adults from between the prepersonal and transpersonal. Prepersonal the general Australian population, found that two states occur when an individual has not yet fully achieved fundamental facets of paranormal belief were predicted a stable sense of selfhood and personal identity or has by reality testing deficits. Some people, when faced regressed to more primitive, childlike states. In contrast, with anomalous experience, may jump to a paranormal transpersonal states represent a genuine progressive interpretation without due critical testing of the logical evolution beyond the personal level. One important way of plausibility of this belief. Thus, the suspension of reality recognizing the difference is that in prepersonal states the testing may be integral to a broader cognitive style of individual has no clearly defined sense of self to draw on the person. Motivational factors, such as a need for and, therefore, is fragile and unintegrated in experience. a sense of control over life events (Irwin, 2004), may In transpersonal states, on the other hand, the sense of also be important here. Thus, if a paranormal belief self is transcended but not destroyed. Practically, this provides a sense of reassurance in this respect, reality means that the person who has developed transpersonal testing of the belief might be suspended and the belief awareness can (and most of the time does) operate from thereby protected against revision in the face of contrary the position of a stable, integrated self. The transpersonal, information (Bader, 1999; Wiseman & Smith, 2002). therefore, transcends and includes the personal, whereas In another study (Lawrence & Peters, the prepersonal is a primitive anticipation or reversion 2004), individuals who reported a strong belief in the that excludes the personal. Wilber maintained that many paranormal made more errors on a deductive reasoning claims about non-rational states make a mistake he calls task and displayed more delusional ideation than the pre-trans fallacy. According to him, the non-rational skeptical individuals. Another form of reasoning bias stages of consciousness (what Wilber called pre-rational common to both paranormal beliefs and delusions is and trans-rational stages) can be easily confused with one confirmation bias—the tendency to attend to, interpret, another. and store information that confirms one’s existing Paranormal phenomena occur commonly beliefs and disregard information that is contradictory during a spiritual crisis (also called a spiritual emergency), to these beliefs. There is some evidence that believers in a form of identity crisis where an individual experiences the paranormal and non-believers experienced increased drastic changes to their meaning system (i.e., their unique emotional arousal when they read counter attitudinal purposes, goals, values, attitude and beliefs, identity, information but only the former showed a selective bias and focus) typically because of a spontaneous spiritual in recalling information congruent with their beliefs experience. Transpersonal psychologists assert that these (Russell & Jones, 1980). crises are a kind of non-pathological developmental Transpersonal Psychology crisis that can have powerfully transformative effects and the Paranormal on a person’s life when supported and allowed to run inally it is possible to examine the relationship their course to completion (Grof & Grof, 1989). In some Fbetween transpersonal and paranormal experience. instances, however the influx of information from non- Daniels (1998) noted that the paranormal is an aspect of ordinary sources, such as astral projection, precognition, human experience that has the potential for promoting telepathy, or clairvoyance, becomes so overwhelming and transpersonal development. Paranormal experiences confusing that it dominates the picture and constitutes a can lead to such transformation by encouraging the major problem, in and of itself. individual to consider the significance of the wider or Clinical Implications deeper reality beyond the world of the ordinary self and of Paranormal Experience its concerns. here is some evidence that overreliance on reported A problem in transpersonal psychology is how Tpsi related events to diagnose schizotypal personality to distinguish between what is pre-rational and what disorder or schizophrenia carries the substantial risk of is trans-rational. Both states are “irrational,” but pre- stigmatizing, alienating, or erroneously medicating rational relates to superstition, voodoo, magical thinking, patients. It is more essential to assess how an individual

68 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Dein interprets and responds to an apparent psi experience Alcock, J. (1981). Parapsychology: Science or magic? New than to engage in efforts to evaluate whether or not the York, NY: Pergamon Press. experience entailed some paranormal process such as psi. Alcock, J. (1995). The belief engine: What can the It is important to ensure that patients know that they paranormal teach us about consciousness? Skeptical are not alone in these experiences and that patients are Inquirer, 19(3), 255-263. provided education and are given the opportunity to Bader, C. (1999). When prophecy passes unnoticed: New discuss and assimilate the experience. perspectives on failed prophecy. Journal for the Scientific Recent work on early onset psychosis highlights Study of Religion, 38(1), 119-131.doi:10.2307/1387588 the importance and benefits of early and phase-specific Bender, H. (1935). Mediumistische Psychosen. In Aufsatze intervention in the development of psychosis, in terms zur Parapsychologie. Munich, Germany: E. Reinhardt. of both the overall duration and severity of psychotic Bentall, R. (2000). Research into psychotic symptoms: episodes (McGorry, Nordentoft, & Simonsen, 2005). Are there implications for parapsychologists. Building upon this work, Coelho, Tierney, and European Journal of Parapsychology, 15, 79-88. Lamont (2008) reinforced the need for more formal Berenbaum, H., Kerns, J., & Raghavan, C. (2000). links between parapsychology units and mental health Anomalous experiences, peculiarity, and psycho- professionals. The ability to refer distressed individuals pathology. In E. Cardeña, S. J. Lynn, & S. Krippner (who meet certain criteria) to an appropriate mental (Eds.), Varieties of anomalous experience: Examining health professional would result in more effective the scientific evidence(pp. 25-46). Washington, DC: interactions and increase the chances of early detection American Psychological Association. of potential psychotic illness. This would also transfer Blackmore, S. J. (1984). A postal survey of OBEs and the responsibility of responding to these contacts to a other experiences. Journal of the Society for Psychical fully qualified and insured clinician. The clinician’s role Research, 52, 225-244. would be to help the affected individual decide how to Blackmore, S. J., & Troscianko, T. S. (1985). Belief in deal with their experience in the light of information the paranormal: Probability judgements, illusory supplied by the contact. control and the “chance baseline shift.” British Conclusion Journal of Psychology, 76, 459-468. here is no evidence that paranormal beliefs and Brugger, P., Regard, M., Landis, T., Krebs, D., & Texperiences are pathological per se, and they Niederberger, J. (1994). Coincidences: Who can say appear to be common in the general population. Like how “meaningful” they are? In E. W. Cook & D. symptoms of psychosis such as hallucinations and Delanoy (Eds.), Research in parapsychology (pp. 94- thought insertion, they occur in non-clinically ill 99). Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow. individuals. Although such experiences correlate with Brugger, P., & Taylor, K. I. (2003). ESP: Extrasensory various measures of psychopathology, there is a need perception or effect of subjective probability? Journal for further work to understand these associations. In of Consciousness Studies, 10(6-7), 221-246. some instances, paranormal experiences may precipitate Buschbaum, M. S., Shihabuddin, L., Hazlett, E. A., psychopathology; future work should examine what Schroder, J., Haznedar, M. M., Powchik, P., . . . Davis, factors drive individuals from these experiences to K. L. (2002). Kraepelinian and non-Kraepelinian develop frank mental illness. schizophrenia subgroup differences in cerebral metabolic rate. Schizophrenia Research, 55, 25-40. 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Psychopathology and psi phenomena. but does it help? has provided an excellent overview of In B. Wolman (Ed.), Handbook of parapsychology (pp. this area which I develop here. (See www.videojug.com/ 557-574). New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold. interview/belief-in-the-paranormal-2) van Os, J., Linscott, R. J., Myin-Germeys, I., Delespaul, P., & Krabbendam, L. (2009). A systematic review and meta-analysis of the psychosis Mental Health and the Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 73 About the Author

Simon Dein, PhD, is a consultant psychiatrist in Essex UK specializing in rehabilitation and liaison psychiatry. He holds a doctorate in social anthropology from University College London where he currently teaches. He is an honorary professor at Durham University where he runs an MSc in Spirituality, Theology, and Health. He has written widely on religion and health among Hasidic Jews, Evangelical Christians and Sunni Muslims in the UK. He is founding editor of the journal Mental Health, Religion and Culture. He is Chair of the spirituality section of the World Association of Cultural Psychiatry.

About the Journal

The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies is a peer-reviewed academic journal in print since 1981. It is published by Floraglades Foundation, and serves as the official publication of the International Transpersonal Association. The journal is available online at www. transpersonalstudies.org, and in print through www. lulu.com (search for IJTS).

74 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Dein How Should Therapists Respond to Client Accounts of Out-of-Body Experience?

Alexander De Foe Monash University Melbourne, Australia

During an out-of-body experience (OBE) a person experiences their center of consciousness from a spatial location that is distinctly different to their physical body. Prior research has suggested that psychologists and psychotherapists may be reluctant to discuss the content of their clients OBE accounts due to a lack of understanding about the nature of these experiences. Yet, other research has highlighted the substantial value of discussing OBEs in the therapeutic process. This paper examines the literature in order to assess the value of utilizing person-centered dialogue and guided visualisation as counselling approaches for working with clients who have had OBEs.

Keywords: out-of-body experience (OBE), altered states of consciousness, near-death experience (NDE)

any counsellors and psychotherapists, dreams may be more likely to also have had OBEs in whether working within a transpersonal or the past (Parra, 2009). It has also been suggested that, mainstream framework, appreciate the value due to their vivid nature, OBEs can offer clients more Mof exploring experiences of transcendence with their psychological insight than dream accounts in some clients. However, it is only recently that research has instances (see Levitan & LaBerge, 1991). Anecdotal considered the value of working with clients who report a evidence from experients further suggests that OBEs particular type of transcendence experience, namely, the can be quite vivid, meaningful, and memorable. In some out-of-body experience (OBE). OBEs have been studied cases, these experiences can have a transformative impact within the discipline of parapsychology at depth (Irwin & on one’s life, bearing significant psychological value Watt, 2007) and are among the most commonly reported and symbolism for the experient (Tobacyk & Mitchell, types of altered states of consciousness. Ellison (1988) 1987). and Irwin (1985) estimated that approximately 10% of Autoscopic hallucination (AH) and near the general population have had an OBE at least once death experiences (NDEs) merit a brief mention here, in their lifetime. During an OBE, a person experiences as research in related literature has used these terms his or her consciousness shifting from the physical body interchangeably with the term OBE. Blanke and Mohr to a distinctly different spatial location. Irwin and Watt (2005) noted that during AH: provided an example of one OBE account in which the [A] person experiences seeing his double in experient stated: “I was sitting in the bath when I became extracorporeal space without leaving his own body aware that I was in the ceiling corner of the room looking (no disembodiment). As compared with OBEs, down at myself in the bath” (p. 175). individuals with AH experience seeing the world Those who experience OBEs often report a from their habitual visuo-spatial perspective and vivid sensation of leaving the physical body and either experience their “self,” or center of awareness, inside finding themselves in an environment that resembles their physical bodies. (p. 189) their physical surroundings or an imaginary dream- like environment (Levitan & LaBerge, 1991). Previous OBEs differ from AH experiences in that the research has found a correlation between dream experient often reports a distinct sensation of separation absorption and OBE likelihood, which suggests that those from the body during an OBE (Ellison, 1988). OBEs who are prone to daydreaming and intense absorption in occur in a wide range of contexts (Irwin & Watt, 2007), TherapistInternational Response Journal toof TranspersonalClient-Reported Studies OBEs, 31(1), 2012,International pp. 75-82 Journal of Transpersonal Studies 75 while NDEs tend to occur in near-death circumstances with clients in the counselling session. Exploring OBEs specifically. Aside from these differences, a substantial during the therapeutic process could help shed light number of overlaps can be noted between NDEs and on how a client’s prior OBEs have impacted on their OBEs based on the reported content and the impact of point of view about life, their key relationships, and the experience found in anecdotal case studies of both even their awareness of existential questions about life phenomena. It may be that OBE can be adopted as an and death. umbrella term to encompass both AH and NDE as OBEs and Psychopathology there is a substantial overlap in content reported among he current literature examining OBEs has consi- experients. Tdered factors that may cause or contribute to OBEs, In considering the psychological impact of with little research exploring the therapeutic benefit of NDEs related to suicide, Greyson (1981) found that exploring OBEs and their content. Few researchers have NDEs can reduce future suicidal tendencies. Greyson pondered the question: How can we come to understand stated that those who attempt suicide and experience OBEs in order to gain a glimpse into the rich and an NDE in some cases report that their concept of complex world of clients? Parra (2009) and Twemlow death becomes reconceptualized after their experience. (1989) suggested that a lack of research into clinical These individuals find that their perspective about life approaches for working with clients who have had OBEs and death alters as they experience their consciousness has left a number of psychologists and psychotherapists momentarily existing beyond the physical death of the uncertain about how to approach the topic. Parra body. Often, during their experience, these individuals suggested that clients often feel uncomfortable speaking come to find a new sense of inner peace and encounter to their therapist about their OBEs for fear of ridicule “ego-death experienced during a NDE . . . to escape or judgement. This is consistent with Twemlow’s claims, from painful emotions and sensations” (p. 13). Greyson which stated that a number of practitioners, especially suggested that this commonly reported experience of psychiatrists, tend to misattribute OBEs as a form transcending one’s self-concept during an NDE can be of psychopathology. Twemlow noted that OBEs are therapeutically beneficial for helping one to deal with normal experiences reported across a broad population difficult and painful emotions. and that it is a misconception to term these experiences Monroe (1992) noted that encounters with as abnormal or pathological. spiritual entities, deceased family members, and even Research has found that OBEs are common manifestations of God are quite common during across the general population and are not indicative OBEs (and NDEs), all of which can have significant of psychopathology (Blackmore, 1986; Ellison, 1988). implications for the experient and can impact upon However, in some cases an overlap between OBEs their belief system. Apart from containing meaningful and hallucinations associated with certain mental visual content, OBEs have been associated with intense health disorders or neurological factors can be noted. emotions reported among experients. Gabbard, Jones, Blackmore reported that those who have been diagnosed and Twemlow (1982) noted that profound sensations of with schizophrenia experience hallucinations and body “joy, freedom . . . and peace” (p. 454) often arise during distortions that overlap with phenomena reported in OBEs. Further, due to the impact that OBEs can have OBE accounts, such as a sense of body displacement. on one’s belief system and emotions, counsellors and Further, Blanke, Landis, Seeck, and Spinelli (2003) psychotherapists might consider giving more attention to found that some OBEs may have a neurological basis: their clients’ OBEs, as these experiences offer significant “Both disintegrations (personal; personal-extrapersonal) opportunities for personal growth and expanding are necessary for the occurrence of OBE and AS spiritual awareness. [autoscopy], and that they are due to a paroxysmal In the recent two decades, transpersonal cerebral dysfunction of the TPJ [temporo-parietal therapists have turned their attention to exploring junction] in a state of partially and briefly impaired client experiences of dreams, connection to intuition, consciousness” (p. 223). Therefore, it is suggested that and the spiritual dimension of the self. However, the a link exists between neurological factors, mental health current literature suggests that few practitioners have disorders, and OBEs in some cases (see also De Foe, Van considered the value of exploring the nature of OBEs Doorn, & Symmons, 2012).

76 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies De Foe Even though some overlap between OBE and Western therapeutic practice still appears to be phenomena and other related phenomena (such as crumbling quite slowly, and a number of clients may hallucinations associated with mental health factors) be too conservative to consider the potential benefits can be noted, research questions related to OBEs should of approaches such as meditation or spiritual work. not only be grounded in examining abnormal factors. Yet, some changes are occurring and this can be noted Transpersonal therapists have long recognized OBEs as within the mainstream practice of counselling. Harris experiences of spiritual transcendence and have noted (2009) pointed out that mindfulness and meditation them to bear much personal, emotional, and spiritual value techniques have greatly enriched clinical practice in the for the experient (Twemlow, 1989). It might be beneficial West and that clients often embrace these approaches as for therapists, whether working within mainstream helpful additions to mainstream therapies such as CBT. clinical approaches or not, to educate themselves about Ongoing research into other mainstream counselling the nature of OBEs and the potential benefits of exploring approaches, such as gestalt counselling, has also started their clients OBE accounts in greater depth. Although it to recognize the value of working with the spiritual is the duty of care of any mental health practitioner to dimension of the self within formal counselling sessions rule out potential factors that may have contributed to (Joyce & Sills, 2010). a client’s OBEs (such as mental health issues), it is also The rise of transpersonal practice has seen more important for practitioners to approach OBEs from an therapists acknowledge the role of dream experiences, open person-centered perspective of non-judgement, spiritual awakenings, and encounters with spirit guides rather than anticipating that all OBE accounts are in the healing process. However, one area of inquiry somehow indicative of abnormal functioning. that has not been explored at length in the literature is Transpersonal Perspectives the potential value of discussing OBEs and the content ver the course of the previous two decades of client accounts of these experiences in a therapeutic Opsychotherapy practice has become increasingly framework. Apart from research dialogue about OBEs, influenced by ideas and concepts found in Eastern the idea of leaving the body and travelling to another philosophy. Teachings from traditional Buddhism dimension of experience has long fascinated humankind. and meditation practice, for example, have become This curiosity has given rise to a range of occult and New increasingly adopted by psychotherapists practicing Age literature about OBEs (see Bruce, 2009). However, within mainstream approaches such as cognitive aside from scientific dialogue and popular discourse behavioral therapy (CBT; Rubin, 1996). Rubin stated about OBEs, the literature focusing on the potential that “the physical and conceptual walls dividing East therapeutic benefits of working with clients who have had and West are crumbling. Opportunities for intercultural OBEs is limited. Literature on transpersonal practice has dialogue are enormous” (p. 6). Yet, despite the acceptance delved into related areas such as dreamwork. However, and integration of techniques such as meditation and again, although a broad range of literature suggests mindfulness into mainstream therapies, other approaches, effective counselling approaches for working with client such as discussion about transcendence experiences, accounts of dreams, the literature related to approaches working with the intuition, and connecting with spirit for working with OBE content is far less prominent. guides, are still considered by many psychotherapists to The reasons for a lack of research into the potential be outside the sphere of mainstream therapy practice. therapeutic benefits of considering OBE accounts may be Ongoing research continues to highlight the twofold. First, as mentioned earlier, related approaches benefits of incorporating approaches such as the ancient such as mindfulness and meditation have only recently practices of shamanic healing into modern counselling appeared as focal points of discussion in mainstream practice. In Melbourne, Australia, for example, training literature on clinical practice (Kabat-Zinn, 2006; Miller, organizations such as the Phoenix Institute facilitate Fletcher, & Kabat-Zinn, 1995). Second, although prior an associate degree in holistic counselling, as well as literature has considered the potential value of discussing an advanced diploma in transpersonal counselling— OBEs in a therapeutic context, clinicians are still left both of which integrate a broad range of transpersonal with the question of: How does one begin? After all, the healing techniques that are grounded in Eastern healing approaches and methods for working with OBE accounts traditions. However, the divide between Eastern in the context of a counselling framework have not been Therapist Response to Client-Reported OBEs International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 77 researched at depth, unlike therapeutic strategies for well worth exploring in the therapeutic context. Here dream-work or mindfulness practice, for instance, which I suggest that clinicians adopt a similar attitude to are underpinned by a much broader literature base. therapeutic interventions focused around OBEs. Both How can therapists work with clients who have NDEs and OBEs can be transformative experiences that reported an OBE or NDE? In this paper, I have formulated often impact on a person’s inner world in an intimate two approaches that could be utilized by counsellors: and profound manner. Thus, it is beneficial to encourage person-centered dialogue and guided visualization. The clients to discuss their experiences within the counselling first, person-centered dialogue, highlights the importance environment. of creating an open therapeutic space in order for clients Most transpersonal therapists might be quite to feel comfortable and accepted when talking about comfortable about asking their clients to discuss the the content of their prior OBEs. The second approach is content of their dreams, but how should therapists raise therapist-directed and involves the practitioner utilizing the topic of OBEs with their clients? The following one of a number of guided visualization techniques to example prompt could be utilized when asking a client assist clients in recalling prior OBEs. The approach of whether he or she has ever had an OBE: guided visualization can also be utilized in some cases to Therapist: I would like to ask you a question that cultivate a similar consciousness state to that experienced might seem a little strange at first, but I think that during an OBE in order to induce (or replicate) some of your response may be relevant to what we have been the aspects of OBEs, such as body dissociation. discussing about your dream experiences. I wonder, Person-Centered Dialogue in the past, have you ever experienced yourself The discussion of OBE accounts within a separate from your physical body, as though for a therapeutic context may be especially relevant when moment your sense of consciousness departed from utilized with clients who hold a strong religious or your body and travelled somewhere else? If yes, what spiritual belief system, with those who are prone to was that experience like for you? fantasy and vivid imagination/daydreaming (see Parra, 2009), or with clients interested in connecting with Such a question should not be asked unless a therapist the spiritual dimension of themselves. Clients in these feels it is appropriate during the session and relevant to groups could have had a prior transcendental experience a specific client. Therapists who specialize in working or spiritual experience that might prompt an interested in with dreams might find it particularly seamless to ease exploring OBEs during a counselling session. A person- into a discussion of OBEs. Conversely, clients who have centered approach in line with the Rogerian counselling no interest in exploring consciousness states such as OBEs model is advised, where the client takes the lead during would benefit little from this question. Thus, therapists the therapeutic intervention and decides how much (or should assess this consideration first. Notably, client how little) he or she is comfortable about discussing his responses to such a question might involve recounting or her prior OBEs. an experience of dissociation, rather than an OBE per Groth-Marnat (1994) noted that those who se. Dissociation experiences can still be useful discussion discuss their NDEs often speak about experiences that points in the therapeutic environment, as it has been well reflect their own belief system or religious inclination. documented in psychotherapy practice that dissociation Those who hold Christian beliefs may report from the body can be indicative of post-traumatic stress encountering angels or manifestations of God, while disorder (PTSD) or other symptomology (such as side- those from a Hindu background may instead report effects of certain SSRIs, or other medication, for instance). encounters with Hindu gods or gurus from Hindu texts. As a side-note, even though some clients might not be This indicates that NDEs can have significant religious interested in discussing the content of their OBE, their or spiritual connotations for the experient. For instance, experience might have impacted on other factors in their many who experience NDEs (and OBEs) find that their life, which could be relevant to the therapeutic process. belief in the afterlife is challenged (or in some cases If a client responds to the above question by confirmed) as a result of their experience (see Monroe, talking about an experience of travelling away from the 1992). Greyson (1997) suggested that NDEs can have physical body, with a distinct sense of consciousness profound impact on beliefs and behaviors, which are separation, then he or she may indeed be describing 78 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies De Foe an OBE. Clients who go on to discuss the impact of more about the nature of OBEs and come to a greater the experience (as well as any symbolic imagery noted) understanding of what their OBE might mean in the may introduce content that could be particularly rich grand scheme of their life. Twemlow proposed three in therapeutic value and important for subsequent techniques that therapists could utilize when working counselling sessions. Depending on one’s orientation, with clients who have had a significant or life-changing therapists could also consider a client’s experiences based OBE. These include: 1) meditation, 2) biofeedback, and on how the OBE impacted on the client’s relationships, 3) self-suggestion relaxation techniques. Transpersonal perception about life and death (from an existential therapists might utilize similar techniques based on their therapy framework, for instance), or how the experience own therapeutic background. For instance, techniques affected the client’s connection with the spiritual such as dream-work, visualization, work with the dimension of life. archetypes, or work with intuition could be applied to The sample question supplied above exemplifies further assist clients in reflecting upon their prior OBEs. just one approach, which might prompt clients to speak One approach involves helping clients to about their prior OBEs. Other approaches could include induce an OBE during a therapeutic intervention. asking a client whether he or she has ever had a near-death This approach could be useful for clients who have not encounter, and inquiring about whether their experience experienced an OBE in the past but wish to explore the has been reminiscent of traditional NDEs (which, as possibilities that an OBE might offer in terms of personal mentioned earlier, often include vivid imagery and strong or spiritual development. However, little research has emotional responses). Alternatively, some clients might be been conducted into the area of therapeutically inducing interested in discussing the topic of OBEs on their own OBEs. Thus, further research would be required in accord. In these cases, it is the role of the therapist to adopt order to draw accurate conclusions about the efficacy a receptive and open attitude of non-judgement while of inducing OBEs for therapeutic purposes. Although listening to the OBE accounts that clients introduce. research into this area has been limited, some researchers Guided Visualization have introduced techniques for inducing an OBE- Some therapists take a more active approach like state during a counselling session. Schenk (2006) and utilize guided visualization techniques to help developed a process where a therapist applies a suggestive clients recall the details of their prior OBEs, while other induction technique in order to encourage the client to practitioners attempt to assist their clients to induce experience waking dreams; these waking dreams bear an OBE as part of the therapeutic process. Twemlow much resemblance to the degree of depth perception (1989) noted that psychoeducation has an important experienced in some OBEs and NDEs. Schenk argued role in the process of working with clients who have had that this process can be facilitated with the aid of OBEs. Often, those who have an OBE do not know visualization techniques and intuitive imagination what to make of the experience or how to contextualize techniques. The process is intended to produce a similar it. Twemlow suggested that teaching clients about the consciousness state to that of an OBE. current literature relevant to OBEs in order to normalize Gelkopf and Meyerson (2004) examined the their experience is important. Though Twemlow stated therapeutic benefits of inducing an OBE during a formal that OBEs have been determined as normal phenomena hypnotherapy session. In Gelkopf and Meyerson’s study, a that do not indicate psychopathology, these experiences practitioner considered three sessions with three separate can, and often do, impact significantly on the beliefs and clients, in which each client was asked to imagine their emotional states of experients. Twemlow advised that consciousness travelling to a different space and leaving many who have had an OBE find themselves drawn to the spatial proximity of their physical body (a hypnotic explore the existential and spiritual dimensions of life induction script was used in order to facilitate this further as a result. process1). Gelkopf and Meyerson reported efficacious Thus, Twemlow (1989) highlighted the results with the technique in all three cases examined. importance of the therapist viewing the OBE as a The first case involved a client who sought to disconnect (potentially) spiritually transformative experience. from the prior emotional pain her family members had He further suggested that the therapist should take caused her. The second case involved a client who was on the role of a teacher, encouraging clients to learn suffering physical pain and immobility. The final case Therapist Response to Client-Reported OBEs International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 79 discussed a client who was involved in a motor vehicle In light of these considerations, questions arise accident that shook her confidence in driving. Each regarding the effectiveness of guided visualization as a client gained a degree of new insight and self-awareness proxy for OBEs. For example, a sensation of separating by temporarily disconnecting from their physical body, from the physical body could still be beneficial in the which allowed each client to perceive their life situation therapeutic process, even where clients might not be from an objective frame of reference. In light of these experiencing an actual authentic OBE. In this manner, findings, Gelkopf and Meyerson suggested that the therapists can draw upon the literature related to OBEs process of inducing an OBE in a safe and comfortable in order to utilize the concept of body separation as environment, facilitated by a skilled practitioner such a foundation for therapeutic interventions where a as a hypnotherapist, could be utilized as an effective visualisation component is involved. The concept of therapeutic intervention. separating from the physical body may be appealing It should be noted that the degree to which to clients who present with issues such as negative clients experience an authentic OBE, as compared self-image (Murray & Fox, 2005), cognitive fusion with a guided, dissociative experience, is not clear in (Harris, 2009), or past traumatic experiences (Gelkopf most studies that attempt to induce OBEs within the & Meyerson, 2004). Gelkopf and Meyerson’s results therapeutic environment. Some researchers suggest that indicated that incorporating the notion of separating it is not sufficient to merely imagine floating out of one’s from one’s body into the therapeutic process could be physical body in order to replicate an OBE; in fact, beneficial in addressing a broad range of client issues. authentic OBEs have been deemed much more visceral Conclusion: How Should Therapists and immersive than dissociative experiences elicited Approach OBE Accounts? during guided visualization sessions (Monroe, 1992). n this paper, I have reviewed current literature This brings into question whether clients who are guided Iin order to propose two potential approaches for to imagine leaving the body do, in fact, experience an working with clients who wish to discuss prior OBEs authentic OBE, or whether some clients report a vividly during counselling sessions: person-centered dialogue imagined separation from the body instead. and guided visualization. A person-centered approach Blanke, Sanchez-Vives, Slater, and Spanlang empowers clients to decide how much or how little they (2010) attempted to replicate OBEs with the use of the would prefer to discuss their experiences. This approach body-swap illusion in order to produce the experience also affords therapists the chance to note meaningful of consciousness transfer. For this purpose, Blanke et and symbolic aspects of client OBEs. As mentioned al. utilized an external video camera feed connected earlier, the content of OBEs differs quite broadly across to goggles that participants were instructed to wear clients, much like the content of dreams. Therefore, in order to attempt to replicate the sensation of therapists might find a person-centered approach most consciousness transfer. The researchers noted that the beneficial for eliciting specific details from clients, for series of experiments were able to produce an experience example, in terms of how prior OBEs have impacted quite similar to a realistic OBE. However, these authors most significantly on their lives. suggested that the body-swap illusion could only be Therapists who specialize in the area of considered a proxy for replicating some of the features dreamwork may find it beneficial to build upon the of an OBE (such as a sense of leaving the body), rather person-centered approach by incorporating dream- than a means of inducing an actual or authentic OBE. work techniques when exploring the content of OBEs. Nonetheless, Blanke and colleagues suggested that the Monroe (1992) noted that OBEs often contain a similar experience of leaving the body during the body-swap type of symbolism and imagery of that reported in illusion is quite similar to that of an actual OBE— dreams. Thus, the actual content discussed during OBE therefore their approach could be considered as a accounts could be approached with the aid of dream reliable proxy for an OBE. Further, some participants, interpretation methods, for example, such as those based such as those who are fantasy prone (Parra, 2009) on Gestalt dream-work strategies (see Pesant & Zadra, reported that the prompt of the body-swap illusion or 2004). However, further research is required in order a hypnotherapy induction can be sufficient in order to to assess the potential value of utilizing dream-work trigger an OBE. techniques with those who have had OBEs.

80 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies De Foe The second proposed approach suggested help highlight the broader benefits of working with clients that guided visualization techniques can be applied to who have had OBEs. explore the nature of OBEs further. Guided visualization approaches are in particular beneficial for therapists References seeking to formulate therapeutic interventions that involve a guided process of assisting a client to experience Blackmore, S. (1986). Out-of-body experiences in an OBE, or for the purposes of inducing a consciousness schizophrenia a questionnaire survey. The Journal state similar to the OBE-state. Prior studies, which have of Nervous and Mental Disease, 174(10), 615-619. applied guided visualization approaches, seem to infer doi:10.1097/00005053-198610000-00006 that the therapist must have some level of expertise, Blanke, O., Landis, T., Seeck, M., & Spinelli, L. either in terms of their understanding of OBEs, or (2003). Out‐of‐body experience and autoscopy of skillset related to clinical hypnotherapy practice in order neurological origin. Brain Journal of Neurology, to utilize these techniques. Therefore, a person-centered 127(2), 243-258. doi:10.1093/brain/awh040 approach could be more beneficial for therapists who Blanke, O., & Mohr, C. (2005). The demystification of prefer not to utilize more advanced guided visualization autoscopic phenomena: Experimental propositions. approaches when working with clients who have had Current Psychiatry Reports, 7(3), 189-195. doi:10.1007/ OBEs. Further, unless a client has requested counselling s11920-005-0052-1 focused on issues around their OBE in particular, more Blanke, O., Sanchez-Vives, M. V., Slater, M., & Spanlang, advanced interventions involving a guided visualization B. (2010). First person experience of body transfer in component might not be as useful or applicable. virtual reality. PLoS ONE 5(5): e10564. doi:10.1371/ In conclusion, I suggest that a more formalized journal.pone.0010564 framework should be devised for therapists who are Bruce, R. (2009). Astral dynamics: The complete book of interested in incorporating OBE-related techniques out-of-body experiences (Rev. ed.). Charlottesville, when working with their clients. No widely accepted VA: Hampton Roads. and validated model has thus far been devised for De Foe, A., Van Doorn, G., & Symmons, M. (2012). approaching OBE accounts in a formal manner in Auditory hallucinations predict likelihood of counselling interventions. For the most part, this leaves, out-of-body experience. Australian Journal of open-ended, the question: How should therapists respond Parapsychology, 12(1), 59-68. to client accounts of out-of-body experience? Based on Ellison, A. (1988). The reality of the paranormal. considerations made throughout this paper, I have argued Edinburgh, UK: Harrap Limited. that it is clear OBEs can offer extensive opportunities Gabbard, M. D., Jones, F. C., Twemlow, S. W. (1982). for spiritual and emotional dialogue in the counselling The out-of-body experience: A phenomenological session. However, in light of the considerations made here, typology based on questionnaire responses. The future research must investigate how we can best approach American Journal of Psychiatry, 139(4), 450-455. OBE accounts in a formal counselling context in terms of Gelkopf, M., & Meyerson, J. (2004). Therapeutic a standardized and recognized clinical framework. utilization of spontaneous out-of-body experiences Future research should also address how one might in hypnotherapy. American Journal of Psychotherapy, arrive at a clearer definition of OBE for therapeutic purposes. 58(1), 90-102. Can OBEs be replicated in a hypnotherapy session, and Greyson, B. (1981). Near-death experiences and if so, should particular criteria exist for evaluating the attempted suicide. Suicide and Life-Threatening authenticity of OBEs? Or, rather, perhaps criteria should be Behavior, 11, 10-16. devised to examine the therapeutic impact, rather than the Greyson, B. (1997). The near-death experience as a focus defining characteristics of OBEs that are induced within of clinical attention. Journal of Nervous & Mental the therapeutic environment. Another research question Disease, 185(5), 327-334. doi:10.1097/00005053- that arises is: Can therapists treat certain emotional issues 199705000-00007 or mental health disorders with the aid of an induced OBE Groth-Marnat, G. (1994). Cross-cultural perspectives as part of a counselling intervention? Prior studies have on the near-death experience. Australian Parapsych- produced promising results and additional research could ological Review, 19, 7-11. Therapist Response to Client-Reported OBEs International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 81 Harris, R. (2009). ACT made simple: An easy-to-read Notes primer on acceptance and commitment therapy. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger. 1. Refer to the Appendix of Gelkopf and Meyerson’s Irwin, H. (1985). Flight of mind: A psychological study of the (2004) study for a full transcript of the hypnotherapy out-of-body experience. Blue Ridge Summit, PA: script that these authors utilized. Scarecrow Press. Irwin, H., & Watt, C. (2007). An introduction to About the Author parapsychology (5th Ed.). Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Joyce, P., & Sills, C. (2010). Skills in gestalt counselling & Alexander De Foe is a PhD Candidate at Monash Univer- psychotherapy. (2nd ed.). London, UK: Sage. sity in Melbourne, Australia. Alexander’s doctoral Kabat-Zinn, J. (2006). Mindfulness-based interventions research is based in the discipline of parapsychology, in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical specializing in the study of out-of-body experiences Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 144-156. (OBEs). Alexander has undertaken qualitative and doi:10.1093/clipsy.bpg016 quantitative research into OBEs, and he has facilitated Levitan, L., & LaBerge, S. (1991). Other worlds: Out-of-body experiments with participants in a formal lab setting. experiences and lucid dreams. Nightlight, 3(2-3), 1-5. Aside from publishing in peer-reviewed academic Miller, J. J., Fletcher, K., & Kabat-Zinn, J. (1995). journals such as the Australian Journal of Parapsychology, Three-year follow-up and clinical implications of Alexander also disseminates his research in the popular a mindfulness meditation-based stress reduction media; he has recently appeared to discuss OBEs and intervention in the treatment of anxiety disorders. altered states of consciousness on Melbourne’s Triple R General Hospital Psychiatry, 17(3), 192-200. Radio and at a local postgraduate research conference. doi:10.1016/0163-8343(95)00025-M Alexander also completed a Master’s degree in Monroe, R. (1992). Journeys out of the body. New York, Counselling at Monash University and he has clinical NY: Broadway Books. experience as well as teaching experience in the field of Murray, C. D., & Fox, J. (2005). The out-of-body experience psychology. Alongside his doctoral research, Alexander’s and body image: Differences between experients and present academic involvements include lecturing and non-experients. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, tutoring in two disciplines at Monash University: 193(1),70-72.doi:10.1097/01.nmd.0000149223.77469.da psychological studies and transition and pathways Parra, A. (2009). Out-of-body experiences and education. hallucinatory experiences: A psychological approach. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 29(3), 211- About the Journal 223. doi:10.2190/IC.29.3.d Pesant, N., & Zadra, A. (2004). Working with dreams The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies is a in therapy: What do we know and what should peer-reviewed academic journal in print since 1981. It is we do? Clinical Psychology Review, 24, 489-512. published by Floraglades Foundation, and serves as the doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2004.05.002 official publication of the International Transpersonal Rubin, J. B. (1996). Psychotherapy and Buddhism: Towards Association. The journal is available online at www. an integration. New York, NY: Plenum Press. transpersonalstudies.org, and in print through www. Schenk, P.W. (2006). The hypnotic use of waking dreams: lulu.com (search for IJTS). Exploring near-death experiences without the flatlines. Carmarthen, UK: Crown House. Tobacyk, J. J., & Mitchell, T. P. (1987). The out-of-body experience and personality adjustment. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 175, 367-370. doi:10.1097/00005053-198706000-00008 Twemlow, S. (1989). Clinical approaches to the out-of- body experience. Journal of Near-Death Studies, 8(1), 29-43. doi:10.1007/BF01076137

82 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies De Foe Is the Reincarnation Hypothesis Advanced by Stevenson for Spontaneous Past-life Experiences Relevant for the Understanding of the Ontology of Past-life Phenomena? Sergei Slavoutski Sofia University Palo Alto, CA, USA A significant volume of scientific evidence, uncovered by reincarnation research in the last 50 years, supports the reincarnation hypothesis advanced by Ian Stevenson for spontaneous past-life experiences (PLEs). However, at this time this evidence cannot provide an unquestionable proof of the existence of past-life phenomena, nor can it assert that reincarnation is not possible. This paper suggests that the reincarnation hypothesis, being reasonably parsimonious and relatively exhaustive, may provide a plausible explanation for spontaneous PLEs. Also, based on the probability of the same ontology of spontaneous and hypnotic PLEs, it may be argued that this hypothesis might also be relevant for the hypnotic PLEs, as well as for the understanding of the ontology of past-life phenomena in general. Keywords: reincarnation hypothesis, past life, past-life experience, spontaneous past life, hypnotic past life, Stevenson, rebirth, karma, previous personality

n recent years, the belief in reincarnation has drawn As a primary hypothesis used for the scientific significant attention and continues to gain recognition investigation of cases suggestive of reincarnation, the among researchers and medical professionals, as well reincarnation hypothesis for Stevenson was “not a Ias the general public (Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf, 2008; Mills, matter of belief, but an empirical issue, based on very 2008). The concept of reincarnation is based on the “the specific experiences and observations” (Grof, 2000, p. notion that a nonphysical element of human existence 235). Considering the significance of this hypothesis for not only survives but subsequently is reborn in another reincarnation research, scientifically acquired evidence body” (Irwin, 1989, p. 240). Stevenson (1960a, 1960b) and careful examination of the facts are critical for introduced the reincarnation hypothesis in his early accepting or rejecting the reincarnation hypothesis. studies of children who claimed to remember previous The reincarnation phenomenon is usually lives and continued to advance this theory in his later associated with the ability of people to recall what they works (e.g., 1977, 1983, 1997b, 2000a). He proposed the believe represents their past lives, “reported experiences following explanation of the reincarnation phenomenon: or impressions of oneself as a particular person (other than one’s current life identity) in a previous time or life” Reincarnation, briefly defined, includes the idea that (Mills & Lynn, 2001, p. 285). These past-life experiences men [and women] consist of physical bodies and (PLEs), which represent individual recollections, are minds. At a person’s death, his [her] physical body expressly significant for the problem of postmortem perishes, but his [her] mind may persist and later survival of human consciousness; they involve recalling become associated with another physical body in the and engaging in previous historical life events happening process called reincarnation. Some persons find the at different geographical locations and “experiential word “mind” in this definition unclear or otherwise sequences of this kind constitute the empirical basis for unattractive. They may certainly substitute another the widespread belief in reincarnation” (Grof, 2000, p. word such as “soul” or “individuality.” I intend 235). Various in-depth investigations of PLE phenomena only to indicate a component of human beings not in the last 50 years have resulted in the accumulation of a comprised in our present understanding of their vast body of evidence that supports possible plausibility physical bodies, which component may persist after of the reincarnation hypothesis (e.g., Haraldsson, 1991, physical death. (1977, footnote 2, p. 305) 1997, 2000a, 2000b, 2003, 2008; Mills, 1988, 1990, ReincarnationInternational Journal and Past-Life of Transpersonal Phenomena Studies , 31(1), 2012,International pp. 83-96 Journal of Transpersonal Studies 83 1994, 2003; Pasricha, 1990, 1996, 1998, 2008a, 2008b; 1986; Wickramasekera, 2009), repressed memories Stevenson, 1960a, 1960b, 1974, 1977, 1983, 1987, (Loftus, 1997, 2000; Pasricha, 2011) or genetic 1997a, 1997b, 2000a, 2003). For that matter, there is memories (Almeder, 1992; Pasricha, 2006; Stevenson, a possibility that the reincarnation hypothesis advanced 1987; Tarazi, 1990), and some others. by Stevenson may be relevant to and offer conceptual Besides spontaneous and hypnotic forms support for the understanding of the ontology (i.e., a of past-life recall, some voluntary and involuntary theory about the nature of reality or existence) of PLE manifestations of PLEs have been reported to happen phenomena. The exploration of the importance of this in various therapeutic as well as in non-therapeutic hypothesis and its implications for PLE phenomena environments (Grof, 1994; Stevenson & Pasricha, 1980): may also provide better understanding of the evidence during psychedelic and psycholytic therapies using LSD gathered as a result of reincarnation studies and improve with psychiatric patient and non-patient populations the methodology of the future reincarnation research. (Chandler, Holden, & Kolander, 1992; Grof, 1975, Past-life recall occurs in several forms, two 1976, 1980); experiential therapeutic modalities (e.g., of which, spontaneous and hypnotic, represent the Gestalt, primal, rebirthing, holotropic breathing; Grof, corresponding types of reincarnation cases that have been 1985; Grof & Bennet, 1993); and various forms of the subject of scientific investigation (Edelman & Bernet, bodywork (e.g., existential holistic therapy, Reichian 2007). Spontaneous past-life recalls are documented in therapies, Rolfing, psychodrama; Ventegodt et al., 2004; the reports of young children who remember the facts, Woolger, 1996, 2000; Grof, 1994). PLEs are also circumstances, and specific details of the life of deceased reported to appear under specific psycho-emotional and people and in some instances demonstrate the behavioral psychosomatic conditions, such as: sensory isolation patterns and emotional longings inherent in the (Grof, 1994; Tart, 1996); spontaneous episodes of personalities of these deceased individuals (e.g., Brody, nonordinary states of consciousness (e.g., spiritual 1979; Matlock, 1990; Mills & Lynn, 2001; Tucker, 2005). emergencies; Grof & Grof, 1986, 1989); some forms of Hypnotic past-life memories (PLMs) occur when alleged deep meditative visualization (e.g., yogic concentrated PLEs are retrieved under hypnosis either in a therapeutic meditation samadhi; Bilimoria & Stansell, 2010), which environment during past-life regression therapy or in could be accompanied by psychosomatic reactions PLE-related controlled studies. In some cases, hypnotic (Pagis, 2009); and dreaming in sleep states (Krippner & induction may not be necessary for evoking PLMs Faith, 2001). (Cranston & Williams, 1999; Head & Cranston, 2000), The recall of PLMs can also occur independently, and the recalls may happen regardless of the participant’s in parallel or may alternate with regular memories, belief in past lives (Fiore, 2005). which an individual retains from different periods of Evidence of hypnotic PLMs and even spontaneous his or her life, including prenatal and perinatal stages of PLEs still remains controversial based on the skepticism personal development (Grof, 1988, 1992). Spontaneous and criticism from the scientific community and failure PLEs reported in adults are less frequent than in children of some investigations to fully verify the accuracy of the and for the most part are initiated by some memory information retrieved from these experiences (Angel, cues (Mills & Lynn, 2001). They can be compared 1994; Edwards, 1987, 1997; Hales, 2001a, 2001b; Sagan, to very vivid déjà vu experiences when an individual 1996; Swinburne, 1986; Webster, 2009; Wilson, 1981, is able to provide descriptions of environments and 1982, 1988). In general, PLEs have received a mixture circumstances related to the observed events without of interpretations and have been associated with a variety any prior knowledge of them (Brown, 2003; Neppe, of phenomena that range from paranormal encounters 2010). Such experiences have been explained as “the (Braude, 2003; Chari, 1978; Grof, 1994, Hales, 2001a, residues of experiences from another life,” and they are 2001b; Luke, 2011; Stevenson, 1977) and altered states influenced by socio-cultural factors (Mills & Lynn, of consciousness (Luke, 2011; Simöes, 2002; Tart, 1974, 2001, p. 289). A variety of manifestations of PLEs have 1992; Woolger, 1999) to fantasy constructions (Baker, been reported across geographically, historically, and 1982; Dwairy, 2006; Kampman, 1976; Mariott, 1984; culturally diverse populations, and PLEs have been Robertson & Gow, 1999; Spanos, 1988, 1996; Spanos, known to occur in ordinary, as well as in non-ordinary Menary, Gabora, DuBreuil, & Dewhirst, 1991; Venn, states of consciousness (Grof, 1985, 1994, 2000; Luke, 84 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Slavoutski 2011; Mills & Lynn, 2001; Stevenson, 1977). These philosophical texts and dated circa 6th-5th centuries BCE. manifestations may be qualified as transpersonal since Also, the earliest existing Jain texts, such as Acaranga and they represent “experiences in which the sense of identity Uttaradhyayana Sutras, described the multiple cycles of or self extends beyond (trans) the individual or personal birth and rebirth as a result of one’s karma, where karma to encompass wider aspects of humankind, life, psyche, is referred to as the concept of “the inevitable and moral and cosmos” (Walsh & Vaughn, 1993, p. 3). PLE consequences of action (karman)” (p. 74). The theory phenomena demonstrate the multidimensional nature of karma is directly interconnected with the concepts of human consciousness, show human abilities that are of reincarnation and rebirth (Tart, 2010). According to inherent to each individual and which are believed to be Vedic texts, it was believed that the law of karma directly part of a human species’ heritage, and define how the influences a person’s good or evil rebirth (positive or potential of a human soul manifests in life (Tart, 1997). negative causes for one’s birth; O’Flaherty, 2007); the The body of research related to PLEs is dependent upon concept of karma as a law of retribution developed out the theory of rebirth in general and reincarnation in of earlier (pre-Vedic) philosophy and later took on the particular, offering a profound insight into the intricate meaning of the law of cause and effect (Yevtic, 1927). nature of the reincarnation phenomenon (Head & The possibility of accessing the information related Cranston, 1977, 2000; McClelland, 2010; Rosen, 1997). to past lives through a contemplative trance, a state of The term reincarnation, as it is used in this paper, means consciousness reached in a concentrated meditation, was “re-infleshment and refers to surviving soul or some noted in Patanjali’s Yoga-Sutras (circa 5th-6th century CE) other spiritually significant aspect of a deceased being of India (Whicher, 2005). assuming a (new) ‘un-souled body’ and, hence, having The most recent scientific research on another life” (McClelland, 2010, p. 231), whereas, rebirth reincarnation and past lives has been done by Ian is “the most general and most inclusive term for what is Stevenson, who dedicated almost a half of a century of also called reincarnation” (p. 218). his professional life to the investigation of cases of the The concept of past lives goes back to the times reincarnation type (Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf, 2008). Since of ancient Egypt, India, Greece, and Rome (Head & the early 1960s, Stevenson started to construct a novel Cranston, 2000; McClelland, 2010). It is closely con- area of research focusing on the investigations of the nected with the theory of reincarnation or rebirth that is spontaneous cases involving children. These children part of a number of Eastern religious and philosophical reported memories of previous lives mostly between doctrines, such as Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and two and four years of age and usually stopped speaking Taoism (Knapp, 2005; Obeyeskere, 2002; Sharma, 1990, about such memories between five and seven (Stevenson, 2001; Vincanne, 2001). Some indications of this 2000a; Haraldsson, 2003; Tucker, 2007). In many cases, belief can be found in early Christianity and Judaism children described the circumstances of death of the (Almeder, 1992; Head & Cranston, 2000; Smith, previously-lived person, which they recalled were sudden 2003) and later has also been supported by Western and violent (Stevenson, 1977, 2000a; Haraldsson, 2003). and Middle Eastern systems of philosophical thought, Others recalled circumstances of previous lives, such as such as Kabbalistic Judaism (Head & Cranston, 2000), claimed relations to their current or to a totally different Rosicrucian and Cathar Christian traditions (Head & family, as well as their emotional longings towards their Cranston, 2000; Heindel, 1985), the Alawi and Druze previous family, which may have varied among different traditions in Islam (Abd-Allah, 1983; Stevenson, 1983), cases (Tucker, 2008). anthroposophical and theosophical European doctrines Stevenson (1997b) and other researchers (Mills, (Morrisson, 2008; Steiner, 1977, 1992, 2011; Querido, 1988; Pasricha, Keil, Tucker, & Stevenson, 2005; Tucker, 1997), Zoroastrianism (Luhrmann, 2002) and others. 2000) identified research parameters that could be found The first notion of karmic (based on the cause in cases regardless of country and culture. Common and effect of a person’s actions) rebirth is found in the characteristics include birthmarks and birth defects Brahmana writings (e.g., Satapatha Brahmana), and matching the wounds of a deceased person; recognitions subsequently the concept of cyclical rebirth (reincarnation) and remarks explicable from the point of view of a such appears in the Brihadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads person; similarities of personality characteristics, such as (Geen, 2007); these are considered among the oldest temper, habits, and talents; and some psycho-emotional Reincarnation and Past-Life Phenomena International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 85 manifestations, such as philias and phobias, which could maintained that the data he uncovered were consistent not be reasoned from the standpoint of the current life, with the reincarnation hypothesis. but rather on the basis of the past life (Stevenson, 1990; In all his works, Stevenson adhered to the Mills, 2008). strictest standards of scientific exploration, including The other area of interest for Stevenson was the the collection and interpretation of data. He structured analysis of the children’s behavioral patterns observed his investigations so that first he conducted a series of when they were engaged in play. Those behaviors interviews with the subject, then with members of his or apparently represented some elements of previous life- her family (parents, siblings, and grandparents), next he styles that were unusual and could not be attributed to collected available firsthand testimonies of other people their current family environments (Stevenson, 2000c; (relatives, teachers, neighbors) about subject’s statements Stevenson & Keil, 2005). In his studies, Stevenson and behavior related to the claims of remembering analyzed the impact of past lives on the development his or her past lives (1997b). In the investigations of of personality in addition to genetic and environmental birthmarks and birth defects, all evidence was examined factors. He believed that genetic and/or environmental and documented with detailed descriptions, drawings influences could not be the only explanations of children’s and photographs (1997a, 1997b). Dates were validated atypical behaviors. (Stevenson, 1977) against existing records, such as birth certificates, He also suggested a possibility that some identity cards, personal journals, and so forth. After personality traits inherent to the deceased individuals that, using the same research protocols and procedures, could be carried over to the children in ways that may Stevenson interviewed the family of the claimed previous not have any conventional explanation (Stevenson, person. He documented all facts and events related 1977; 2000b). These transfers of some aspects of to the interaction between the two families (1977). personality Stevenson identified with what he called a In order to determine and verify the location of the “developmental karma.” Stevenson (1977) proposed that wounds on the bodies of the deceased persons in cross- the cases he studied provided some evidence that these examination of the birthmarks and birth defects of the carry-overs may contain structures of specific cognitive subjects, Stevenson, whenever it was possible, acquired data, as well as behavioral elements including talents and and examined postmortem reports, death certificates, morals. He further argued that, based on the concept criminal records, and other documents related to the of reincarnation, people are directly responsible for their death of the previous person (Mills, 1989; Pasricha, own personality growth and for the outcomes of their 1998; Stevenson, 1997a, 1997b). Only after thoroughly deeds. He believed that the practical implications of conducted investigation, Stevenson could conclude that such interpretation might help to explore and influence “the [irrefutable] correspondence between wounds and human behavior in a way that is principally different birthmarks and the child’s correct statements about the from the dominating beliefs of societal and familial life of the deceased person usually leave no doubt that liabilities for individual wrongdoings. the correct previous personality has been identified” Stevenson always stayed focused on the evidence, (Stevenson, 1997b, p. 11). In his references to the past- not accepting any conjecture, in order to maintain the life identity of a deceased person, Stevenson (1977) scientific veracity of his data. He never declared that preferred to use the term previous personality because his research provided any proof of reincarnation and the term can be used whether or not an actual always refrained from asserting that he himself believed deceased person has been found whose life in it (Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf, 2008). Once, when asked corresponded to the child’s statements; nor does directly whether he believed in reincarnation, Stevenson its use imply any commitment to a particular answered: “The physical marks present strong evidence,” explanation of how the child obtained any correct with no further comment (Westphal, 2008, p. 131). For knowledge he [or she] showed about the person that matter, he was persistent in opposing the use of the identified. (footnote 4, pp. 307-308) term “proof” even for the massive evidence that was accumulated as a result of his research (Tucker, 2008). In order for the obtained evidence to be He always referred to his case studies as “suggestive of accepted, Stevenson systematically evaluated and ruled reincarnation,” and “of the reincarnation type,” and out all alternative explanations, such as erroneous 86 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Slavoutski identification of the deceased person; coincidence or the beliefs related to incarnation in the families of the random match of a birthmark and a wound; possible children, 16% (n = 9) of families believed in reincarnation genetic origin of a birthmark or birth defect; possible prior to the children’s claims; 37% (n = 21) showed a communication between the families prior to the passing interest in the topic of reincarnation; 20% (n investigation; extrasensory perception, as a means to = 11) expressed interest in parapsychology in general, acquire information about the previous personality; but not specifically in reincarnation; 27% (n = 15) inaccurate or inconsistent testimonies of the participants had little or no knowledge about reincarnation; and in the case. Stevenson (1983) strongly believed that in 29% (n = 23) of reports were insufficient to make a cases where the conventional explanation was obvious, conclusion about family beliefs. In many cases the the investigation procedures should be fully inclusive children’s statements about their alleged previous lives and cover all aspects of the case. Some of the cases were were surrounded by mystery and disbelief even causing discarded and related documentation was not included resentment and scolding by some parents because such in the investigation reports when Stevenson suspected claims represented a concept that was not taught at or found any conflicting testimonies, witnesses’ biases, schools and “often conflicted seriously with the beliefs of participants’ questionable motives or behavior, and other their parents and other members of their families” procedural or evidential discrepancies. He included only (Stevenson, 1983, p. 744). In such cases, parents were the strongest cases in his final reports (Grof, 2000). resistant to acknowledge the children’s statements Stevenson demonstrated in many of his and dismissed them. Parents’ rejecting their children’s documented investigations that the children’s claims statements could explain why in 79 American cases only of previous life memories were a cross-cultural 20% (n = 16) were “solved,” meaning that the identity phenomenon, which was not necessarily reliant on the of the alleged deceased person was verified. The majority belief in reincarnation common to a specific cultural remained “unsolved” due to insufficient information to environment (Tucker, 2008). At the same time, speaking discover the children’s claimed previous personality. about the cultural influences in cases of reincarnation There was a significant difference between type, Stevenson (1983) maintained that American and Indian samples of solved cases regarding the relationship between the child and the alleged the cases of the various cultures reflect, to some extent, deceased person. In 94% (n = 15) of solved American cases, the variations in the beliefs about reincarnation. that person “was a member of the child’s family, such as We cannot yet explain these correlations. Two an older sibling or a grandparent who had died before interpretations are obvious: first, the beliefs may the subject’s birth” (Stevenson, 1983, p. 744), whereas influence the development of the cases; second, if in Indian cases (n = 266), children identified with reincarnation occurs, the beliefs may influence what persons outside their families with whom their family actually happens from one life to another. But there had never met and who lived in different, sometimes may be other explanations also. (p. 743) distant geographical areas. The similar feature of alleged Therefore, the belief in reincarnation among past-life identities in both Indian and American samples certain cultures was a natural factor in identifying the was the high occurrence of violent deaths, found to be primary geographical areas for the research: northern 56% and 80% respectively. Those numbers significantly India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, south exceeded the incidence of violent deaths in the general central Turkey, Lebanon, Syria, and northwest North population of India (7.2%) and the United States (8%). America (the natives of that region). Cases with similar The other similar characteristic in both samples was main features had also occurred “in areas of the world the average age when children started to talk about whose peoples find the idea of reincarnation uncongenial their presumed previous lives, which was three years. or even heretical” (Stevenson, 1977, p. 308), such as in However, the average age when these children stopped Europe and North America, though the reports from their past-life recollection was nine and a half years for these regions were not as frequent or as rich in details. Indian children and eight years for American children. Stevenson (1983) researched 79 cases of The reasons for this variation, as Stevenson suggested, American children who claimed to remember previous could be due to the different degree of parental attention. lives (43 males and 36 females). Analyzing the data about “When adults lose interest in what the child says, or have Reincarnation and Past-Life Phenomena International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 87 none to begin with, the child himself may stop talking that in many cases there were alternative interpretations about the memories and forget them earlier than he of the results (Mills & Lynn, 2001). For example, would if he received more attention” (p. 746). Many fears and phobias are determined by complex Stevenson (1983) did not believe that in Ameri- interaction of genetic and physiological vulnerabilities can cases wish fulfillment was a relevant motivation for and subtle conditioning events and situational children to report their PLEs, since their present-life triggers. . . . Déjà vu experiences have been ascribed conditions were primarily better than their past-life ones, to temporal-lobe lability and deficits that are by no which were “usually commonplace ones, sometimes lived means readily apparent or easily detectable. . . . And in less comfortable circumstances than those of the child’s contrary to some of Shweder’s earlier clams, research family” (p. 747). At the same time, he did not exclude on identical twins has not confirmed that identical the likelihood of the child’s behavior associated with the twins reared together generally exhibit marked previous personality as fantasy constructions. Although differences in personality or that the personalities of Stevenson, in his analysis of all possible explanations of siblings differ as much as those of a pair of people spontaneous PLEs, considered the plausibility of other chosen randomly. (Mills & Lynn, 2001, p. 298) interpretations for a small number of his cases, he stated that he accepted reincarnation as the best explanation Paul Edwards, an American moral philosopher for the stronger cases (1997b). and contemporary of Stevenson, was a strong opponent Shweder (1986) supported Stevenson’s position of Stevenson’s and his colleagues’ reincarnation research. regarding the credibility of the reincarnation hypothesis Edwards (1987, 1997) in his works, which were (in his own and pointed out some facts contributing to its explanatory words) “attacking reincarnation on both philosophical value. Although he did not specifically concentrate and empirical grounds” (1997, p. 318), summarized on moving forward the reincarnation hypothesis, he some of the most prevalent objections to Stevenson’s suggested that various culturally influenced beliefs reincarnation hypothesis. These criticisms challenged of religious or non-rational nature, “where reason and a variety of areas of Stevenson’s research, implying evidence are irrelevant to subjective experience” (p. such characteristic features as sloppy methodology, 180), could support common sense based theories about researchers’ biased approach, lack of real evidence, and human existence, which are coherent with a variety of ultimately questioning the principle scientific value of observational experiences (Mills & Lynn, 2001). Shweder such studies. The first criticism of Stevenson’s research (1986) believed that the reincarnation hypothesis could was expressed by British historian Ian Wilson, who provide a strong conceptual ground for people blamed Stevenson for dismissing, as Edwards (1987) put it, “on the flimsiest grounds the possibility of fraud on the who are willing to accept as evidence the pervasive part of the children, their parents, and other interested intuitive experience of one’s own observing ego and for parties” (p. 12). As a result, Wilson (1981) suggested that those who have already adopted a conceptual reference there were “serious grounds for believing that Steven- point from which soul exist, for whom reincarnation son may have let through rather more fraudulent cases . . . is at least a theoretical possibility. (p. 181) than he would care to concede” (p. 88). Another of He argued that reincarnation could also explain Wilson’s disparagements was about what he felt was an such facts as noticeable personality differences that could inadequately limited amount of information revealed be occasionally found in identical twins reared together; in the studies about vital informants (e.g., children’s similarity between personalities of siblings from one parents). He also pointed out the fact that in some of family and people randomly selected from different Stevenson’s investigations, the interviewers (including families; some inborn outstanding abilities (e.g., in Stevenson himself) did not speak the language of the mathematics or music) of children that are unique in interviewees and therefore, there was a strong possibility the family and that could not have been gained due to of the investigators’ and interpreters’ personal biases. imitation or training (Shweder, 1986). Wilson’s critical position towards reincarnation Although several of Shweder’s (1986) and was not unanimously shared. For example, Perry (1981), Stevenson’s (1960a, 1977) examinations were consistent in his review of Wilson’s (1981) Mind Out of Time? with the reincarnation hypothesis, some critics believed Reincarnation Claims Investigated, remarked about

88 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Slavoutski what in his view was Wilson’s biased stance towards the though Chari challenged some of the methods and con- reincarnation phenomenon in general, and Stevenson’s clusions of Stevenson’s research, Edwards (1997) suggestion research, in particular: “If this were all to Wilson’s that Chari “proceeds to lament the ‘generally lax’ standards hatchet job on the evidence for reincarnation, it might of evidence prevailing in India” (p. 12) seemed to reflect have damaged a few details, but it would not need to be more of Edwards’ own attitude rather than Chari’s criticisms. taken very seriously” (Perry, 1981, p. 167). The third and fourth examples of criticism of In a later review of Stevenson’s Children Who Stevenson’s reincarnation research came from a popular Remember Previous Lives, Wilson (1988) continued to literature book by a writer and parapsychologist D. express his critique. He stated that although he Scott Rogo (1985) The Search for Yesterday: A Critical Examination of the Evidence for Reincarnation. One of the would be the first to concede that the idea of stories in Rogo’s book provided critique of Stevenson’s reincarnation seems at face value far more fair and alleged attitude towards criticisms of his research, which reasonable than its Christian alternative, . . . [he was] was expressed by David Reed Barker, an anthropologist saddened at the number of “general readers” likely to who assisted Stevenson and his co-researcher, Satwant be beguiled by him [Stevenson] into believing that Pasricha in their investigations of Indian cases. the popular fad for reincarnation as championed by According to Edwards (1997), Barker, who was involved Shirley MacLaine and her ilk really does have some with Pasricha in the investigation of 59 cases, “could serious scientific support. (p. 229) not find a single case in which there was convincing Stevenson (1988) responded to Wilson’s earlier evidence of the presence of paranormal process” (p. 13). (i.e., 1981) and later (i.e., 1988) criticisms, making it clear Stevenson (1986), in his response to allegations, which that although he exhaustively addressed those criticisms, Barker (1979) stated in his Letter to the Editor of the he believed that the future studies, conducted by him Journal of Parapsychology, refuted Barker’s claims: and other researchers, would be able to convincingly For many of these cases Barker took few notes speak to Wilson’s objections. Stevenson (1988) stated: himself, and for some he took none whatever. Wilson cannot retard the study of the cases suggestive Therefore, for him to write (in his Letter to the of reincarnation by raising his voice, and I cannot Editor of the Journal of Parapsychology) about 59 advance it by raising mine. The way ahead, for me at cases “thoroughly investigated” by himself was least, lies in studying cases with even stronger evidence grossly misleading. (Stevenson, 1986, p. 237) of a paranormal process and in having other scientists The other episode, described by Rogo (1985), study similar cases independently of me. (p. 233) suggested that Stevenson tried to prevent Champ Ransom, The second criticism was from Indian philosopher who assisted him with his research in the early 1970s, from and parapsychologist, C. T. K. Chari. Edwards (1997) publicizing a report containing critical views of Stevenson’s suggested that Chari, although not rejecting reincarnation, work. Stevenson (1986) dismissed Rogo’s account of believed that “Stevenson is incredibly naïve and that his Ransom’s report and asserted that “this account is wrong reports have no evidential value, [whereas,] in a number of and once more shows Rogo’s imagination in play” (p. 237). articles Chari has given us some insight into the way Indian Besides Stevenson’s criticism, Matlock (1986) in his review cases ‘suggestive of reincarnation’ are manufactured” of Rogo’s (1985) book pointed out the author’s “casual (p. 12). In contrast with Stevenson, Chari (1978) was documentation, uneven analysis and popular writing convinced that the reasons why the majority of Stevenson style” (p. 229). Disregarding Stevenson’s (1986) statements, and his colleague’s cases occurred in the Middle East, which explained firsthand the situation with Ransom’s Southern Asia, and the Far East were primarily due to the report, Edwards (1997) nevertheless, insisted that strong socio-cultural roots of the belief in reincarnation although Rogo’s account of the details of Ransom’s in these geographical areas. He also argued that past- report was mistaken, he was not at all wrong in suggest- life fantasies in Asian children arose in play or game- ing that it undermines Stevenson’s pretense of like situations, which were “promoted or retarded by having provided genuinely scientific evidence for conscious or unconscious beliefs, attitudes, and responses reincarnation. (p. 14) of parents, guardians, interested bystanders” (p. 319). Even

Reincarnation and Past-Life Phenomena International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 89 Edwards (1997) also believed that Stevenson his vision of the future of the reincarnation research had persistently neglected the major criticisms of his was correct when he anticipated “further accumulation reincarnation studies and made an assertion, although of evidence that will make reincarnation seem to an rather questionable, that Stevenson “has never answered increasing number of informed persons a more probable the more significant objections and . . . [has made] it explanation than others for cases of the [reincarnation] a practice not even to mention their existence” (p. 11). type” (p. 325). Titus Rivas (2003, 2005), a Dutch Making this claim, Edwards disregarded the fact that philosopher and reincarnation researcher, argued various sources (e.g., Wilson, 1981; Stevenson, 1986) that studies of children who claimed to remember pointed to Stevenson’s unbiased but strong policy to previous lives, have presented the bulk of empirical discuss and respond to criticisms of his research “always, evidence for the reincarnation hypothesis. Out of all and only, in scientific journals” (Stevenson, 1986, p. 232). other alternative hypotheses that Stevenson (1977, Carl Sagan, a renowned astronomer, astro- 1987, 1997b, 2000a, 2003) considered in each of his physicist and proponent of scientific skepticism (a strong cases, the reincarnation hypothesis was adopted concept that scientific method is the most appropriate as reasonably parsimonious, and, at the same time, as approach to the empirical investigation of reality in necessarily comprehensive, the one that is supported search for the truth; Morrison, 2007), was co-founder by exhaustive evidence. Although, in some cases of of a debunking organization, the Committee for the reincarnation type (CORT), apart from the normal Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal explanation (e.g., self-deception and fantasy), the other (CSICOP) and a strong critic of many paranormal ideas, hypotheses might have been more parsimonious (e.g., including reincarnation (Tucker, 2005). Even though ESP), they did not provide a comprehensive explanation Sagan (1996) personally did not believe in reincarnation, for such cases, whereas, “in contrast, reincarnation he considered that along with few other claims in the [hypothesis] did fulfill both conditions” (Rivas, 1993, field of parapsychology, claims related to reincarnation p. 1). Analyzing the studies of CORT that had been research deserve serious attention; specifically those done by researchers around the world, Rivas asserted claims, where that these cases presented substantive evidence that subjects in these cases recalled their previous lives. young children sometimes report the details of a Therefore, he considered the reincarnation hypothesis previous life, which upon checking turn out to be “the most parsimonious sufficient hypothesis that accurate and which they could not have known exhaustively explains all details of paranormal CORTs” about in any other way than reincarnation [stronger (p. 8). cases in Stevenson’s studies]. I pick these claims not Contemporary American philosopher Robert because I think they’re likely to be valid (I don’t), Almeder (1996) elaborated on Rivas’ assertion about but as examples of contentions that might be true. parsimony and exhaustiveness of the reincarnation (p. 302) hypothesis by providing strong arguments in support Stevenson had always been open to serious and of its plausibility. Referring to Stevenson’s strong, or substantiated criticisms about his work and responded as he called them rich CORTs, in connection with “the to them in a scholarly manner. He believed that this ostensibly unusual behavior of the people in these richer type of discussion helped improve the methodology and cases,” he stated that “for Stevenson, the behaviors in rigor of the reincarnation research. At the same time, question have no better, or as plausible, an explanation as he refuted inaccurate allegations and unsubstantiated the belief in reincarnation” (p. 513). Almeder stated that critical attacks on him, as he believed that for “numerous “the data in the richer reincarnation cases overwhelmingly criticisms that are false and irresponsible, the best suggests [sic] as the first plausible hypothesis that the antidote is a wise remark attributed to Charles Darwin: subjects in these cases are indeed reincarnated persons” ‘A scientist is ultimately judged by what he himself (p. 498). Almeder (2001) argued that it is not necessary writes, not by what others write about him’” (Stevenson, for the reincarnation hypothesis to demonstrate how or 1986, p. 238). why the phenomena of reincarnation produced the data Stevenson’s investigation of over 2,500 cases in order to provide acceptable explanation for it in the of the reincarnation type (Tucker, 2007) showed that rich cases. 90 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Slavoutski in many ways seemed to be similar to some of those that So, there is a prima facie plausibility to the manifest in hypnotic PLEs. For these reasons, it is not reincarnation hypothesis as an explanation of the improbable that the reincarnation hypothesis advanced data in the richer cases because the content of the by Stevenson for spontaneous PLEs may also provide a richer cases is precisely what we would expect or plausible explanation for some hypnotic PLEs. Therefore, predict if we thought there was any evidence at all future research could be important for the investigation that would confirm the hypothesis of reincarnation. of the ontology of spontaneous and hypnotic PLEs and (p. 497) also for exploring the possibility of them having the Almeder (1996) believed that the reincarnation same ontology. hypothesis (in contrast to, for example, psi as a possible Regardless that the scientific explanation for alternative hypothesis) “is considerably more plausible the full range of PLEs is not available at this time, the because [it is] quite empirically testable and falsifiable” concept of reincarnation may offer a comprehensive, (p. 503) with the only assumption being that human logically sound, and practically important theoretical personality was not dependent on bodily continuity over framework, which could enable a better understanding time. He argued that the reincarnation hypothesis has of the interconnections and interdependencies between to be accepted for cases of spontaneous PLEs because it cognitive processes, behavioral characteristics, and is a truly experimental hypothesis that is grounded in emotional manifestations inherent to personality and continuously manifested people’s experiences and that attempt to explain the perceived meaning of events and accepts credible verification: circumstances happening in a person’s life. The scientific approach to the examination and evaluation of the Reincarnation is indeed an experimental hypothesis evidence for spontaneous, hypnotic, and other forms that admits of conclusive verification and falsification. of PLEs should be seen as a necessary and required True, if we were to regress a large number of people methodology for reincarnation research, which could and never get the sorts of memories or unlearned enhance its relevance and its practical implications. This skills that only reincarnation could plausibly explain, research may significantly contribute to the exploration or if . . . we were never to come across any more of the nature of human consciousness, including the spontaneous cases like the ideal [i.e., very rich] cases, investigation of the possibility of its postmortem survival, we would need to reject the hypothesis. (Almeder, and to the development of theoretical and applied 1992, p. 269) disciplines, such as psychology, cognitive neuroscience, Although the reincarnation hypothesis has been neurophenomenology, psychiatry, and psychotherapy. argued to provide a comparatively plausible explanation for spontaneous PLEs, there is still no consensus among References the scientific community about the ontology of these PLEs. The evidence that has been produced in support of Abd-Allah, U. F. (1983). 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About the Author

Sergei Slavoutski is a doctoral student in transpersonal psychology at Sofia University (formerly the Institute of Transpersonal Psychology) in Palo Alto, California, USA. Since 1992, he has been developing and practicing his own healing method combining energy medicine with other-life therapy, which utilizes an integral transpersonal approach for resolving a variety of psycho- emotional, somatic, and spiritual issues originated through alleged interconnected life spans. He holds an 96 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Slavoutski Psychoactive Substances and Paranormal Phenomena: A Comprehensive Review David Luke University of Greenwich London, UK This paper investigates the relationship between psychoactive substances and so-called paranormal phenomena falling within the study of parapsychology. It is primarily concerned with extrasensory perception (ESP)—telepathy, precognition, and clairvoyance—as well as out-of-body experiences (OBEs) and near-death experiences (NDEs). Psychokinesis (PK), aura vision, encounter experiences, and sleep paralysis only make a very limited contribution to this review as they are seldom related to psychoactive drugs within the parapsychological literature. The paper borrows widely, but by no means exhaustively, from parapsychology as well as transpersonal studies, anthropology, ethnobotany, phytochemistry, psychiatry, psychotherapy, psychopharmacology, and neurobiology, particularly neurochemistry. It is organized into neurochemical models of paranormal experience (section 1), field reports of intentional and spontaneous phenomena incorporating anthropological, historical and clinical cases, and personal accounts (section 2), surveys of paranormal belief and experience (section 3), experimental research (section 4), and a methodological critique of the experimental research with recommendations for further work (section 5).

Keywords: psychedelic, hallucinogen, entheogen, neurochemistry, para- psychology, psi, ESP, clairvoyance, telepathy, precognition, OBE, NDE

ver since the beginning of the 20th century ayahuasca, N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), marijuana when Western scientists and academics began (which is treated as a psychedelic in the current review), and earnestly turning their attention to psychedelics ketamine, but not opiates or cocaine. This class of visionary Ethere has been a clear association between the use of substances has been termed differently by different authors, these substances and the transpersonal or paranormal usually dependent upon the connotation they wish to experience. Indeed, those people most readily associated convey about the psychoactive effects or how the substance with the discovery and popularization of psychedelics is used. Within the literature of the present review, they also witnessed and explored both the transpersonal and have been termed “mind-expanding” (e.g., Palmer, 1979), the parapsychological dimensions that these substances “psychotropic” (e.g., Irwin, 1994), “psychodysleptic” induced, such as Albert Hofmann, Humphrey Osmond, (Cavanna & Servadio, 1964), “hallucinogenic” (e.g., John Smythies, Aldous Huxley, Gordon Wasson, Blackmore, 1992), and even “entheogenic” (Ruck, Timothy Leary, Ken Kesey, Duncan Blewett, Walter Bigwood, Staples, Wasson, & Ott , 1979), meaning Pahnke, James Fadiman, and Stanislav Grof, to name but bringing forth the divine within, which is a useful term a few (Luke, 2006; Stevens, 1988). The overlap between to convey the apparent divinatory and visionary nature transpersonal and paranormal experiences is apparent of these substances (for discussions see Letcher, 2004; (e.g., Daniels, 2005), but while a great deal has been Ott, 1996; Smith, 2000), although they might be more written in recent years about psychedelic experiences correctly termed “potential entheogens” as they do not from the transpersonal perspective, a comprehensive automatically produce such experiences (Krippner, 2006b, review of the parapsychological literature relating to p. 1). Finally, there is the most frequently used term, psychedelic experiences is long overdue. “psychedelic”, which was created in 1956 by Humphry This review focuses primarily on the class of Osmond and means “mind manifesting” (Osmond, psychoactive substances that largely induce visionary and 1961a, p. 76). Where specified, the original term used by trance-like experiences. For the purposes of the present the authors will be preserved to reflect their orientation to review this includes drugs and sacramentals such as the issue. However, elsewhere, where appropriate, the more mescaline, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin, widely used term “psychedelic” will be used.

PsychoactiveInternational SubstancesJournal of Transpersonal and Paranormal Studies , 31(1), 2012,International pp. 97-156 Journal of Transpersonal Studies 97 For the purpose of the present paper, a 1. Increase in mental imagery, in both vividness and psychedelic drug is: quality, and the dreamlike state (Blackmore, one which, without causing physical addiction, 1992; Osis, 1961a, 1961b; Progoff, 1961; Tart, craving, major physiological disturbances, delirium, 1968, 1994) disorientation, or amnesia, more or less reliably 2. Altered perception of self-identity, such as unity produces thought, mood, and perceptual changes consciousness: The mystical experience of otherwise rarely experienced except in dreams, becoming one with everything in the universe contemplative and religious exaltation, flashes of (Krippner & Fersh, 1970; Nicol & Nicol, 1961; vivid involuntary memory, and acute psychoses. Osis, 1961a; Pahnke, 1968; Tart, 1994) (Grinspoon & Bakalar, 1998, p. 9) 3. Altered body perceptions and dissociation (Blackmore, 1992; Tart, 1994). This is of The earliest parapsychology experiments with psycho- particular interest with respect to the out-of- active substances were conducted with simple stimulants body experience (OBE) and depressants, such as caffeine, amphetamine, alcohol, 4. Distorted sensory input (Blackmore, 1992) amytal, and quinal-barbitone (e.g., Averill & Rhine, 5. Increased absorption and focused attention 1945; Cadoret, 1953; Huby & Wilson, 1961; Murphy, (Millay, 2001; Tart, 1968, 1994) 1961; Rhine, 1934; Rhine, Humphrey, & Averill 1945; 6. Increased empathy (Blewett, 1963; Nicol & Soal & Bateman, 1954; Wilson, 1961, 1962; Woodruff, Nicol, 1961; Tart, 1994). This is of interest to 1943). This work is not included here (for reviews see telepathy, and indeed, elevated empathy is Palmer, 1978; Ramakrishna Rao, 1966) as this review is associated with use of psychedelics generally instead focused on the visionary substances, which are (DeGracia, 1995; Lerner & Lyvers, 2006) seemingly more favorable to the production of psi, that 7. Emotional flexibility (Blewett, 1963), which may Braud (2002) has suggested primarily cause qualitative, also assist in negotiating the fear of psi (Tart, 1994) rather than just quantitative alterations to the user’s state 8. Increased alertness and awareness (Huxley, of consciousness, although Rock and Krippner (e.g., 2012) 1961a; Nicol & Nicol, 1961; Osis, 1961b; Tart, argued that (altered) states of consciousness may be more 1994) accurately described as (altered) states of phenomenology. 9. Increased inwardly focused attention and Some earlier reviews of psychedelics in parapsychology awareness, and decreased external and bodily are available and have been incorporated into the present awareness (Dobkin de Rios, 1978) investigation (Blewett, 1963; Gowan, 1975; Krippner & 10. Increased spontaneity (Osis, 1961a) Davidson, 1970, 1974; Luke, 2008b; Luke & Friedman, 11. Sensitivity to subtle changes (Parker, 1975) and 2010; Parker, 1975; Rogo, 1976; Wilson, 1949). intensity of feeling (Osis, 1961a) There are good theoretical reasons for 12. Physical relaxation (Blackmore, 1992), although investigating psychedelics as a means of inducing ESP Tart (1968) questions its occurrence and other paranormal phenomena. Given that an 13. Increased suggestibility (Huxley, 1961a; Tart, 1968) altered state of consciousness (ASC) is assumed to be 14. Increase in intuitive thought processes (Tart, 1994) (for a discussion see Storm & Rock, 2009) a common 15. Reduced critical conscious faculty and increased feature in the occurrence of subjective paranormal optimism towards impossible realities (Nicol & experiences (Alvarado, 1998; Barušs, 2003; Honorton, Nicol, 1961; Osis, 1961b; Tart, 1968, 1994) 1977; Parker, 1975) and has often been incorporated into 16. Increased openness and extroversion (Rogo, experimental attempts to induce ESP (see Luke, 2011a; 1976) Palmer, 1978, 1982; Schmeidler, 1994), then visionary 17. Release of repressed and unconscious material into drugs are, potentially, a reliable means of accessing such the conscious mind (Rogo, 1976) a state. Several researchers have documented some of the 18. Complex distortions, and transcendence, of space mind-altering features of the visionary-drug experience and time (Garrett 1961b; Nicol & Nicol, 1961; that are considered conducive to the production of Tart, 1994; see also Dawson, 2005; Mayhew, parapsychological experiences and phenomena (see also 1956; Shanon, 2001; Whiteman, 1995) Braud, 2002). These have been categorized thus:

98 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Luke This last feature of the psychedelic experience is researcher Eileen Garrett (1961b) asserted that the use of probably of paramount importance for the experience of LSD had made her a better, more accurate sensitive and ESP when it is considered that precognition, telepathy, she related certain psychedelic states to the mediumistic clairvoyance, and possibly OBEs all represent radical pre-trance state of euphoria, although she specified that departures from Newtonian concepts of time and space. the LSD experience was not the same as the mediumistic Smythies (1983) has suggested that the psychedelic trance (Garrett, 1961a). Huxley (1961a) proposed that experience originates from the collective unconscious LSD is invaluable in training participants to use their outside of space and time, and Jung agreed with subjective faculties to enhance their psi ability. Smythies’ idea. Millay (2001) offered that psilocybin Besides the subjective aspects of the and similar substances are important for studying psi psychedelic experience, there are other theoretical because they allow us access to nonlocal space-time. reasons for investigating paranormal phenomena with Jansen (1999) also supposed that the same might be drugs: Because paranormal phenomena are brain- possible of ketamine, which became popularly used at the mind experiences, neurochemicals—and therefore same time as Bell’s theorem of nonlocal space-time was psychoactive drugs—would be expected to be involved becoming seriously considered, enabling some to report in the process. It is highly likely that all ASC, including the experiential equivalence of the concept. Indeed, the potentially ESP-conducive states, involve alterations Berkley-based Fundamental Fysiks Group that formed in brain chemistry. Indeed, several psychedelic- in the 1970s experimented with psychedelics to inspire neurochemical models, discussed in the following their investigations of both psi and Bell’s theorem— sections (also see Luke & Friedman, 2010), have been neglected as it was by mainstream physics at that time proposed, primarily based upon subjective paranormal —which eventually lead to the birth of what is now experiences occurring with certain substances and their the multi-billion dollar research enterprise of quantum specific neurochemical action. It is entirely feasible that information science (Kaiser, 2011). More recently, genuine paranormal experiences are mediated in the something akin to this may also be evident with the brain through the action of specific endogenous (made psychedelic substance DMT, which sometimes provides within the body) molecules (Vayne, 2001). This does not users with the perception of many more than the usual simply imply that neurochemicals are the sole cause of four space-time dimensions, perhaps comparable to what paranormal phenomena, but they may rather just be a physicists discuss in M-theory (Luke, 2010c). Keeping part of the process. As the novelist Aldous Huxley once with the times ketamine is also now reported to induce said in relation to mystical experiences and the use of such extra-dimensional percepts too (Newcombe, psychedelics—they are the occasion rather than the 2008), as is the semi-synthetic psychedelic salvinorin B cause. ethoxymethyl ether (Mercury & Feelodd, 2008). 1. Psychedelic/Neurochemical Models In addition to these temporary alterations that of Paranormal Experience occur during the psychedelic experience, it is arguable that long-term ideological alterations may occur that 1.1 Brain as filter might also be psi-conducive. For example, enduring Aldous Huxley (1954) also was prominent in changes in concepts of reality may occur with the use of promoting Henri Bergson’s (1896/1990) theory of the psychedelics (Conway, 1989; Strassman, 2001), such that brain as a filter of memory and sensory experience, optimism about unseen realities, both during and after acting to reduce the wealth of information available the experience, leads to a greater openness to, or belief to awareness lest people become overwhelmed by a in, psi and the paranormal. In a follow-up survey of 113 mass of largely useless and irrelevant data not needed LSD-psychotherapy clients (with an 82% response rate) for the survival of the organism. It was Bergson who 78% reported an increased tendency to view telepathy suggested that, if these filters were bypassed, humans and precognition as possibilities warranting investigation would be capable of remembering everything that (International Foundation for Advanced Study, 1962). It had ever been experienced and perceiving everything has even been stated that the psychedelic experience is that has happened everywhere in the universe (e.g., as itself, by common consent, paranormal (Unger, 1963). in clairvoyance). It was also Huxley who applied this Furthermore, the distinguished medium and psychical theory to psychedelics by suggesting that these mind- Psychoactive Substances and Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 99 manifesting drugs override the “reducing valve” of the thought to be important in introspection and high level brain (Huxley, 1954, p. 12), allowing humans access to constructs such as self and ego—was reduced leading to both psychic and mystical experiences. This was a notion “a state of unconstrained cognition” (Carhart-Harris et that Huxley eruditely paraphrased for the title of his al., 2012, p. 2138). book from the quote by the English poet and mystic, This psychedelic disruption of the sensory William Blake (1906/1793), “If the doors of perception gating function discussed by Vollenweider (2001), were cleansed, every thing would appear to man as it is, and the reduction of activity in the default mode infinite” (p. 26). network discussed by Carhart-Harris (2011) could also Huxley’s (1954) rather basic conception never underpin the neurochemistry of ESP, whether elicited received a more formal operationalization of the specific with any number of psychedelics or, indeed, without drug actions that may be involved, but research into the the intervention of such exogenous chemicals (though neurochemistry of psychedelics lends some support to perhaps via endogenous chemicals such as DMT). his notion. For instance, Vollenweider and Geyer (2001) Indeed like psychedelics, psi experiences and events proposed that information processing in cortico-striato- have variously been conceptualized in relation to an thalamo-cortical (CSTC) feedback loops is disrupted inhibition of the ordinary sensory inhibition, often by psychedelics via 5-HT (serotonin) receptor agonism in conjunction with elevated psychosis and creativity,

(specifically 5-HT2A receptors), thereby inhibiting the such as with the concepts of latent disinhibition (Holt, “gating” of extraneous sensory stimuli and inhibiting Simmonds-Moore, & Moore 2008), transliminality the ability to attend selectively to salient environmental (Thalbourne, 2000; Thalbourne & Houran, 2005), features. Furthermore, psychedelics are also thought to boundary thinness and schizotypy (Simmonds & Roe, induce presynaptic release of glutamate from thalamic 2000), and self-expansiveness (Friedman, 1983; Pappas afferents, leading to a simultaneous overload of internal & Friedman, 2007). It may be noted that psychedelics information in the cortex. It is thought that these have also been long associated with both creativity (e.g., combined information overload effects are at least partly Dobkin de Rios & Janiger, 2003; Krippner, 1985) and responsible for the hallucinogenic experience with these psychosis (Osmond & Smythies, 1952). drugs, which are known to induce greatly altered or Despite the simplistic appeal of the anti- amplified incoming sensory information, as is indicated reducing valve action of psychedelics as a neurochemical by an increased startle effect (Vollenweider, 2001). model of psi, considerable gaps still remain in the Research into the neurobiology of psychedelics current understanding of the neuropharmacological in humans has only just resumed after decades of action of psychedelics in humans. Since the early 1970s, dormancy, so the current understanding of the action until relatively recently, practically all psychedelic of these substances in the brain remains limited. One of research has been conducted with animals and there the few studies to have been conducted, however, also remain no definitive generalizations that can be made offers some unexpected support for Huxley’s reducing about the main neurotransmitter receptor sites involved, valve theory. Looking at the blood flow around the brain as psychedelics vary considerably in their chemical following the ingestion of psilocybin, it was expected makeup and their ligand (i.e., a ligand is a molecule, that certain regions of the brain would have more such as a neurotransmitter, that triggers a response activity, given the overwhelming intenseness of strong in a target protein) affinity (Ray, 2010). For instance, psychedelic experiences, and yet, counter-intuitively, dissociative anesthetics such as ketamine are commonly there was no single brain region that increased in N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists, activity, and the brain’s activity was reduced overall whereas the simple tryptamines, such as psilocybin,

(Carhart-Harris, 2011; Carhart-Harris et al., 2012). are apparently 5-HT2A agonists. Speculations about The main areas demonstrating reduced cerebral blood the cause of the hallucinogenic effects of psychedelics flow were the cerebral hub regions of the thalamus, generally include the activation of 5-HT1A, 5-HT2A, anterior and posterior cingulate cortex (ACC & PCC), 5-HT2C, dopamine, and glutamate pathways, although and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Significantly, it is generally believed that classic psychedelics primarily the usual positive coupling between the mPFC and the work by stimulating 5-HT2A receptors, particularly PCC—which forms part of the default mode network those expressed in the neocortical pyramidal cells (Lee

100 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Luke & Roth, 2012; Nichols, 2004), although this is certainly or the harmala alkaloids, make serotonin available not the case for all psychedelics (e.g., mescaline; Ray, at the pineal where, with the aid of pineal enzymes 2010). Electrophysiology and receptor studies have (methyl transferases), it can also be converted into revealed that both NMDA antagonists (e.g., ketamine) 5-MeO-DMT, DMT, and bufotenine (5-hydroxy- and classic serotonergic psychedelics (e.g., LSD) may N,N-dimethyltyptamine, 5-HO-DMT), which are actually enhance glutamatergic transmission via non- endogenous visionary substances also found in certain NMDA receptors in the frontal cortex. This may ingredients (such as Psychotria viridis) of ayahuasca brews indicate a common mode of chemical action in the and other shamanic visionary substances, even some of brain responsible for such similar experiences with these animal origin (e.g., the Sonoran desert toad, Rudgley, divergent molecules (Vollenweider, 2004); this serotonin/ 2000). In vivo biosynthesis of DMT might also occur glutamate receptor-complex model of drug action is through the conversion of the common, nutritionally receiving high-profile attention again for psychedelics essential, amino acid tryptophan (Jacob & Presti, 2005; as a possible comparative model of psychosis (e.g., Shulgin & Shulgin, 1997). González-Maeso et al., 2008). However, these endogenous visionary Despite the lack of understanding of the tryptamines are not orally active, as they are denatured by neurobiology of psychedelic action, and lack of the MAO enzymes present in the stomach, but ayahuasca generalizability across so many diverse substances, recent brews also contains plant additives (such as Banisteriopsis advances would appear to support the Bergson-Huxley caapi) containing a range of harmala alkaloids that notion of brain as a filter capable of being deactivated inhibit MAO and allow the complementarily ingested by chemicals, and furthermore this notion, including the visionary tryptamines to be active in the brain. It is parts pertaining to ESP, is now gaining ground once more this action of the β-carbolines (particularly harmine) among theorists of consciousness (e.g., Kastrup, 2012). in ayahuasca that is these days considered their primary Indeed, recent theoretical developments (Smythies, 2011) purpose as admixtures in the brew (e.g., McKenna, suggest that NMDA antagonism, such as via ketamine, 2004), though this may not always be the case as bypasses the reducing valve/filter action of the brain (see subjectively potent ayahuasca decoctions occasionally section 1.4 following below for a discussion). do not actually contain DMT when analyzed (Callaway, 1.2 β-carbolines, tryptamines, and psi 2005). Nevertheless the harmala alkaloids are also known Advancing on earlier suggestions about the to induce visions themselves and Roney-Dougal (1986, pineal gland’s involvement in psi (e.g. Miller, 1978; 1989, 1991, 2001) originally implicated β-carbolines, Sinel, 1927), Roney-Dougal (1986, 1989, 1991, 2001) such as the endogenous pinoline and the exogenous has developed an endogenous neurochemical-perspective harmala alkaloids, as inducing psi-conducive states, either of psi based on the action of the pineal and several naturally during dreams (Callaway, 1988) or artificially hallucinogenic substances found in ayahuasca, the by causing waking dream states. Roney-Dougal (2001) visionary Amazonian brew reported to induce a range of also later acknowledged that the β-carbolines may exert paranormal experiences. The common neurotransmitter their visionary effects by potentiating the effects of serotonin is known to be most active in the pineal gland, ingested visionary tryptamines like DMT or 5-MeO- where it follows a circadian rhythm and is converted at DMT when consumed in combination with them, as night into melatonin (5-methoxy tryptamine, or 5MT) in ayahuasca. Further to Roney-Dougal’s proposals, it and the β-carboline, pinoline (6-methoxy tetrahydro- is my speculation that the β-carbolines may also induce β-carboline, or 6-MeO-THβC), which regulate sleep visions by contributing to the endogenous manufacture cycles. The pineal may also create other β-carbolines, of visionary tryptamine substances, either when taken such as 6-methoxyharmalan, a harmala alkaloid. These alone or in combination with such tryptamines, perhaps β-carbolines block the neuronal uptake of serotonin even indicating endogenous DMT or related tryptamines making it available for use, and inhibit the enzyme as the primary or even sole cause of such visions. This monoamine oxydase (MAO), which breaks down certain may account for why harmala alkaloids are less effective tryptamines such as N,N-dimethyl tryptamine (N,N- and slower than DMT at inducing visions (see Shulgin DMT, or simply DMT) and 5-methoxy tryptamine & Shulgin, 1997). In essence, ayahuasca contains two (5-MeO-DMT). MAO inhibiters, such as pinoline types of visionary chemicals, one type (β-carbolines, Psychoactive Substances and Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 101 e.g., harmine) that helps to both create and potentiate its chemical production—the same fluctuations in the effects of the other type (tryptamines, e.g., DMT), geomagnetic activity that appear to be associated with potentially mimicking the nocturnal chemistry of the spontaneous psi-activity, possibly related to pineal pineal and its supposed control over natural visionary melatonin (Persinger, 1988) or DMT fluctuations states, such as dreams (Callaway, 1988), mystical (Hill & Persinger, 2003)—for a review see Roney- experiences, and NDEs (Strassman, 2001). Dougal, Ryan, and Luke (2012). That the pineal gland Roney-Dougal (1989, 1991, 2001) suggested is central to psi is further supported by anthropological that the pineal gland and its neurochemistry is important research, to follow—although experimental evidence in the occurrence of psi phenomena and points to the is lacking—that suggests that DMT and the harmala association made by yogis between the pineal gland and alkaloids found in ayahuasca are psi-conducive, along the ajna chakra, the yogic psychic center that controls with clinical research that suggests that pinoline and psi-experiences in those with awakened kundalini melatonin regulate sleep cycles and dreaming, during (Miller, 1978; Satyananda, 1972). Further to this, which spontaneous psi experiences most often occur Naranjo (1987) noted that both kundalini and ayahuasca (Roney-Dougal, 1986, 1989, 1991, 2001). Durwin experiences, being similar in many respects, also feature (2001) has further suggested that the total isolation in the same serpentine imagery, further speculating that the dark undergone for either the first 9 or 18 childhood they probably have the same neurochemistry and result years of the lives of trainee shamans of the Andean in the same bioenergetic activation. Kogi causes pineal gland deformation (presumably by There is also some possibility that pineal gland melatonin/pinoline overproduction) that is responsible activity or DMT production can be stimulated by for their renowned divinatory skills. certain esoteric yogic practices, such as kechari, which Some tentative support for the notion that involves pressing the tongue into the far rear roof of ESP performance is directly predicted by pineal gland the mouth to stimulate the production of amrit, a yogic activity is also evident with experimental research that nectar that reputedly causes DMT-like ecstasies, which demonstrated prepubescent children score better on ESP is supposedly secreted in the brain following prolonged tests at 3 a.m., when the pineal’s nocturnal chemicals practice (Motoyama, 2001; Satyananda, 1996). Some (melatonin, etc.) are supposedly at peak concentrations support for this speculation comes from Strassman’s in the brain, rather than at 9 p.m. (Satyanarayana, Rao, (2001) observation that the pineal gland is formed in & Vijaylakshmi, 1993). This effect was not evident with utero from the tissue of the roof of the mouth rather a comparable group of pubescent children, which the than in the brain, and later migrates to its unique authors suggest might be expected because the pineal ventricle position just outside the blood-brain barrier, is less active after infancy. A more extensive follow-up directly above a critical cerebrospinal fluid byway, and investigated dream-ESP and circadian pineal rhythms this tentatively suggests that pineal stimulation via among young adults finding a significant improvement in the roof of the mouth may be possible. Furthermore, dream precognition scores at 3 a.m. compared to 8 a.m. manifestation of very specific body vibrations said to be (Luke, Zychowicz, Richterova, Tjurina, & Polonnikova, classic kundalini symptoms are supposedly quite reliably 2010, 2012) with scores in the same direction but non- induced with substances such as DPT (N,N-dipropyl- significant in a replication study (Luke & Zychowicz, tryptamine) and 4-Acetoxy-DIPT (N,N-diisopropyl- 2011), providing some tentative support for the notion 4-acetoxy-tryptamine), which are even more obscure that ESP may be linked to circadian pineal rhythms. psychedelic tryptamines than DMT, but close relatives Roney-Dougal (2001) has also drawn parallels of it (Toad, 1999a, 1999b). Similarly, Grof (2001) has between the ostensibly psi-conducive nature of the reported spontaneous kundalini arousal occurring shamanic trance state, psychotic states, psychedelic during psychedelic psychotherapy sessions and surveys states, and the dream state, which she suggested all (see section 3.2.3 & 3.2.4 to follow) of kundalini belong to the same continuum—perhaps somewhat experiences have found them to be related to drug use akin to Thalbourne’s (1998) concept of transliminality, (DeGracia, 1995; Thalbourne, 2001). the proclivity for psychological material to cross Roney-Dougal (1989, 1991, 2001) also indicated thresholds in or out of consciousness—and that they that the pineal gland is sensitive to—possibly changing all show suggestive evidence of being regulated by the 102 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Luke same neurochemical processes. Recently, the discovery of that the participants may have been inadvertently trace amine receptors in the brain for which DMT shows primed for these experiences cannot be ruled out because greater affinity than does serotonin—its more common they were told in the briefing to expect feelings of death neuro-amine cousin—has lead to a resurgence of interest or impending death. Nonetheless, independent survey in endogenous DMT in the mediation of mental health research indicates that DMT users sometimes do report (Jacob & Presti, 2005). death-like and near-death-type experiences (Luke & 1.3 DMT, near-death, and Kittenis, 2005). other anomalous experiences To Strassman’s (2001) surprise many of the After extensive research investigating the participants in his DMT study reported contact with phenomenological effects of administering intravenous sentient beings during the experience, often described as injections of DMT, Strassman (2001) has independently elves, dwarves, imps, gremlins, clowns, reptilian beings, hypothesized a role for DMT similar to that suggested and aliens, but also as spirits, gods, or just as a presence, by Roney-Dougal (2001). Strassman echoed the same which was commonly supremely powerful, wise, and neurochemical action of the pineal as Roney-Dougal, and loving. Such prevalent encounter experiences with similarly proffered that psychotic, dream, meditation, DMT use (for a review see Luke, 2011b) are seemingly and mystical states all occur through the overproduction so unique and reliable (e.g., Meyer, 1993) as to have of DMT, implicating DMT as a “reality thermostat” had the impish characters popularly dubbed the “self- (Strassman, 2001, p. 327). However, Strassman indicated transforming machine elves” (McKenna, 1991, p. 16), the action of DMT, not β-carbolines, as primary in and whose tangible reality has been hotly debated by producing these states and alternatively proposed that other DMT-experience researchers (Carpenter, 2006; the pineal gland and endogenous DMT are central Kent, 2005, 2010; Luke, in press; Pickover, 2005). during extraordinary events, such as birth, death, and Strassman suggested that fluctuations in endogenous the near-death experience (NDE). DMT levels were also responsible for the frequent reports To support this view Strassman noted that elsewhere of alien abduction, which share the newfound the anatomy of the pineal, suspended in cerebrospinal fearlessness of death and visions of energy tunnels, or fluid outside of the blood-bathed brain, is independent cylinders of light, in common with DMT experiences. enough to resist activation by normal stresses and yet Following personal experiences with ayahuasca, Severi is optimally situated to deliver DMT directly to the (2003) likewise noted the similarity between NDEs, middle brain regions where DMT-sensitive serotonin traditional psychedelic-induced shamanic initiations, receptors are involved in mood, perception, and thought. alien abduction experiences, and heightened psychic Furthermore, access to the brain in this way eliminates sensitivity, as have previous researchers (e.g., Harvey- the need for DMT transportation in the blood—where Wilson, 2001; McKenna, 1991; Ring, 1989, 1992). it would be broken down by MAO enzymes anyway— However, Barušs (2003) pointed out that, despite the thereby negating the need for a pumping heart for delivery. similarities, DMT and alien abduction experiences lack Jacob and Presti (2005) also noted that DMT is virtually specific similarities, such as the absence with DMT of the unique among endogenous neurotransmitters in that it classic “grays” (small gray aliens). Nevertheless, Hancock is a molecule small enough to have blood-brain barrier (2005), also having experienced DMT and ayahuasca, permeability. That melatonin exerts its influence slowly argued that there are substantial similarities between over a period of a day or more, and so does not need the aliens and elves, whether induced through DMT or else pineal’s unique location, further supports the supposed appearing in historic-folkloric legends and testimonies, postmortem function of DMT. Strassman further speculating that the latter also have a DMT-induced speculated that the pineal might continue to produce etiology and, adopting the theory proposed by Vallee postmortem DMT for a few hours. He also noted that (1969), that these elves of folklore are the prototype the NDE has psychedelic and mystical qualities, and that encounter/abduction experiences. It should be noted the DMT experience often shares the same features as that few experiencers ever doubt the reality of their an NDE. Some of his DMT study participants reported encounters with either aliens (Mack, 1999) or DMT NDEs and death-rebirth experiences, with many others entities (Strassman, 2001), perhaps with the exception reporting a newfound fearlessness of death. However, of Kent (2005, although see Kent, 2010) in this latter Psychoactive Substances and Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 103 category, and most actually consider them to be more the earlier bufotenine research were most likely due to real than most ordinary experiences. Additionally, like psychological factors caused by the enforced nature of alien abduction reports, Strassman notes that his DMT the experiments—conducted as they were on psychiatric study participants reported being probed and having patients and prisoners with limited consent—because things inserted into them by the beings, however, it such experiences were absent during Ott’s own extensive should be noted that this might have been induced by self-experimentation, and nor do indigenous users of the medical nature of his experiments and the use of plants containing bufotenine worry about or report intravenous injections and equipment for monitoring respiratory arrest (Torres & Repke, 2006). In any case vital signs. the breathing difficulties associated with sleep paralysis Incidentally, although neither Strassman nor may be more to do with the paralysis of conscious bodily other researchers originally pointed this out, it is apparent functions caused by being asleep, and the inability to that some of the DMT experiences reported in his study, inhale at will. Furthermore, sensed presence, as opposed particularly the negative ones, share several features in to direct perception of an entity, as often occurs with common with sleep paralysis (e.g., see Cheyne, 2001), sleep paralysis, may be more common with other particularly the sense of presence, reports of one’s chest substances, such as Salvia divinorum (Aardvark, 2002; being crushed, strange whistling, whining, and whirring Addy, 2010; Arthur, 2010) (meaning something like sounds, and the terrifying paralysis of both body and “diviner’s sage”), although systematic phenomenological vocal chords (Strassman, 2001). Alien abduction research is needed. experiences and NDEs are also associated with sleep In evaluation of the role of the pineal gland and paralysis (see Sherwood, 2002), and indeed Strassman endogenous psychedelics in the activation of psi and the (2008) later noted the apparent relationship between NDE, it has yet to be shown that psi can be produced sleep paralysis and DMT experiences, although caution with these substances under controlled conditions. has been raised about claiming too many anomalous In addition, both psi experiences and NDEs might be phenomena can be explained by DMT, as this ultimately induced with other psychoactive substances, as shown explains nothing, and further phenomenological analysis in the following sections, although this criticism has is needed (Luke, 2008), such as that conducted by Cott been countered by Strassman (2001) with the possibility & Rock (2008), although a direct comparison of such that other psychedelic substances may also stimulate the experiences is needed. Nevertheless, there certainly pineal and endogenous DMT by their action. However, warrants something to research here regarding a DMT this proposal is little more than conjecture. Furthermore, etiology for sleep paralysis. although there is good reasoning for the hypothesis that Curiously, experiential reports from research DMT is made in the human pineal, this is yet to be programs in the 1950s and 1960s (outlined in Shulgin proven and remains speculative, like many of Strassman’s & Shulgin, 1997; Torres & Repke, 2006), indicate that and Roney-Dougal’s suppositions at the present time. the endogenous 5-hydroxy-DMT (bufotenine), a very According to Strassman (2001), although the close relative to DMT with similar neurochemistry, lungs, liver, blood, and eye all contain the enzymes is seemingly able on occasion to cause feelings of necessary to convert tryptamine to DMT, the pineal gland constriction in the throat and the crushing of one’s is especially rich in them and also has high concentrations chest, as well as anxiety and fear reactions, much of serotonin ready to convert to tryptamine. So while like sleep paralysis, possibly implicating it as a co- the pineal-DMT hypothesis is currently unproven chemical factor in such experiences, along with DMT. (Hanna, 2010), it is certainly feasible, especially when it Additionally, in South America and the Caribbean is considered that the chemical conversion of tryptamine the entheogenic cohoba snuff is made from one of the to DMT can be demonstrated en vitro. The only attempt few traditionally-used plants in which bufotenine is thus far to support the hypothesis directly has been active, Piptadenia peregrina, and is used specifically to Strassman’s attempt to isolate DMT from 10 human contact spirits (Cohen, 1970; Torres & Repke, 2006), pineal glands extracted from cadavers. No DMT was perhaps somewhat like the sensed presences of sleep detected in the glands; however, neither the bodies nor paralysis and numerous DMT experiences. However, the glands were freshly frozen and any chemicals present Ott (2001) pointed out that the circulatory crises in may have degraded before analysis (Strassman, 2001). 104 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Luke Thus far DMT has been found to be naturally 1984)—despite Morse’s (1997) later contentions that the occurring in the brains of rodents (Kärkkäinen et al., evidence for this is weak—has led to the development of 2005), and in the highest concentrations in humans a neurochemical model of NDE based upon the action in the cerebrospinal fluid (for a review, see Barker, of this psychoactive substance (Jansen, 1990, 1997a, McIlhenny, & Strassman, 2012), but not the brain, 2001). A dissociative anesthetic—also reported to induce let alone the pineal. Furthermore, although the pineal experiences of telepathy, precognition, clairvoyance, contains methyltransferase enzymes, as Strassman psychokinesis, communication with the dead, kundalini (2001) indicated, the particular one thought to be experiences and an increase in synchronicities (Case, crucial for en vivo DMT production (indolethylamine 2003; Jansen, 2001; Luke & Kittenis, 2005; Wyllie, N-methyltransferase, or simply INMT) has as yet not 1981)—ketamine acts by binding to the phencyclidine been found in the human brain or pineal gland although, (PCP) site of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) curiously, DMT was found in rabbit brain tissue, receptor, blocking the action of the neurotransmitter despite the absence of INMT (Kärkkäinen et al., 2005), glutamate. Jansen indicated that potentially life- perhaps indicating that INMT is not necessary for the threatening circumstances (e.g., hypoxia, ischemia, production of DMT. Furthermore, McIlhenny (2012) hypoglycemia, temporal lobe epilepsy) can initiate a pointed out that most INMT mapping research only glutamate flood, which results in neurotoxicity through establishes where enzyme translation is occurring, as the over-activation of the NMDA receptors (for further they are based solely on INMT mRNA studies. A recent details, see Smythies, 2011). This NDE trigger may be study (Cozzi, Mavlyutov, Thompson, & Ruoho, 2011) accompanied by a flood of neuroprotective agents that using a florescent INMT antibody suggests the presence also bind to the NMDA receptors preventing damage, of INMT in three Rhesus macaque nervous tissues in much the same way as ketamine. Like Grinspoon and samples, including the pineal gland. Evidence of INMT Bakalar’s (1979) speculation that the brain synthesizes a in primate pineal glands indicates better potential for chemical similar to ketamine in times of stress, Jansen Strassman’s human pineal-DMT production hypothesis, proposed that “endopsychosins,” which bind to the same nevertheless direct support is still lacking. However, receptor site as ketamine, would be discovered as the absence of evidence is not evidence of absence, and the neuroprotective agents that cause an ASC, like that of pineal gland is difficult to research en vivo and DMT is ketamine, termed the NDE. an under-researched substance, particularly in humans. Although parsimonious, Jansen’s (1997a) DMT is also difficult to detect (Barker et al., 2012) and ketamine model of NDE has been both duly criticized belongs to the most controlled category of drugs in most and well defended. It has been argued that unlike countries, so, currently, the jury remains out on the NDEs, ketamine trips frequently induce fear (Strassman, pineal-DMT hypothesis. 1997) and are not considered “real” (Fenwick, 1997). Overall, despite their incompleteness, the However, as Jansen (1977b) likewise contested, it is pineal/β-carboline/DMT models of psi and NDE do becoming increasingly recognized now that NDEs offer unique neurochemical perspectives on paranormal are also commonly reported to be distressing or experience around which further research can be framed. traumatic (Atwater, 1994; Montanelli & Parra, 2000) Additionally, although neither author has speculated and, furthermore, ketamine experiences are also more on the others’ ideas, their models are not incompatible often than not reported to induce a sense of peace and with each other; however, they may begin to answer pleasantness (Corazza, 2008; Luke, 2007). In support of the question of why such visionary molecules as DMT the perceived reality of the ketamine experience, there are are made within humans at all. For a further discussion documented accounts of people who have had an NDE of DMT, brain action and anomalous phenomena, see and then later a ketamine experience, and who reported Luke (2011b). the experiences being the same (Jansen, 2001). In support 1.4 Ketamine and NDEs of this, Grof (1994) found that several cancer patients A proliferation of reported cases of NDEs with had NDEs during psychedelic therapy (most likely with the use of ketamine (Jansen, 1997a, 1999, 2001) and the LSD) that were very similar to later spontaneous NDEs. similarity of aspects of the ketamine experience to that In further criticism of Jansen’s model, it has of the NDE (Morse, Venecia, & Milstein, 1989; Rogo, been argued (Fenwick, 1997; Greyson, 2000) that the Psychoactive Substances and Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 105 clarity and clear memory of the NDE experience is as with high doses of hashish (Siegel & Hirschman, not consistent with cerebral dysfunction. However, it 1984), and tryptamines like 5-MeO-DMT (Shulgin is arguable that Jansen’s model does not stipulate the & Shulgin, 1997) and the ayahuasca (meaning “the necessity of cerebral dysfunction for a NDE, merely the vine of the dead”) derivative, DMT (Strassman, 2001). threat, or even just the perceived threat of it, and Jansen Yet, Strassman (2001) did not find Jansen’s model (1997b, p. 87) pointed out “there is no reason to suspect incompatible with his own DMT model of NDE, but that the NDE mechanism would never be activated rather asked why a neuroprotective agent like ketamine spontaneously.” Furthermore, Jansen (1997b) regarded should also be psychedelic as there is no obvious benefit clarity of consciousness as a nebulous term in the to the near-death visionary experience, other than discussion of altered states, as the term is loaded towards enabling consciousness to have awareness of its departure the ordinary state of consciousness. Some researchers (e.g., from the body. Greyson, 2000; Smythies, 2011) have further contested Recently, electrophysiology and receptor that, despite the possibility that the endogenous peptide studies have revealed that both NMDA antagonists, alpha-endopsychosin is a candidate, no endopsychosins such as ketamine, and classic hallucinogens, such as have yet been identified or proven to exist, and Jansen LSD, may actually enhance glutamatergic transmission (2001) conceded that this may initially have been a via non-NMDA receptors in the frontal cortex. This false lead and has suggested a number of alternative may indicate a common mode of chemical action in endogenous NMDA antagonists as candidates: N-acetyl- the brain responsible for such similar experiences with aspartyl-glutamate, kynurenic acid and magnesium, all these divergent molecules, though further investigation of which protect brain cells from excito-toxic damage is required (Vollenweider, 2004). Given the similarities (Jansen, 2004). Nevertheless, Thomas (2004), following between NDEs, ketamine experiences, and other drug Jansen in his search, has identified technical flaws with experiences, Rogo (1984) proposed that the NDE-like these speculated endogenous “NDE-ogens” and has effects of ketamine are more often interpreted as NDEs instead proposed the neuromodulator agmatine as the because it has so often been used in a medical setting, most likely candidate. The debate continues. further suggesting that ketamine-induced NDEs are less In further criticism of the model, Parker (2001) prevalent with recreational use than with anesthetic use, noted that one-drug/one-experience theories were aban- though this has not been systematically investigated to doned in the 1970s and that, along with Greyson (2000), my knowledge. he further noted that ketamine appears to have multiple To the author’s knowledge, the only systematic effects in the brain and multiple experiential features, investigation of the ketamine hypothesis, besides Jansen some of which include those of the NDE. Jansen (2001), is that of Corazza (2008), who compared 36 cases (1997b) earlier countered this latter criticism with the of apparent NDEs induced by ketamine with 36 cases proposal that factors of set and setting are paramount of NDEs reportedly caused by a cardiac arrest or other in determining experience with all ASCs, be they NDEs life threatening circumstances. Both groups showed a or ketamine-induced states, so experiences are expected high degree of similarity in certain experiential features, to vary. Parker (2001), like Siegel (1980), added that with a roughly equal prevalence among the groups other drugs also produce features of the NDE, although of experiences involving altered perceptions of time, Jansen (1997b) has asserted that these NDE-features speeded up visions, and the occurrence of ESP (25%), are typical with ketamine but are not typical with other but the ketamine group were more likely to report unity drugs, except for PCP and ibogaine (Bianchi, 1997; with the universe, and the cardiac groups were more Jansen, 2001) which are NMDA antagonists (or more likely to report dissociation from the body, visions of specifically called NMDA-PCP receptor blockers). light, and encounters with deceased or religious beings. However, in support of Parker’s (2001) criticism, However, Corazza asserted that the evidence indicates Roll and Montagno (1985) have noted the similarity that NDEs can be induced through ketamine, although between NDEs and LSD experiences, as reported by they may not be identical to those occurring naturally. Grof (1994). Reports of NDE also occur with the use The study is not without its limitations; of other dissociatives, like dextromethorphan (DXM) however, as outlined by Luke (2009), as the ketamine (White, 1997), and carbogen (Meduna, 1950), as well participants were recruited on the premise that they felt 106 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Luke that they had had an NDE on ketamine, which Jansen and disturbed sleep patterns, although, in argument (2001) reported only occur to about 12% of ketamine against Smythies, this weaker relationship may be users. Furthermore, it is unclear if the respondents are accounted for by the infrequent occurrence of NDEs describing a specific ketamine experience or an experience relative to sleep disturbances. Furthermore, counter more generally, as most of the respondents had taken to Smythies’ conjecture, several other researchers have ketamine between 10 and 2000 times, though a similar speculated about the link between NDEs and temporal number of cardiac arrest experiences is very unlikely lobe epilepsy, drawing parallels (Blanke & Dieguez, for the comparison group. Nevertheless, Corazza and 2009; Jansen, 2001; Morse, Venecia, & Milstein, 1989; Schifano (2010) acknowledged the limitation that their Neppe, 1989; Persinger & Makarec, 1987; Saavedra- findings are based on a self-selected, nonrandomized, Aguilar & Gómez-Jeria, 1989), although admittedly the limited size sample. Subsequently, ketamine can at best NDE-epilepsy link is incomplete (Neppe, 1989), and be thought of as an occasional NDE trigger or mimic, epilepsy might best be thought of as one of several possible but is not a wholly repeatable or reliable source of NDEs NDE triggers, as Jansen (1997a) originally proposed, (Luke, 2009). Nevertheless, cardiac arrest and the rather than an explanation for NDEs. Ultimately, experience that ketamine invokes appear to be similar Smythies (2011) proposed that the excitatory NMDA enough to genuine NDEs that leading consciousness receptor system, which runs continuously even while researchers Hameroff and Chopra (2010) have called asleep, actually is the Bergson brain filter mechanism for its use in prolonging end of life brain activity (by (discussed earlier in section 1.1) that ordinarily prevents delaying neurotoxicity) to allow terminally ill patients to people from experiencing what Aldous Huxley (1954, have more conscious deaths. p. 11) called “Mind at Large”: mystical and paranormal More recently, having first researched the consciousness (i.e., an NDE). Consequently, Smythies parapsychological potential of psychedelics in the 1940s, asserted that NDMA antagonism, such as via ketamine or Smythies (2011) identified several apparent flaws with a natural NDE, bypasses the brain’s natural filter action, Jansen’s K-NDE model. First, an NMDA-antagonist leading to all manner of paranormal and transpersonal model of NDE is too general because the glutamate experiences. Much as Smythies should be applauded for receptors can be found in all regions of the brain and morphing the two theories together, the same might be yet the NDE phenomena suggest the activation of only said for psychedelically induced serotonergic action as specific brain regions, and furthermore ketamine does for glutamatergic action, so in effect this says little more not appear to produce global brain NMDA-antagonism than what Huxley originally proposed and what is now (although this latter point may argue against the first). known about psychedelic neurochemistry (see section Second, ketamine, Smythies argued, cannot actually 1.1). stimulate the action potential of the neurons it binds Overall, despite over simplification and to, but rather affects the modulation of the strength generalization, the ketamine model of NDE offers the and number of synapses (i.e., the neuroplasticity), so it most complete neurochemical explanation of the NDE cannot immediately affect the brain regions required to so far and, as with the DMT model, does not necessarily stimulate the NDE. This second argument, however, assume a materialist reductionism to explain the data seems somewhat contradicted by the phenomenological —unlike Siegel (1980) for example—although some evidence that suggests that ketamine can in fact stimulate commentators (e.g., Sakellarios, 2005) have erroneously NDE-like phenomena and so presumably does activate assumed that it does. Furthermore, the model can be the appropriate brain regions, at least indirectly. easily tested and refined. For instance, there is evidence to Finally, Smythies (2011), contested that if the suggest that the non-competitive antagonism at the non- NMDA-antagonism explanation for NDEs were true, glycine site of the NMDA receptor in particular is linked one would expect to see a relationship between NDEs to the event of dissociative anesthesia and altered sensory and grand mal epilepsy—during which massive cerebral perceptions that are familiar to ketamine. This would glutamate overload occurs. However, according to indicate that relatively novel substances like HA-966 Smythies, the relationship is only apparently reported by (1-hydroxy-3-amino-pyrrolidone-2), which acts in this one study (Britton & Bootzin, 2004), and is in any case particular neurochemical manner (Bonta, 2004), could weaker than the relationship between epilepsy symptoms induce NDEs in blind conditions comparable to those Psychoactive Substances and Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 107 occurring ordinarily, though this remains to be seen. In the point of not realizing one actually has a body but research with monkeys, HA-966 induced EEG patterns instead just experiencing the present as a single point of characteristic of sleep despite the animals remaining consciousness and nothing more. On one such occasion completely alert, which may be related to Jansen’s (2004) I was seemingly privileged to a view of earth from space observation that the same 60% of the population that do and yet I did not even know who or what I was, let not recall their dreams also do not recall their ketamine alone that I was human and apparently had a body. This experiences during anesthesia, a proportion apparently relatively changing relationship between anesthesia, equivalent to the number of people who do not report motor control, out-of-body-ness, and even body- having had some kind of NDE. Alternatively, in order ownership-awareness is apparent on both entering and to test the K-NDE theory, it has been suggested to exiting the ketamine experience, although seemingly administer ketamine to those who have had a natural more so in exiting (although in reverse), as the entrance to NDE and compare the two (Kolp et al., 2007). Assuming a ketamine experience can often be abrupt, with a swift ketamine NDEs to be genuine, ultimately, however, the and intense onset, whereas the departure is more gradual. question remains of whether chemically induced NDEs Such first-person psychonautics can report a good deal utilize alternative pathways or the actual NDE pathway about both psychedelic states, especially ketamine states (Fracasso & Friedman, 2011). (Newcombe, 2008), and parapsychological phenomena Bringing personal observations (Luke, 2005) to (Luke, 2011c) and such methods are witnessing the K-NDE debate, it seems apparent that the degree of somewhat of a revival after a long hiatus since the era general anesthesia induced by ketamine is relative to one’s of William James’ (1902) classic experimentation with motor control ability and what Grosso (1976) identified nitrous oxide, another NDMA antagonist. Survey as the degree of being out-of-body: Factors that are more research also shows that ketamine induces OBEs and pronounced with the positive S-isomer of ketamine autoscopy far more often than other (non-anesthetic) rather than the negative isomer (Domino & Warner, psychedelics (Wilkins, Girard, & Cheyne, 2011), as had 2010), further indicating how entwined these effects been previously speculated (Luke & Kittenis, 2005), the are, specific as they are to just one ketamine molecule question remains of why anesthesia should accompany type. Such relationships between sensory and motor an OBE/NDE: Does the anesthesia cause the perception impairment and reported body image have elsewhere of being out of one’s body, and therefore leads to a been found with local anesthesia (Paqueron et al., 2003), feeling of dying or of having died, or does the near-death though obviously not full blown OBEs. Retuning to the experience provoke an OBE and subsequent anesthesia personal observations, in repeated ketamine experiences as a defense against likely pain? Observing the ketamine I observed that the initial stages of anesthesia and out- experience from the recipient’s perspective, it appears of-body-ness are accompanied by increasing difficulty that the anesthesia occurs because one’s consciousness in controlling one’s body and a growing sense of body is no longer connected to one’s body, and certainly the dysmorphia, in a non-clinical sense, in that part of OBE and anesthesia are intimately connected, but why one’s body may appear longer (macrosomatognosia) or and how deserve further investigation and may shed shorter (microsomatognosia), as described by Frederiks light on the neurobiological factors of OBEs and NDEs. (1963). For example, on one occasion I recall being 1.5 Dopamine and paranormal unable to successfully maneuver out of the door because beliefs and experiences. my legs appeared to be the approximate distance of Taking a purely materialist reductionist view an entire football pitch away. It is observed that the of paranormal experiences by attempting to account for relatively changing gradation in increased anesthesia, them exclusively in terms of beliefs arising from faulty body dysmorphia and motor control continues, with a cognitions—what Irwin (2009) called the cognitive sufficient dosage, as the trip intensifies towards a full- deficits hypothesis—a loose neurobiological model for blown out-of-body experience, total anesthesia, and the explanation of paranormal beliefs has arisen that ultimately no motor control. posits the dopamine neurotransmitter system as the Indeed, while some K-OBEs are accompanied primary facilitator. Put forward by Krummenacher by autoscopy, even awareness of one’s body can disappear and colleagues (Krummenacher, Brugger, Fahti, at the peak of a high dose ketamine experience, even to & Mohr, 2002; Krummenacher, Mohr, Haker, & 108 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Luke Brugger, 2009) the theory suggests that, although pointed to the observation that attempting to unravel activity of the endogenous neurotransmitter dopamine links between single gene polymorphisms that influence is classically implicated in enhancing cognitive and neurochemical function, and consequently individual perceptual decisions by improving the signal to differences in cognitive function, may be difficult when noise ratio of neuronal transmission, paradoxically, using distal phenotypes such as questionnaire measures, hyperdopaminergic activity is associated with psychotic and that more proximal measures like brain imaging symptoms, schizophrenia and even schizotypy (for a might be more promising. Indeed behavioral genetics is brief review, see Krummenacher et al., 2009), and so in a state of epistemological crisis after the lack of hard excess dopamine may be accountable for delusional findings from the recently completed Human Genome thinking stemming from an increased tendency to Project (e.g., see Maher, 2008), so it may well be too soon find patterns in apparently random data—what the to expect good data relating paranormal beliefs to genes, psychiatrist Klaus Conrad (1958) called apophenia. particularly single genes, even if they are related. According to Brugger and colleagues (e.g., Pizzagalli, The second study, by Krummenacher et al. Lehmann, & Brugger, 2001) paranormal believers— (2009), sampled 20 paranormal believers and 20 and so most likely paranormal experiencers too—have paranormal non-believers and administered levodopa been shown to be more inclined towards apophenia than —an active precursor to dopamine in the brain—in a skeptics, thereby accounting for the increased creativity randomized placebo controlled between-subjects study. apparently associated with paranormal thinking and its Participants were given two signal detection tasks, similarity to some psychotic symptoms: a combination one with words (tapping left hemisphere processes) of creative and delusional dimensions being indicative of and one with faces (right hemisphere), that presented the positive phenomenology of schizotypy (Eckblad & either word/non-word or face/non-face stimulus pairs Chapman, 1983). tachistoscopically for just 140 milliseconds. Participant Direct research into what might be most responses were assessed for both their tendency to make accurately called the hyperdopaminergia-apophenia correct guesses relative to incorrect ones, their sensitivity hypothesis is somewhat limited at this time, consisting index (d’), and their tendency to respond with a positive of only two studies, with somewhat mixed results. or negative bias, their response tendency (C), both The first study (Raz, Hines, Fossella, & Castro, 2008) measures being independent of each other. Findings attempted to relate paranormal belief as a phenotype indicate that skeptics had significantly greater sensitivity to hyperdopaminergia as a genotype via what Raz et to signal detection than believers in the placebo condition al. (2008) called the “COMT dopaminergic gene” (p. but, contrary to expectations, increased dopamine lead 1336), building on preliminary findings in behavioral to a significant decrease in sensitivity in skeptics and had apophenia dopamine research by Krummenacher et no effect on believers. These findings challenge the view al. (2002) and studies associating schizotypy with that dopamine generally assists in signal detection, and dopaminergic genes (e.g., Avramopoulos et al., 2002). Krummenacher et al. (2009) suggested that the opposite COMT (Catechol-O-methyltransferase) is an enzyme may actually be true in some cases, especially with that degrades catecholamines such as dopamine, and presumed hypodominergic individuals (i.e., skeptics). the COMT protein is encoded by the COMT gene. Additionally, the authors argued that the lack of change Utilizing questionnaire measures of paranormal belief, in sensitivity in believers administered levodopa may be 107 psychology students were genetically screened for due to a plateau effect caused by high cerebral dopamine three COMT allelic forms, successfully identifying baseline levels; however, such a suggestion is somewhat approximately one quarter of the sample with high post hoc and, even if it were true, the authors do not COMT activity, a quarter with low activity, and half comment on why the dopamine-enhanced skeptics had with intermediate activity. However, failing to support lower sensitivity (i.e., greater sensory apophenia) than the hyperdopaminergia-apophenia hypothesis those either believer group. with decreased COMT activity, and hence greater Whereas the sensitivity measure findings are hyperdopaminergia, reported no more paranormal puzzling, the response bias measure results are somewhat beliefs, abilities or experiences than the higher COMT more straightforward, in the control scenario at least. As activity participants. Undeterred, Raz et al. (2008) was expected, in the placebo condition believers had a Psychoactive Substances and Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 109 greater tendency to respond in the affirmative (favoring shows that the ketamine group were no different from a Type I error strategy), whereas skeptics had a greater the placebo group, whereas the patients were shown tendency to respond in the negative (favoring a Type to exhibit a jump-to-conclusions response concerning II error strategy), the difference between the groups probability inferences (Evans et al., 2012). Although being significant. However, against expectation, in the ketamine is primarily an NMDA-antagonist, it also levodopa condition these tendencies in each group were has direct effects on dopamine receptors (e.g., Kapur & diminished so that there was no significant difference Seeman, 2002), and so the lack of probability inference between skeptics and believers, although the trend effect with ketamine does not complement a dopamine remained. Specifically, compared to their placebo explanation for paranormal experiences within the controls, dopamine-enhanced believers were more cognitive deficits paradigm. Other psychological factors cautious of making false positive decisions (i.e., more supposedly related to paranormal experiences, such conservative), and skeptics were less prone to make false as the propensity for false memories, also show no negative decisions (i.e., more liberal, so that in effect both relationship with self-reported recreational drug use believer groups were less polarized in their responses. generally (Wilson & French, 2006). Contrary to the linear dopamine-apophenia relationship So in this respect the dopaminergic approach originally proposed, these results may indicate differing does not currently incorporate many of the multitudinous baseline dopaminergic activity in skeptics and believers psychological explanations for paranormal beliefs and and the possibility that there is a non-linear relationship experiences. Furthermore, the wealth of evidence, to between task and dopamine levels, perhaps an inverted follow, relating increased paranormal experience—and U-shape, possibly modulated by individual differences to some extent experimentally controlled production of in belief. However, these findings should be replicated ESP—to the ingestion of psychedelic substances does first and more direct measures of baseline dopamine not particularly support a dopamine-based theory of (e.g., spinal dopamine metabolic marker assay) should be paranormality either, as dopamine activation is neither made before these findings and post hoc interpretations primary nor ubiquitous with psychedelic substances. are given much weight. Furthermore, as the authors Typically, classic tryptamine psychedelics (such as LSD noted, use of a between- rather than within-subjects and psilocybin) are thought to exert their effects via design is far from ideal, leaving too much faith in the serotonin activation, particularly via the 5-HT2A receptor randomization of the small groups and no certainty in subtype (Lee & Roth, 2012). Nevertheless, it is thought equivalence of baselines in dopamine responsivity and that 5-HT2A receptor stimulation can activate dopamine behavioral performance, and so further studies would release (Diaz-Mataix et al., 2005), and Previc (2011) benefit from a cross-over design. asserted that all the various psychedelic neurochemical Aside from the current lack of research on pathways to “altered states of consciousness with the hyperdopaminergia-apophenia hypothesis and the distorted reality” (p. 43) ultimately lead to elevated levels somewhat confusing mixed results, this line of research of dopamine in the brain, although such reasoning rather seems worthwhile pursuing further, although it suffers ablates the intricate nuances of psychopharmacology and from additional limitations. One is that it aims to disregards primary neurochemical pathway activation boil down paranormal experiences to misperceptions as in any way important. Furthermore, although some and misjudgments of the pattern recognition type, psychedelic substances (e.g., LSD, psilocin, DMT) which, even if one allows for the fact that the authors do have relatively high affinities for certain dopamine a priori preclude the possibility of genuine paranormal receptors (Ray, 2010), dopamine is rarely considered to phenomena, this approach does not account for the be a primary neurotransmitter site for psychedelic effects. swathe of other cognitive deficits that are also given to Indeed, the primarily dopaminergic recreational drugs, account for paranormal beliefs, such as poor judgments such as amphetamine and cocaine, have been found to of probability and randomness, egocentric bias, selective be either unrelated or negatively related to paranormal remembering, confirmation bias, and more (Brugger & experiences and beliefs (for a review see Luke, 2008b; Mohr, 2008). Indeed a study investigating probability and see section on survey data, to follow), contradicting inferences in those under the influence of ketamine, the dopamine-paranormal belief/experience hypothesis. versus matched controls and schizophrenic patients, Indeed, if Previc were right about psychedelics exerting

110 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Luke their effects via the dopamine system, then one would plants are taken in ritual context for the express purpose expect amphetamine and cocaine to be psychedelic too, of accessing altered states conducive to clairvoyance, which they are not. precognition, telepathy, out-of-body travel, psychic Furthermore there are numerous psychedelics diagnosis, psychic healing, and spirit communication, strongly associated with paranormal experiences that do which provoked the mycologist Wasson (1964) to not have dopaminergic action, such as the k-opioid agonist label them as the keys to extra-sensory perception. salvinorin A (Ray, 2010) and anticholinergic agents like Archaeological evidence suggests such practices have scopolamine and hyoscyamine—which are found in existed the world over for millennia (see Devereux, 1997). nightshade family plants like datura (Katzung, Masters However, the paranormal effects of particular plants are & Trevor, 2012). Overall—with scant direct research, not necessarily arbitrary. Shamans who use the ayahuasca mixed and complex findings, and poor generalizability of brew in Amazonia report having control over whichever the hypothesis to a) other psychological explanations and particular paranormal function the brew elicits through b) most of the psychedelic-parapsychology literature—at the discerning use of psychoactive admixtures that may the present time, Krummenacher, Brugger, Mohr, and “make you travel, make you see” or “teach you to heal” colleagues’ (Krummenacher et al., 2002; Krummenacher (Andritsky, 1989, p. 78). Indeed, when the harmala et al., 2009) dopamine-apophenia conjecture remains alkaloid harmine, the first psychoactive compound very much rudimentary and unsupported. isolated from the ayahuasca decoction, was discovered 1.6 Overview of psychedelic/neuro-chemical by Guillermo Fischer Cárdenas in 1923 it was named models of paranormal experience. “telepathine” (Beyer, 2009) because of its apparent The preceding sections outline five neurochemical psychical properties, as reported by Zerda Bayon (1912). models germane to explaining psychic experiences, Zerda Bayon illustrated this with the case of Colonel namely the brain as filter, β-carboline and tryptamine, Morales who, after ingesting ayahuasca, beheld a vision DMT, ketamine and, finally, dopamine models. Aside of his dead father and his sick sister. About one month from the latter, all of these models draw upon the action later he received the same news by messenger. It seems of psychedelic substances in particular and remain open unlikely that the news could have arrived first by non- to the possibility that psi and other so-called paranormal paranormal means, as the group was deep in the jungle phenomena may be genuine. It should be noted, 15 days’ travel from the nearest communications outpost. however, that no one psychedelic model may ultimately Clairvoyant states induced with the harmala be the correct one, as psychedelics may work in many alkaloid-containing Perganum harmala shrub in Morroco ways (e.g., dissociatives are both NMDA antagonists, as have also been reported (Rudgley, 2000). Additionally, well as mu-opioid agonists); nevertheless these models there are many more accounts of such apparent ESP provide important avenues for future research and with ayahuasca reported in Luna and White’s (2000) begin to help develop more complete neurobiological anthology of classic ayahuasca experiences, as well as models of apparent paranormal cognition or merely elsewhere (e.g., Beyer, 2009; Bianchi, 1994; Dobkin paranormal belief, and, indeed, more complete models de Rios & Rumrrill, 2008; Gorman, 1992; Kensinger, of consciousness itself. The importance of understanding 1978; McGovern, 1927; Shanon, 2002; Weil, Metzner, the apparent paranormal effects of psychedelics is clear & Leary, 1965; Wilson, 1949). Typically, the earliest and the evidence in support of this relationship is next reports from explorers and anthropologists of the reviewed and evaluated. Upper Amazon were of either OBEs or experiences

of someone discovering via visions that some distant 2. Field Reports of Paranormal Phenomena person known to them, usually a relative, had just died 2.1 Anthropological and Historical Reports (Luke, 2010a). In addition, Naranjo (1967, 1973) gave Despite apparent prejudices by anthropologists harmaline to 30 naïve urban elite Chilean participants against reporting such phenomena traditionally who inexplicably reported the same images of snakes (Winkelman, 1983), the anthropological and ethno- and jaguars, or big cats, as are commonly reported in botanical literature remains replete with examples of traditional South American ayahuasca visions (Naranjo, ostensibly paranormal phenomena occurring with the 1987; Shanon, 2002). Visions of jaguars and snakes with traditional use of psychoactive plants. Commonly these harmaline have also been reported elsewhere (Shulgin Psychoactive Substances and Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 111 & Shulgin, 1997) and one second-hand story from late inhabited continent. These range from the use of pituri sixties Haight-Ashbury (the temporal-spatial epicenter of (Duboisia hopwoodii) in Australia (Australian Institute psychedelic counter culture) proffered that someone once of Parapsychological Research, 2004) to the use of experimented giving ayahuasca to Eskimos and, devoid San Pedro cacti (Trichocereus pachanoi) in Peru (Luke, of the cultural milieu typical of ayahuasca use, they still 2012a; Sharon, 1990) and peyote cacti (Lophophora saw huge cats in their visions, although it is unlikely that Williamsii) in Mexico (Slotkin, 1956), Amanita muscaria this research ever took place (Weil, 1980). Furthermore mushrooms by the Ojibwa in Canada (Wasson, 1979) as some of the participants in Naranjo’s study were well as suburban Muscovites and Siberian tribes-people convinced they had seen these images by traveling out-of- in Russia (Ostrander & Schroeder, 1997; Wasson & body in time and space. Ott (1993) noted, however, that Wasson, 1957), the use of datura among the Chumash harmaline only occurs in minimal quantities in tested of California (Driver, 1969), and the use of Psilocybe ayahuasca decoctions and so cannot be accountable mushrooms (Stamets, 1996; Wasson, 1962) and Salvia for the psychoactive effects of the brew. Nevertheless, divinorum by Mazatecs in Mexico (Soutar, 2001) to name Strassman (2001) found that administering DMT (the but a few. Indeed, anthropologist Dobkin de Rios (1984, most psychoactive constituent of ayahuasca) induced p. 60) has suggested that “the single most important a similar certainty of space-time travel and resulted function of plant hallucinogens in the Amazon area is in the inordinately frequent occurrence of images of to divine the future.” Efforts to document the diversity DNA, an image which Narby (1998) found commonly of these traditional “shamanic” plants indicate there featured in the ayahuasca healing visions of Amazonian are about 100 distinct genera, let alone species, of such shamans, but was most often represented by snakes. It traditional plants that are reported to induce visionary has recently been suggested, amid some controversy, that states and are used ethnomedically (Schultes & the geneticist Francis Crick was under the influence of Hofmann, 1992), with new ethnobotanical discoveries LSD when he had a vision of the double helix structure continually being made. However, few parapsychologists of DNA in 1953, a discovery for which he was awarded have conducted research with these plants or their users the Nobel Prize (Rees, 2004). in their traditional environment, although with Wasson, Prior to this news report, which came after Puharich (1959) attempted a remote viewing experiment Crick’s death, the anthropologist Narby (2000) took with the Psilocybe-using Mazatecs in Mexico in 1955, three molecular biologists to the Peruvian Amazon but the experiment was aborted when instead Wasson for their first visit there and for their first encounter and his co-expeditioner, Richardson, became the first with ayahuasca. The two female biologists both had researchers to be initiated into the mushroom cult. encounters with plant teachers whom they perceived Nevertheless, Richardson (1990) reported personally as independent sentient entities, and all three scientists having had an apparently precognitive vision, during received valuable information from their visions that what is documented as the first non-indigenous Psilocybe helped inform their research, and which ultimately genus (i.e., “magic”) mushroom trip. changed their world view. For instance, “the American A cross-cultural taxonomical study of biologist, who normally worked on deciphering the shamans, shaman-healers, healers, and mediums, posits human genome, said she saw a chromosome from the that, although these groups share many of the same perspective of a protein flying above a long strand of characteristics, there is a clear division between those DNA” (Narby, 2000, p. 302). Similarly, the biochemist, who do, and those who do not, use psychoactive plants Kary Mullis, who received the Nobel Prize for inventing and the differing paranormal activities they perform the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) that significantly (Winkelman, 1989). Levine (1968) credited the botanist advanced DNA research, said that taking LSD had been Schultes with the suggestion that the prevalence invaluable in helping him experience the mental imagery of vision-inducing plants among the herbarium of that allowed him to visualize sitting on a DNA molecule “primitive” societies is based upon a differing concept to watch the polymerase go by (Mullis, 1998). of illness, which has spiritual rather than physical Further reports of the ritual use of psychoactive causes. Contrary to Schultes, Winkelman suggested plants for the induction of paranormal abilities are that the difference in the use of hallucinogens was due commonplace among indigenous peoples from every to cultural and developmental variances. Shamans from 112 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Luke hunting and gathering societies and shaman-healers Psilocybe mushroom genus (Hofmann, 1983; Luke, from agricultural subsistence societies both frequently 2006). The ascribing of the word psi to psychic use hallucinogens for the purposes of healing, divination, phenomena during this period, however, may only be a hunting-magic, and malevolent acts, whereas healers coincidence. By the turn of this millennium there were and mediums from sedentary and politically integrated around 200 psychedelic compounds known to science, societies as well as agricultural subsistence societies, do a figure estimated to likely rise to 2000 compounds by not use hallucinogens to access their altered states, which the year 2050 at the current rate of discovery, increasing they use for healing and divination only. exponentially by a factor of ten every fifty years, starting Yet it appears that these cultural differences with the two that were known in 1900 (Shulgin, 2004, have occurred only recently in the developed world, as 2010). Despite the rapidly upwards bending curve it has been suggested that the ancient Greek oracles, of Shulgin’s formula, current quantities may even including the Pythia of Delphi—the seeresses that exceed it, as a good guestimate puts the number of anteceded the divinatory Goddess Python—also used potentially psychedelic compounds now known to man the solanaceae family of psychedelic plants (henbane, at about 2000 (J. Hanna, personal communication, belladonna, mandrake, and datura) for divination August 12, 2012), given that there are something like (Masters & Houston, 1966; Parker, 1975; von Bibra, 1300 documented phenethylamine compounds alone 1855/1994). Indeed the ancient Greek name for (including substances like mescaline, MDMA, & henbane was “pythonian” (Rudgley, 2000). It is also 2CB) known at the current time (Shulgin, Manning, well documented historically that Northern European & Daley, 2011), though they may not all be effectively witches also utilized these plants for psychic purposes psychoactive and have not been sufficiently tested as yet. (see Andrews, 1997; Rudgley, 2000). Indeed, similarly However, a conservative estimate would put the number to the Greeks, the Northern Europeans gave the name of known, tried, and tested psychedelics at between 250 “alruna” to their visionary seeresses, in common with (J. Hanna, personal communication, August 12, 2012) the German name for mandrake, “alraune,” both of and 300 to 400 (Shulgin, 2010). Furthermore, a more which stem from “rune,” the Germanic divinatory letter recent projection puts the total number of undiscovered system (Müller-Ebeling, Rätsch, & Storl, 2003). No drugs (not necessarily psychedelic) at 1 x1060 (Reymond doubt, the traditional Northern European practice of & Awale, 2012), more than visible stars in the sky, and pharmacologically accessing visionary states all but died so Brown (2012b) anticipated a near limitless number of out with the witches during the Inquisition, between the psychedelic compounds to arise, especially when factors fourteenth and seventeenth centuries (Grob & Harman, of nanotechnology, neurostructural engineering, and 1995). It is probable that a combination of changing other technological advances are additionally considered. concepts of illness, the development of a sedentary, Nevertheless, Brown’s projection is purely speculative, politically integrated society, and the influence of the but it is safe to say that humans have not yet discovered Inquisition or colonization were responsible for the all the psychedelic substances that will ultimately be virtual disappearance of the traditional indigenous use of available, and that there may be many more to come, psychoactive plants for paranormal purposes in Europe and, with each one offering a different type of ASC, there and North America. remain many states yet to be discovered. Brown (2012b) At the end of the 19th century, pioneering even fancied that specific psi-inducing psychedelics may psychological explorers in the West rediscovered the be intentionally engineered in the future. vision-inducing qualities of novel plant substances, such 2.2 Personal Views and Experiences as mescaline (Ellis, 1898), whereas others explored new Since the discovery of psychedelic compounds synthetic visionary chemicals like nitrous oxide (James, by the academic community and their popularization 1902), with some early psychical researchers dabbling in among the intelligentsia by the novelist Aldous both (Dunbar, 1905). By the middle of the 20th century Huxley (Smythies, 1960), there has been a steadily the Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann had discovered growing number of reports of paranormal experiences LSD—experiencing its OBE-inducing properties— occurring with the use of these compounds. Several and isolated, named, and synthesized psilocybin and parapsychologists and psychical researchers, primarily psilocin, the psychoactive derivatives of the visionary from the 1950s and 1960s when psychedelic research

Psychoactive Substances and Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 113 was at its peak, have endorsed the research of psi with events in conjunction with psychedelics very matter-of- psychedelics (e.g., Assailly, 1961; Broad, 1962; Hoffer, factly, due to their prevalence. This point was further 1961a, 1961b; Johnson, 1955; Kern, 1964; Laidlaw, echoed by the suggestion that users of psychedelic 1961; Paterson, 1961b; Price, 1948; Thouless, 1960; drugs frequently report vivid ESP experiences but that Tibbs, 1963; West, 1965). Even J. B. Rhine, the father of they remain largely unpublished (Stafford & Golightly, modern parapsychology, ran some informal psychedelic 1967). Yet, Heywood (1961) found several incidences sessions in 1961 at the Rhine Research Centre in of psi with LSD within the “well-evidenced” SPR Durham with the then Harvard psychologists Timothy spontaneous-case collection. However, more recently, Leary and Richard Alpert (Black, 2001; Horn, 2009; Vayne (2001), echoing Tart, has suggested that among Stevens, 1988), although there was apparently too much practiced users of psychedelics, dubbed psychonauts, spontaneous laughter erupting for anyone to credibly the telepathic experience is so common that it is hardly test for anything (S. Abrams, personal communication, remarked upon. Luke (2004c) agreed with Vayne but August 14, 2006; S. Krippner, personal communication, further offered that, even so, many (less well-evidenced) January 19, 2006). anecdotal reports could be found on contemporary Notably, many other parapsychologists have resources on the internet. Psychedelic drug information reported personal ESP experiences with the use of LSD sites (such as www.lycaeum.org and www.erowid.org) (Cavanna, 1961; Garrett, 1961b; Millay, 2001; Osmond, have amassed a large online archive of experiential 1961a; Servadio, in Alvarado, 1995), peyote/mescaline psychedelic reports, among which are accounts of ESP (Langdon-Davies, 1961; Millay, 2001; Osmond, experiences with substances as diverse as ketamine, Salvia 1961a), psilocybin (Cavanna, 1961; Krippner, 1967; divinorum, Psilocybe mushrooms, ayahuasca analogues, Millay, 2001) Amanita muscaria (Puharich, 1962), and and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ayahuasca (Severi, 1996, 1999). Krippner’s apparent or ecstasy) mixed with baby Hawaiian woodrose seeds, precognitive vision of President Kennedy’s assassination a natural source of lysergic acid (Anonymous, 2004a, while on psilocybin serves as a good example (Krippner, 2004b, 2004c, 2004d, 2004e, 2005). 1967, 2006a). Though, of course, merely consuming a Similar reports of frequent ESP experiences with psychedelic is no guarantee that an experience of ESP such substances from within the psychedelic community will follow, as Price (1964) aptly demonstrated self- are also available elsewhere in the literature (e.g., Eisner, experimenting with mescaline. However, other psychical 1989; Gaskin, 1990; Krippner, 2006a; Krippner & Fersh, researchers, sometimes following their own experiences, 1970; Lilly, 1967, 1978; McKenna, 1991; McKenna & have noted the apparent tendency for ESP production McKenna, 1994; Millay, 1999, 2004a, 2004b, 2005, with the use of psychedelics, including no less than four 2006, 2010; Osmond, 1968; Saunders, 1993; Scully, Parapsychological Association presidential addresses 2010; Stevens, 1989; Turner, 1994; Wyllie, 1999; Zelnick, (Dean, 1967; Heywood, 1978; Hastings, 1973; Luke, 2005). Indeed, the notion of experiencing a telepathic 2010b; Radin, 1989; Servadio, 1961; Stevenson, 1981). group mind, or “tribal telepathic understanding” Furthermore, some have recommended that other (Nuttal, 1970, p. 249) through “tripping” became so psi researchers personally explore psychedelic states prevalent among the psychedelic culture of the 1960s of consciousness to aid in their understanding of the that prospective psychedelic users were told they might concept of psi (Cavanna, 1961; Heywood, 1961). The expect such an experience (Leary, Metzner, & Alpert, most highly experienced LSD psychotherapist, Stanislav 1964) and commonly it became known as “grokking” Grof (1980), also advised that an intimate knowledge (Stevens, 1989; Wolfe, 1971). Currently, the same of the transpersonal realms created by psychedelics is notion is still apparent among psychedelic users (e.g., essential for parapsychologists. Personal accounts of MoDu, 2003) and the largest public-edited internet ESP have also been reported by leading psychedelic encyclopedia indicates that ESP-type phenomena are a mycologists (Stamets, 1996; Wasson & Wasson, 1957). common fourth-level experience on a five-level spectrum Beloff (1968) asserted that greater reporting of of psychedelic experience intensity (Wikipedia, 2005), ESP on college campuses would have been evident if though clearly this is not academically evidential drugs induced psi particularly, to which Tart (in Beloff, but rather an indication of commonly held notions, 1968) replied that many students took paranormal among Wikipedia editors at least. Although notably, 114 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Luke PK is seldom reported in the literature, save for the odd more than four thousand psychedelic therapy sessions exceptional report (e.g., Shulgin, 2004), and it has been over a two decade period, reported observing patients suggested among occultists that chemical agents are only experiencing OBEs, ESP (particularly precognition), useful for “receptive” magic/psychic purposes, such as accurate remote viewing, and space-time travel on a daily traveling clairvoyance, divination, and spirit evocation basis (Grof, 1975, 1980, 2001). Despite acknowledging or invocation (e.g., Carroll, 1987; Vayne, 2001; Xeper, that there was a danger of data contamination and a 2005). The use of psychedelics for such magical purposes difficulty of verification, Grof (1980) contended that now appears to be growing in popularity among occultists the occurrence of ESP was relatively frequent and that and is seemingly far more prevalent within the literature LSD could induce states conducive to an unusually than it used to be (e.g., see Louv, 2005; Kent, 2010). high incidence of ESP (Grof, 1975). Often the reports 2.3 Clinical of telepathy could have been merely self-deception, but A review of the literature from the clinical setting other times there was apparently objective verifiable reveals surprisingly few published psychiatric inpatient communication at work (Grof, 1980). Grof further reports, although there are some epidemiological studies found the common occurrence of OBEs, both within (see section 3.2.1) relating to psychedelics and paranormal and independent of this physical plane, often with experience. This may be due to any number of factors, traveling clairvoyance and clairaudience. There were such as the lack of any such spontaneous phenomena also occasional NDE experiences reported (Grof, 1994). within the psychiatric population, or the medicalization Most frequent was the occurrence of extraordinary within psychiatry of paranormal experiences as delusion coincidences or synchronicities, yet only among those or hallucination. Indeed, Mogar (1965) noted that early clients who experienced transpersonal breakthroughs psychoanalytic and behaviorist researchers using LSD within the psychedelic session (Grof, 1980). Finally, Grof were prejudiced against ESP phenomena. Yet, there is one (1990) also reported two events, rare in the literature, study, a psychiatric-interview survey with users of LSD of clients under LSD who experienced visions of the (Abraham, 1983), that reports precognitive experiences as dead that provided apparently unknown, but verifiable one of the symptoms of the LSD flashback phenomena, information. One such event occurred to the wife of the now called hallucinogen persisting perception disorder late psychedelic-psychical researcher Walter Pahnke. (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). During an LSD session, Mrs. Pahnke had a vision of On the other hand, there are many accounts her dead husband who requested her to return a book of paranormal experiences with psychoactive drugs concealed in her attic. Although she claimed to have from within psychedelic psychotherapy, particularly had no prior knowledge of the book, she managed to that involving LSD (Grof, 1975, 1980, 1990, 2001; locate and return it. Of course, it is possible that the Harman, 1963; Holzinger, 1964; Levine, 1968; Masters knowledge of the book already lay in her subconscious & Houston, 1966; Pahnke, 1968) and psychedelics in (Stokes, 1997). general (Eisner, 1995; Laidlaw, 1961; Stolaroff, 2004). One of the most astonishing reports of psi Tart (in Levine, 1968), quoted the International occurring within the clinical setting came from Foundation for Advanced Study, which in the course of the psychiatrist Paul (1966), who reported taking between 300 and 400 psychedelic therapy sessions has the mushroom Amanita pantherina. This was her reported the incidence of ESP with strong evidence seven only psychedelic experience and was part of an ESP times, which is a considerably higher incidence of psi experiment being conducted by Puharich (see Puharich, than that reported to have occurred in non-psychedelic 1959, 1962). Paul had an incredibly intense trip, psychotherapy (Tornatore, 1977a, 1977b). As one complete with apocalyptic visions followed by salvation specific example of this line of research, the percentage through overwhelming love, and was unable to complete of clients reporting telepathic communication during the experiment. However, on return to her practice, LSD-assisted therapy changed from 49% in the first two of her clients reported extraordinary events at the psychotherapy session to 80% in the second session time Paul had been tripping. One patient had amnesia (Blewett & Chwelos, 1959). for the same three hours on Friday evening following The psychiatrist Stanislav Grof, generally credited the consumption of his first-ever (non-psychedelic) with the most expertise in this field having conducted mushroom meal, and upon remembering his experience, Psychoactive Substances and Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 115 recalled that he had experienced the same apocalyptic 2000; Smith & Tart, 1998; Watts, 1968), the same being fears as Paul had experienced. The other patient could true for NDEs (Jansen, 2001). not remember what she had done that evening but on In defense of drug-induced altered states, investigation discovered that she had gone to the house Devereux (1997) has suggested that, “it is a culturally of a secret lover and waited outside, love-struck, for two engineered cliché to dismiss such states as being hours, but was prevented from taking any irrational somehow delusional” (p. 243). Furthermore, Smythies action by her friend, who later informed her of the event. (1960, 1983) has taken issue with the concept of dulled Both patients had a strong bond with the therapist and hallucinatory psychedelic states and insisted that and had expressed an interest in ESP. Paul interpreted these hallucinations are more than just images from a the event as a case of spontaneous telepathic tripping, poisoned brain. Additionally, LeShan (1968) has mocked complete with amnesia on the part of the receivers, the assumption that ordinary reality is somehow more perhaps demonstrating a certain unpredictability in the real than the psychedelically induced ASC, whereas Tart experimental induction of psi with psychoactive drugs. (1977) questioned how natural is the ordinary state of 2.4 Evaluation of Field Reports consciousness, built through a lifetime of socialization. In summary, there is a wealth of reports of Tart (1972, 1998, 2000, 2001) further questioned the the spontaneous occurrence of ostensibly paranormal idea that rationality only occurs in the ordinary state, phenomena with the use of psychedelic substances. and proposed the establishment of state-specific sciences Yet this does not mean that these experiences are (for further discussion see Walsh, 2003) necessarily genuine paranormal events: Aside from No matter what their epistemological status, the usual arguments for and against spontaneous however, these experiences do offer a phenomenological phenomena as evidence for the paranormal (e.g., see spectrum of evidence around which to orient further Pekala & Cardeña, 2000; Stokes, 1997), the fact that research. Furthermore, the similarity in reports respondents had consumed a visionary substance may be between those occurring spontaneously in exploratory, reason to question their perception and interpretation of therapeutic, and accidental contexts, and those induced the experiences, at least for those cases which are not intentionally in the traditional ritual context, gives substantiated by evidence or independent observers. credence to the shamanic use of these substances for Nunn, Rizza, and Peters (2001) have found that cannabis supposedly paranormal purposes. By contrast, other use is related to delusional ideation, although it is not traditional psychoactive substances, such as alcohol, directly related to delusional conviction; however, the coffee, and cocaine are not contemporaneously reported relationship between psychedelic use and the propensity to induce spontaneous paranormal phenomena, and for false memory and poor probability judgments has neither are there folk beliefs that suggest they do. not been established (Kapur & Seeman, 2002; Wilson Nevertheless, Rogo (1975) wondered whether the & French, 2006). Furthermore, Shanon (2003) pointed occurrence of psychedelic-induced ESP experiences out that the usual definitions of hallucination in the exceeded that of normal ESP experiences, a question psychological literature fail to adequately encompass that may be partially answered by survey research. the diverse and complex nature of experiences that 3. Surveys occur with psychedelics, and nor can assumptions be made about the ontology of such psychedelic-induced When reviewing the survey research one visions. Indeed, many people who have had paranormal immediately notices two trends. First, virtually all of the psychedelic experiences reported how real the experience surveys reported here were published since the 1970s, seemed, often being felt as more real than the ordinary after the period when most psychedelic research was waking experience (e.g., Hofmann, in Grof 2004; conducted and the unlicensed use of these drugs mostly Shanon, 2003; Strassman, 2001). It has also been became illegal in Europe and North America. Secondly, reported that psychedelic-induced mystical experiences most of the following surveys have primarily focused feel no less real than previous spontaneous mystical on paranormal experiences or belief and have only experiences (Doblin, 1991; Exman, 1961; Greeley, 1974; recorded drug use information as one of many possible Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006; Pahnke, co-variables, often omitting to distinguish among the 1966; Pahnke & Richards, 1966; Roberts, 2001; Smith, different substances. Only a few studies (DeGracia, 116 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Luke 1995; Kjellgren & Norlander, 2000; Tart, 1993; White, correlation between paranormal belief and marijuana 1997) have approached users of psychoactive substances use runs counter to Tart’s (1993) finding that 76% of as the target sample. marijuana users believe in ESP. This difference may 3.1 Surveys of Belief in the Paranormal be due to cohort differences, such as culture and their Investigating belief in the paranormal with the reasons for using marijuana, or that Tart’s marijuana Mental Experience Inventory (MEI), Kumar, Pekala, sample were mostly also experienced with LSD (72%, and Cummings (1992) additionally utilized a sensation with 36% classified as heavy psychedelic users; Tart, seeking scale that included a yes/no question about 1971), a drug that Gallagher et al. (1994) did find to recreational drug use. Of an opportunity sample of be related to paranormal belief. Furthermore, it should 574 psychology students, drug users reported greater be noted that the items of the AEI Drug-Use subscale paranormal and psi-related beliefs; however, results were only register nominal yes/no responses, whereas more reported in terms of the larger sensation-seeking measure sensitive ordinal drug-use measures would have been as significant main effects. In a more direct assessment of expected to demonstrate stronger correlations, if the the relationship, Gallagher, Kumar, and Pekala (1994) relationships were linear. Nevertheless, correlations from transformed the MEI into the Anomalous Experiences this study reported here are uncorrected and should Inventory (AEI; Kumar, Pekala, & Gallagher, 1994), be accepted with some caution because of the use of adding a Drug-Use subscale to complement the other multiple inferential tests. four subscales relating to Anomalous/Paranormal Belief, Pekala, Kumar, and Marcano (1995a, 1995b) Experience, Abilities, and Fear. The AEI was successfully sought to find a relationship between the subscales validated against other paranormal experience and belief of the AEI and measures of hypnotic susceptibility scales using an opportunity sample of 400 psychology and dissociation on a similar opportunity sample of students. The AEI Drug-Use subscale correlated 413 psychology students. Supporting the Gallagher positively, although only very weakly, with the AEI et al. (1994) study findings, the Drug-Use subscale Anomalous/Paranormal Beliefs subscale (r = .16, p < .01) correlated positively, and somewhat more strongly, with and with Tobacyk’s (1988) paranormal belief subscales: Anomalous/Paranormal Beliefs (r = .25, p < .001) as well Belief in Psi (r = .10, p < .05), Belief in Witchcraft (r = .12, as negatively with Fear of the Anomalous/Paranormal p < .05), Belief in Superstition (r = .11, p < .05), Belief in (r = -.14, p < .01), although no breakdown of the results Spiritualism (r = .17, p < .01), Belief in Extraordinary Life for the Drug-Use subscale was given for the different Forms (r = .13, p < .01), but not Belief in Precognition. substances. In addition, overall drug use was found not Drug use correlated negatively with Traditional Religious to correlate with dissociation or hypnotic susceptibility, Beliefs (r = -.14, p < .01). although marijuana was a special case (see Pekala et al., In addition, some items in the AEI Drug- 1995b). Use subscale correlated with Tobacyk’s (1988) Revised A later opportunity sample of 107 students Paranormal Belief Scale, although only very weakly. (Houran & Williams, 1998) were surveyed using the Overall, paranormal belief correlated negatively with AEI to explore the equivocal relationship between belief heroin use (r = -.12, p < .05) but positively with the use of in the paranormal and tolerance of ambiguity. Further LSD (r = .11, p < .05) and mind-altering substances (r = support was demonstrated for the small but significant .15, p < .01). There were no significant correlations found relationships between drug use and anomalous/para- for marijuana, cocaine, or alcohol. The same correlations normal belief (r = .22, p < .05) and fear of the anomalous/ were found between the AEI Anomalous/Paranormal paranormal (r = -.18, p < .05). Tolerance of ambiguity Belief subscale and some AEI Drug-Use subscale items was found to correlate minimally with both paranormal (mind altering substances, r = .18, p < .001; LSD, r = belief and drug use (r = .23, p < .05), and more so with .15, p < .01), but also including marijuana (r = .16, p < psychedelic drugs (LSD, marijuana), rather than cocaine, .01), but not heroin. Additionally, for all categories of alcohol, or heroin. drugs except heroin there was a small significant negative Simmonds and Roe (2000) used the AEI correlation with the fear of psi (from r = -.12 to -.24), in relation to schizotypy, temporal lobe lability, and whereas alcohol use correlated positively with fear of personality correlates with an opportunity sample of psi (r = .13, p < .05). The lack of a consistent significant 145 psychology students. Similarly to previous surveys, Psychoactive Substances and Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 117 there was a small significant correlation between drug not discernable because Thalbourne’s (2001) results were use and anomalous/paranormal belief (r = .20, p < .05). reported in terms of just two collapsed subscales rather Drug use was also found to relate to complex partial than the full seven. The same is also true of correlations epileptic signs (CPES) as measured by a subscale of the between Anomalous/Paranormal Belief and the Drug- Personal Philosophy Inventory developed by Persinger Use subscale, although of note, very few respondents used and Makarec (1987), which they had predicted would heroin (n = 3) and cocaine (n = 6) compared to LSD (n be the case. However, it is apparent that several items of = 26) or marijuana (n = 61), indicating that correlations the CPES are consistent with experiences often reported with those reporting drug use (n = 57, obviously some in other ASCs, drug-induced or otherwise, so such a of the respondents did not consider marijuana to belong correlation might be expected anyway. Furthermore, to this category) were largely in terms of psychedelics neither of these correlations remained significant when rather than other drugs. the alpha level was recalculated using a Bonferroni A post hoc analysis of the relationship between correction for multiple tests, although the relationship transliminality and drug use revealed there were small, between drug use and belief remains consistent with but significant, positive correlations (ranging from these other surveys, so this correlation is probably r = .20 to .27) between transliminality and all of the genuine, albeit small. AEI drug-use categories (mind-altering substances, A later survey (Thalbourne, 2001) using the marijuana, LSD, cocaine, and heroin) except for alcohol. AEI sought to replicate the relationship found by Thalbourne (2001) suggested that this relationship may Gallagher et al. (1994) between drug use and belief be due to the need to use drugs to escape the unpleasant in the paranormal, and in addition investigated this aspects of the transliminal state, or that drug use may be relationship with respect to transliminality and to a means of promoting the psychic phenomena of which kundalini experiences. Transliminality was measured high transliminal scorers may have become deprived. using the 29-item Transliminality Scale (Thalbourne, Both of these hypotheses might prove to be somewhat 1998), before it was rasch-scaled for age and gender bias. correct, but only for differing substances. It is highly Using an opportunity sample of 125 psychology students, unlikely that psychedelic drugs are used to escape the Thalbourne found a small significant positive correlation transliminal state because these substances are actually between the AEI subscales: Drug-Use and Anomalous/ more likely to cause the opposite effect, although some Paranormal Belief (r = .24, p < .01), supporting previous non-psychedelic drugs, such as opiates/opioids might findings. There was a suggestive but non-significant help to escape transliminality. Indeed, Vayne (2001) negative correlation between drug use and fear of the has suggested psychedelics are expressly used to access anomalous/paranormal. There was also a significant liminal states. Alternatively, Thalbourne has speculated positive correlation between drug use and transliminality that an “openness to experience” trait underlies the (r = .29, p = .001) and the New Age Philosophy (NAP) relationship between drug use, transliminality, and subscale of the Tobacyk’s (1988) Revised Paranormal paranormal experience. Belief Scale (r = .23, p < .01). There was, however, no In a follow-up survey (Thalbourne & Houran, significant correlation with Tobacyk’s Traditional 2005), an opportunity sample of 200 psychology students Paranormal Beliefs (TPB) subscale, and reanalysis of completed the Revised Transliminality Scale (Lange, Thalbourne’s data by Houran and Lange (2001) found Thalbourne, Houran, & Storm, 2000), and an extended the difference in reports of drug use in relation to NAP version of the AEI Drug-Use subscale, which included and TPB to be significant (p < .001, uncorrected for two extra items, one relating to ecstasy (MDMA) and multiple analyses), reinforcing their argument for two one relating to speed (amphetamines). As previously, distinct paranormal belief groups. Furthermore, drug- though somewhat less so, drug use was found to correlate use did not correlate with Thalbourne and Delin’s marginally, although significantly, with transliminality (1993; non-rasch scaled) Australian Sheep-Goat Scale, (r = .21, p < .005, one-tailed). Furthermore, scores on a different paranormal belief scale (Thalbourne, 2001). the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire demonstrated These findings partially support Gallagher et that transliminality was not related to happiness and al.’s (1994) small positive correlation of drug use with that the majority of high transliminals were happy, the Tobacyk Belief in Psi subscale, yet to what extent is offering support to McCreery and Claridge’s (1995) 118 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Luke notion of the pathology-free “happy schizotype” prone broadcasting have been often included, and it deserves to paranormal experiences. However, unhappy high- mentioning that the subscales in which theses items scoring transliminals reported significantly more drug appear tend to correlate with cannabis use (e.g., Johns use than happy high-scoring transliminals (t = 1.98, n = et al., 2005). However, although relevant, this research 77, p < .05), somewhat supporting Thalbourne’s (2001) is largely indirect to the present review as incidence speculation that transliminality, akin to psychosis, can rates for specific types of paranormal-like experiences be a unhappy state that such people attempt to escape are rarely reported, but rather form part of more general from with drugs. Unfortunately, Thalbourne and subscales. Houran’s findings sweep several different types of drugs More specifically, in a quasi-experimental —including psychedelics, narcotics, stimulants, and design with 196 university students, Nunn, Rizza, and alcohol—together under one umbrella, revealing very Peters (2001) found that cannabis use, but not alcohol little about which of these very different drugs relate to use, was positively related to unusual experiences (such each particular syndrome. For instance, given the system as the possession of special, almost magical powers), but of scoring in this study, it is easily possible that the use of use of either drug was unrelated to depression or anxiety. just one drug, such as alcohol, entirely accounts for the Furthermore, cannabis use was related to delusional differences in substance use between happy and unhappy ideation but not distress, further supporting the notion transliminals, and further research begs more specific of the happy schizotype, although cannabis and alcohol analyses. use combined was related to delusional conviction. Nunn Here Metzner (2005) pointed out that, aside et al. suggested that schizotypal traits may predispose from merely varying in how they activate or relax one’s subjects to cannabis use or that cannabis use may result nervous system, psychoactive drugs may also be classified in high schizotypy scores. Although some prospective along a hedonic continuum of pain and pleasure, studies have been conducted in this area, there are often reflecting Thalbourne and Houran’s (2005) simplified so many possible confounding factors involved in such notions about drugs and the quest for happiness. research that directions and sources of causality remain However, taking a transpersonal approach, Metzner entirely speculative (see Castle & Murray, 2004). further indicated that drugs may also be considered 3.2.2 Clinical populations. Finding numerous along a third dimension of consciousness expansion paranormal experiences reported in a DXM-users and contraction, such that psychedelics are essentially survey (see section 3.2.4 to follow), White (1997) conscious expanding, whereas opiates, alcohol, cocaine, sought to explain the survey results in terms of temporal and amphetamines, being focally restrictive and lobe dysfunction (TLD). Tentative indirect support addictive, are consciousness contracting. Thus, a range of comes from a survey of a convenience sample of 100 drugs can be used when seeking stimulation, sedation, or neuropsychiatric patients where a positive recreational happiness, but only specific drugs, psychedelics, will lead drug-use response was used, among other measures, as to consciousness expanding experiences, and perhaps a predictor of TLD, with TLD correlating well with even ostensibly paranormal ones too. Arguments may reports of subjective paranormal experience (Palmer prevail over precise definitions and classifications here, & Neppe, 2003). However, the recreational drug- but the point remains that psychological research would use measure utilized a blanket definition that lumped most likely benefit from a recognition of the experiential together the use of a variety of different psychoactive differences between drugs rather than just a recognition drugs and moreover treated drug use alongside brain of their legal status and a crude categorization of them injury as causative factors in TLD, although there is based only on that (Friedman, 2006). no clear reasoning given for doing this. In this study, 3.2 Surveys of Paranormal Experiences. recreational drug use was taken to be either of the 3.2.1 Psychiatric epidemiological samples. following: prolific marijuana use; the three times use of Recently, a wealth of epidemiological psychiatric research hallucinogens, LSD, mescaline, or PCP; or six months’ has surveyed reports of cannabis use and schizotypal use of heroin or amphetamine. However, it was reported symptoms, finding fairly consistent correlations between in a later paper that, when gender was controlled, there them (for a review, see Castle & Murray, 2004). were no relationships between subjective paranormal Items relating to telepathy and other kinds of thought experiences and any of the categories of drug use or Psychoactive Substances and Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 119 brain injury with this sample (Palmer & Neppe, 2004), Another survey (Usha & Pasricha, 1989a, although results may be due to underpowered statistics 1989b) modified Palmer’s (1979) questionnaire, with only six respondents in this group. particularly the demographic questions, to suit the 3.2.3 General and student samples. Several needs of an Indian student population (n = 328; major surveys of psychic experiences have included response rate 79% using opportunity sampling). Use of questions regarding the use of psychoactive drugs. The mind-expanding drugs was reported by 11%, who were first series of surveys of this nature utilized a psychic also significantly more likely to be Hindu (p < .05) or experiences questionnaire created by Palmer (1979) male (p < .01), probably largely due to the sacred use of for use in a randomly distributed postal survey. The marijuana among many Indian men, mostly Hindus. Of questionnaire was completed by 354 townspeople (T) those reporting drug use, 18% reported psi experiences and 268 students (S), treated as different samples, with during the drug experience, somewhat less than Palmer’s response rates of 51% and 89% respectively. Those who 28-29%. Similar to Palmer’s work, the use of mind- acknowledged the use of mind-expanding drugs also expanding drugs was positively associated (chi-squared) responded positively to being an ESP agent, having a with OBEs (p < .01), and additionally with waking ESP recurrent spontaneous PK experience (T only, p < .01, (p < .05), apparitions (p < .01), and déjà vu experiences although Palmer urged caution with these two results (p < .01). Except for apparitions, these three experiences because of low responses), haunting experience (T only, tended to correlate significantly with other psi-relevant p < .05), aura vision (S, p < .05), and OBEs (S, p < .01). experiences such as lucid dreaming, meditation, and Despite reported drug-use differences between samples, mystical experiences. None of the studies using Palmer’s equal proportions from each group (T: 29%; S: 28%) 46-item questionnaire (Palmer, 1979; Kohr, 1980; reported psi experiences actually occurring during use. Usha, & Pasricha, 1989a, 1989b) made any corrections Kohr (1980) criticized the analysis for not reporting the for multiple inferential analyses, so results should be chi-squared statistic and for using an underpowered test. accepted with some caution. Kohr (1980) surveyed a special sample of self- Returning to the surveys of paranormal belief selecting respondents (n = 406) from the Association for among students reviewed in the previous section (3.1), Research and Enlightenment, an organization whose these studies also investigated anomalous/paranormal membership represented those intrigued by the legacy of experiences, and Kumar et al. (1992) found drug users the renowned psychic and Christian mystic Edgar Cayce. reported significantly more of these. The later series of Using Palmer’s (1979) questionnaire, Kohr failed to find five surveys (Gallagher et al., 1994; Houran & Williams, any association between subjective paranormal phenomena 1998; Pekala et al., 1995a, 1995b; Simmonds & Roe, and the use of mind-expanding drugs, although figures 2000; Thalbourne, 2001), utilizing the Anomalous for drug use were not actually reported. It is suspected Experiences Inventory (Gallagher et al., 1994), each that the drug use statistics were not reported in this study reported a significant positive relationship between because its incidence was quite low. The Kohr sample the Anomalous/Paranormal Experience and Drug-Use was both older (61% over 40 years) and markedly more subscales. Correlations ranged from r = .13 (Gallagher religious (40% = very religious) than the Palmer samples et al., 1994) to r = .29 (Thalbourne, 2001), and Pekala (over 40 years, T = 51%, S = 0%; very religious, T = 8%, S = et al. (1995a) additionally found that drug use was 9%), and, as stated earlier, Gallagher et al. (1994) found positively correlated with a Shamanic or Encounter- traditional religious beliefs to correlate negatively with like Experiences subscale (r = .23; p < .001), which drug use. Roney-Dougal (1984) surveyed a different special included items relating to OBE and contact with spirits. sample, attendees at an occult conference, about their psi Furthermore, Pekala et al. (1995b) reported correlations experiences. Of the 33 respondents, 30 (91%) reported psi between the use of certain substances and subjective experiences, of which 12 (40%) reported the use of mind- psychic experiences occurring under the influence expanding drugs. This indicates both the slightly higher of drugs, although results were only given for high reported use of psychedelics (36% of the sample) and hypnotically susceptible participants (n = 56; for the the greater reporting of paranormal experiences among AEI Drug-Use subscale r = .57, p < .01; mind-altering occultists compared to other populations, though this substances r = .34, p < .01; marijuana use r = .30, p < observation may not be reliable. .05) and high dissociative participants (n = 59) (Drug- 120 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Luke Use subscale r = .58, p < .01; mind-altering substances r = randomly gave 99 alcoholics receiving treatment one of .30, p < .05; LSD r = .41, p < .01; cocaine r = .34, p < .01). the following three drugs: LSD (the only psychedelic of Thalbourne (2001) also found a relationship the three), methylphenidate (a dopaminergic stimulant, between drug use and kundalini experiences (r = .28, also known as Ritalin), or chlordiazepoxide (the first p < .01) measured using the 32-item Kundalini Scale benzodiazepine, a sedative/hypnotic). Those taking (Thalbourne & Fox, 1999). It was suggested by Thalbourne LSD reported significantly more of the paranormal-type that the relationship between paranormal experience, drug phenomena, having more experiences of transcending use, and the kundalini experience either indicates that time and of having an OBE supporting findings with certain drugs may trigger a kundalini experience or that the AEI that dopaminergic stimulants (i.e., cocaine) are that the use of drugs may alleviate it. Alternatively, it was not conducive to paranormal beliefs. proposed that the relationship between these factors may A survey (Tart, 1970, 1971, 1993) conducted also indicate a need for non-standard sensations, or that in California in 1970 with 150 experienced users of the physiological aspects of the kundalini experience were marijuana recruited by discrete snowball sampling found being misinterpreted as paranormal. This final supposition even higher reports of paranormal experiences than the is not consistent with long established tantric teachings student and general samples discussed above (section that warn of genuine psychic kundalini experiences 3.2.3). The marijuana-user sample consisted of 76% called “siddhis” (e.g., Satyananda, 1996). Furthermore, students, and 72% of the sample had tried LSD, although as an alternative to Thalbourne’s interpretations, the only 7% had tried hard narcotics (e.g., presumably results may simply be due to an overlap of subjective heroin). With regard to experiences under the influence psychic experiences common to both the kundalini and of marijuana, 69% reported telepathy (rising to 83% the drug experience, as suggested by Naranjo (1987) and in a later sample), 32% reported precognition, 13% PK demonstrated by DeGracia (1995) in the following section (defined as magical operations that cause an effect), and (3.2.4). Perhaps the activation of the pineal gland and 50% reported seeing auras, with heavier users reporting its chemistry, as supposed by Roney-Dougal (e.g., 2001) significantly higher frequencies of these experiences and Strassman (2001), underlies both factors, resulting in in each category (Tart, 1971). OBEs were reported by subjective paranormal experiences. Indeed, Roney-Dougal 44%, with 53% of this group reporting a least one OBE (1989, 1991) noted that the pineal gland is considered under the influence (Tart, 1971). In comparison, a later by some yogis to be primary in the control of kundalini survey (Luke & Kittenis, 2005) found that somewhat psi experiences, and there is other putative evidence (see smaller percentages of experienced cannabis users (i.e., section 1.1) that suggests such a link. those using it often or more frequently, n = 60) than in 3.2.4 Psychedelic-users samples. DeGracia Tart’s study reported the occurrence of telepathy (20%), (1995) conducted a self-selecting internet survey with precognition (12%), psychokinesis (12%), and auras 61 experienced psychedelic users about their experiences (22%) while under the influence. Yet, the percentage of kundalini-like phenomena. Of those responding, reporting OBEs either with or without cannabis (62%) 58% had used psychedelics more than 20 times, most was larger than in Tart’s study (44%). The use of frequently LSD (95%), and psilocybin (82%). The Californian students at the epicentre of the psychedelic respondents revealed a large overlap between reported scene at that time may at least partially account for Tart’s psychedelic experiences and those experiences commonly heightened findings, perhaps because these respondents arising in spontaneous kundalini awakenings. Of were more psychedelically active and responsive, and particular interest, psychedelic drug users frequently consuming higher quantities and grades of cannabis reported an enhanced sense of empathy (75%), OBEs than in the 2005 survey. (40%), intuition, psychic powers, and the recall of past A survey, similar to DeGracia’s (1995) lives (no statistics given). That the use of psychedelics is investigation of transpersonal drug experiences, was related to both paranormal and kundalini experiences is conducted in Sweden with an anonymous snowball further supported by the survey findings of Thalbourne sample of 16 experienced psychedelic drug users (2001), as discussed in section 3.2.3 (Kjellgren & Norlander, 2000). Of those returning One of the first surveys (Ditman et al., 1969) questionnaires (94%), 37% had used psychedelics more to explore paranormal experiences with psychedelics than 20 times, mostly LSD (75%) and psilocybin (75%). Psychoactive Substances and Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 121 Respondents indicated the occurrence of OBEs (53%), take them seriously, until he received so many that he telepathy (60%), the loss of the sense of a discrete self collated, categorized, and published them. (47%), psycho-geographical traveling (62%), contact Many of the experiences reported by White with entities (20%), time-travel (40%), animal shape- (1997) are consistent with experiences common to shifting (53%), and visions of mythological beings (33%), ketamine use (Jansen, 2001; Corazza, 2002) and include all under the influence of psychedelics. All respondents the following: visions of energy ribbons; a disturbing reported having some psi experiences, with heavier users sense of infinity; a sense of presence of a profoundly and, similarly to Usha and Pasricha (1989a, 1989b), those powerful, loving, and intelligent being (as is also quoted practicing mind-expanding, spiritual, or ritual techniques with DMT use, a very different substance—Strassman, or preparation reported more of these experiences than 2001); déjà vu; jamais vu; a loss of sense of causality; infrequent users. However, significant differences in the memory loops; a sense of presence; OBEs (most often quantity of experiences between low and high users only to a different dimension but also on the corporal plane occurred for the experiences of telepathy (U = 12, p < outside of one’s body); NDEs; contact with entities, .05, two tailed) and gaining knowledge of oneself, and spiritual beings, and other free-floating consciousnesses for a combined index of all paranormal experiences (U (also reported by Carpenter, 2006; Xeper, 2005); = 7, p < .05), though uncorrected for multiple analyses. occasional ESP, including clairvoyance; and the intuitive This partially supports the hypothesis that subjective understanding of complex ideas such as a math student paranormal experiences occur more frequently during understanding Gödel’s Incompleteness Theorem for the the use of psychedelics, although alternative explanations first time. Most of these experiences have since elsewhere are possible. Furthermore, 31% of the sample reported been reported in an online user journal, The DXM Zine that their views on life after death have been influenced (Gelfer, 2007). It is noted there were no reports of PK, by their use of psychedelics, and 44% had become less although some felt that they could slightly influence afraid of death through their experiences, although 12% the laws of probability. These reported experiences are had become more afraid. independently consistent with a psychiatric inpatient In further support of the notion that greater report of an apparently accidental overdosing with psychedelic use is associated with more paranormal a cough remedy containing DXM (Price & Lebel, experiences, a limited survey of 67 psilocybin-containing 2000). Reported symptoms included the experience of mushroom users found that only 9% of those taking low observing oneself from outside of one’s body (OBE), doses (less than 5 dried grams of Psilocybe cubensis) had becoming “just thoughts,” 360° vision, vision within experiences of telepathy, whereas 28% of those taking people, and “delusions” of telepathy, all of which ceased higher doses—what McKenna (1991) called a heroic when the DXM wore off. dose—had telepathic experiences (Hurst, 1994). Taking a more taxonomic approach than earlier Of particular interest to the present review research, Luke and Kittenis (2005) sought to determine are the results of an incidental internet survey (White, which of a range of psychedelics are related to which 1997) of subjective paranormal experiences with the use paranormal experiences in particular. The online survey of the dextromethorphan (DXM). Commonly used in pooled responses from 139 self-selecting respondents cough remedies DXM is a synthetic drug that results recruited via both parapsychology and psychedelic in similar subjective experiences to other dissociatives, interest groups. The percentage of respondents who had such as ketamine and PCP. White was concerned about tried an illicit drug even once (n = 110) and who reported the use of DXM and had a “frequently asked questions” a psi experience while under the influence (47%) was report regarding DXM posted on an internet-based somewhat higher than the 28-29% and 18% found psychoactive drug information site (www.erowid.org). previously with general and student samples (Palmer, The published survey, unfortunately without statistics or 1979; Usha & Pasricha, 1989a, 1989b), as might be demographics, was the product of reports sent to White expected from this non-ordinary sample. from people who had used DXM, often unwittingly as a The study also corroborated many of the simple cough remedy, and had experienced a number of observations made in previous research. For example, subjective paranormal experiences. White was surprised supporting Strassman (2001), DMT was widespread in at the reports and was originally very reluctant to inducing entity contact experiences and OBEs, although 122 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Luke primarily to other dimensions, and like 5-MEO-DMT, occurrence of paranormal experiences (including DMT commonly gave the experience of dissolving mystical experiences) and the use of all drugs (excluding into a universal energy. The hypothesis that DMT is prescription drugs) as measured with the AEI (see section fundamental to the NDE (Strassman, 2001) was partially 3.2.3), the Luke and Kittenis (2005) study also found borne out by the relatively widespread reporting of the, a positive correlation of r = .46, p < .001. The greater albeit generalized, death-like experiences (dying, rebirth, correlation in this study most likely was due to the use or memory of a past life) although such experiences of different sample types, and variations in the questions seemed to be relatively more widespread with 5-MEO- used. In addition, an overall correlation was calculated DMT, as observed elsewhere (Luke, 2005; Roney- between the frequency of paranormal experiences Dougal, 2001; Shulgin & Shulgin, 1997). and the frequency of drug use (excluding alcohol and Reports of “sensing an intelligence or spirit being prescription drugs) that gave a small positive value of in an ingested plant or substance” were found to be most r = .31, p < .001, supporting Kjellgren and Norlander’s widespread where respondents were under the influence (2000) and Tart’s (1971) finding that greater psychedelic of plant-based substances: psilocybin-containing use is related to more paranormal experiences. mushrooms, ayahuasca, mescaline-containing cacti, and 3.3 Surveys and Out-of-Body Experiences (OBEs) Amanita muscaria, but especially with Salvia divinorum, The connection between psychoactive substances as has been documented elsewhere (Aardvark, 2002; and OBEs has received special attention. An inspection Addy, 2010; Arthur, 2010; Doyle, 2012; Horner, of the SPR files led Whiteman (1956) to summarize 2012; Miller, 1994; Vayne, 2001). For a discussion of that approximately a third of “separation” (OBE) cases interspecies encounters on psychedelics see Krippner were initiated by physical conditions, including drugs, and Luke (2009). Such plant-spirit experiences also although which drugs are not specified. Drug type is occurred with the use of the cannabis plant, although clearly of relevance, however, as a study experimentally the most widespread experiences with this drug were comparing LSD with Ritalin and benzodiazepine clairvoyance and OBEs on this plane and, primarily, experiences also found that LSD induced a significantly telepathy, making this substance a prime candidate for greater degree of OBEs (Ditman et al., 1969). Since the ESP research, as has already been advocated by Tart 1950s and 1960s several OBE surveys have incorporated (1993) for a number of reasons. The dissociative DXM questions relating to drug use. Combining two is also a potential candidate for further ESP research, convenience samples of students (n = 192), Blackmore particularly collective ESP experiences, supporting (1982) reported that of the 35 (18%) claiming to earlier reports of psi occurring with its use (Gelfer, have had at least one OBE, 13 (37%) occurred when 2007; Price & Lebel, 2000; White, 1997). There were taking drugs, most often LSD or marijuana. A later also relatively widespread reports of telepathy with LSD questionnaire survey with students (convenience sample, and particularly with MDMA, a drug, categorized as n = 96) found 31% claimed to have had an OBE, and an empathogen, that is characterized by its capacity to they were significantly more likely than those who did induce empathic experiences and that has elsewhere been not claim to have had an OBE to have taken drugs such reported to induce telepathic experiences (Brown, 2012a; as cannabis, LSD, or opium derivatives (Blackmore & Eisner, 1989; Saunders, 1993). Psilocybe genus mushrooms Harris, 1983). too demonstrated some relatively widespread capacity In a similar survey of students from an to accompany psi experiences of all kinds, particularly opportunity sample (n = 200), Myers, Austrin, Grisso, clairvoyance, but even PK to some extent. However, and Nickeson (1983) utilized the OBE question from possibly because of the more infrequent experience of Palmer’s (1979) questionnaire and found a significant, PK, there did not seem to be any one substance that but small, correlation between reported OBEs and the was related to it, with the possible exception of Psilocybe use of mind-expanding drugs (r = .23, p < .001). Similar mushrooms, mescaline, and LSD, although none of to the 18% of Blackmore’s (1982) study, 22% of the these convincingly. Myers et al. sample reported the occurrence of OBEs, In keeping with the previous findings of with 42% of these having used mind-expanding drugs correlations, ranging from r = .13 to .29, between the compared to only 20% using such drugs among those

Psychoactive Substances and Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 123 not reporting OBEs. Furthermore, 50% of the OBE (Blackmore, 1982; Myers et al., 1983, respectively). In experience group (n = 45) reported some psi-related a review of the OBE survey literature, Irwin (1994) experiences during drug taking, compared to only 4% agreed with Palmer that the higher reports of OBE of the non-OBE group (n = 155), perhaps indicating a experiences among students (20-48% compared to commonality in the etiology of drug-induced psi and 8-15% in the general population) were probably due in OBE experiences. part to students’ more frequent experimentation with Although these surveys (Blackmore 1982; “psychotropic” drugs. However, Irwin suggested that it Blackmore & Harris, 1983; Myers et al., 1983) suggest was probably also due in part to other factors, such as that the use of psychedelic substances is an important education and familiarity with surveys. correlate of OBEs in the student population, this Using Palmer’s (1979) questionnaire, Kohr relationship is less pronounced in other populations. A (1980) failed to find any relationship between OBEs later randomized postal study (Blackmore, 1984) with and drug use with the members of the Association for a sample of people who had reported OBEs revealed Research and Enlightenment—previous criticisms still that only 18% of respondents reported OBEs occurring standing—although Usha and Pasricha (1989a, 1989b) after taking drugs and medicines (type not specified). did find such a relationship with Indian students. The Blackmore (1992) concluded that hallucinogenic drugs occurrence of OBEs in the Indian sample was positively undoubtedly help induce the OBE and were more useful associated with the use of mind-expanding drugs (chi- for this than other drugs (e.g., stimulants, tranquillizers, squared = 6.87; p < .01) supporting Palmer’s findings, sedatives, and alcohol), although she added that OBEs although no proportion was given for comparison. Tart still occur rarely with psychedelic drug use and there was (1993) also found that 44% of marijuana users reported no specific OBE-inducing drug, despite Lilly’s (1978) OBEs, with 58% of these indicating that their OBE assertion that ketamine is virtually a chemical road to occurred since using marijuana, with 54% of those the OBE. However, Blackmore (2005) later reported an experiencing OBEs reporting at least one experience OBE in a self-experiment with ketamine and conceded whilst actually under the influence of marijuana (Tart, that, more so than other drugs, ketamine “often involves 1971). Most of Tart’s sample were also students (72%), feelings of body separation” (Blackmore, 2003, p. 356). supporting Alvarado’s (2000) suggestion that the The Blackmore OBE surveys (Blackmore relationship linking psychedelics with OBEs shown 1982, 1984, 1986; Blackmore & Harris, 1983), and in student populations is not evident among the non- that of Myers et al. (1983), support the findings of the student populations, although this assertion is arguably earlier survey of psychic experiences by Palmer (1979). too exclusive of non-student drug-users. For instance, in In Palmer’s study, a higher percentage of the student surveys with psychedelic-users, DeGracia (1995) found sample than the townspeople sample reported OBEs (S: that 40% had an OBE while under the influence, and 25%; T: 14%; p < .01), which Palmer attributed to the in Kjellgren and Norlander’s (2000) sample, of which likely greater use of mind-expanding drugs among the only 25% were students, OBEs under the influence of student sample. Of the townspeople, 7% reported the psychedelics were reported as 53%, a figure comparable use of mind-expanding drugs compared to 32% of the to Tart’s marijuana group (54%). student population, although Palmer suspected that the Reports of OBEs are also prevalent in other student figure was a gross underestimate, possibly due surveys among users of dextromethorphan (White, to the illegality of drug use or the interpretation of the 1997). The OBE has also appeared within numerous term “mind-expanding drugs” to exclude marijuana. It experiential reports of those who have used either is not specified why Palmer should consider the student nitrous oxide or ether (Crookall, 1961, 1964; Schroll, sample to be less likely to report their drug-use than the 2011), LSD (Eastman, 1962; Grof, 1975, 1980; Lilly, townspeople. In addition, 13% of the townspeople and 1969; Whiteman, 1965), PCP (Rudgley, 2000), DMT 21% of the students reporting OBEs said that at least one (Strassman, 2001), 4-HO-MET (Kjellgren & Soussan, OBE had occurred under the influence of such drugs, 2011), Salvia divinorum (González, Riba, Bouso, figures that compare more similarly to the 18% reported Gómez-Jaraboa, & Barbanoj, 2006), pituri (Australian for the general OBE population (Blackmore, 1984) Institute of Parapsychological Research, 2004), than to the 37% and 42% in the student OBE groups harmaline and ayahuasca (Andritzky, 1989; Bianchi, 124 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Luke 1994; Luna & White, 2000; Naranjo, 1967; Roney- image, ranging from fusion with the environment to Dougal, 1986, 1989), a host of other plant psychedelics the complete separation of the conscious self from the (Schultes & Hofmann, 1992), and even certain simple body. All respondents were new members to one of two carbon dioxide and oxygen gas mixtures (Meduna, particular Brazilian syncretic Christian churches that 1950). That OBEs are also frequently reported to occur use the jungle decoction ayahuasca as a sacramental with the use of ketamine (Blackmore, 2003; Curran & (Barbosa, Giglio, & Dalgalarrondo, 2005). Morgan, 2000; Jansen, 1997a, 1999, 2001; Lilly, 1978; 3.4 Summary of Survey Research Muetzelfeldt et al., 2008; Pomarol-Clotet et al., 2006), In summary, the findings from the survey even apparently veridical ones (Hanna, 2003), is further research indicate a small but consistent relationship (r = echoed by a widely distributed UK Department of .16 to .25) between belief in the anomalous/paranormal Health (2004) information booklet, aimed at teenagers, and drug use, although the size of this relationship subtitled Facts about Drugs, that states the primary was more pronounced for the marijuana users in experiential effect of ketamine is an OBE. Furthermore, Tart’s (1993) study. Furthermore, these studies support a taxonomic survey of psychoactive substance use the hypothesis that psychedelics can induce some phenomenology found that, out of a possible 17 different paranormal phenomena, although the same arguments transpersonal experiences, OBEs (to another dimension) for and against the genuineness of field reports (section were the primary experience of both DMT use and 2.4) also prevail here. In the surveys reported here, with ketamine (Luke & Kittenis, 2005). Indeed, a recent either student or general samples, those reporting ESP, online survey (Wilkins, Girard, & Cheyne, 2011) of apparitions, and anomalous/paranormal experiences were 192 recreational drug users found that ketamine was found to be significantly more likely to use psychedelics. the primary predictor of OBEs among a number of so- One study found the same for recurrent spontaneous called recreational drugs (alcohol, cannabis, MDMA, PK (sometimes called poltergeist phenomena) as well, amphetamine, and LSD/hallucinogens), though DMT although only tentatively (Palmer, 1979). Furthermore, was not listed specifically. It is also documented that of those reporting the use of psychedelics, 18-83% the ancient Indian psychoactive sacramental, Soma, was reported psi experiences—most commonly telepathy capable of inducing OBEs (Spess, 2000). but also precognition—actually occurring during drug Early OBE researchers were well aware of use, with heavier users reporting more experiences where the occurrence of these experiences with psychoactive specified. Yet, the occurrence of PK during drug use drugs and categorized them differently from OBEs was only reported among a very small proportion of with “natural” causes, suggesting that they were of a marijuana, psilocybin, mescaline, and LSD users. OBEs different type (Eastman, 1962) and of inferior quality are also an occasional or common feature of psychedelic (Crookall, 1961, 1972). Blackmore (1986) disagreed, experiences and are reported to occur with a wide variety suggesting that a distinction between drug and non- of drugs and wide variety of users, particularly students. drug experiences was not evident. Similarly, Grosso A weak relationship between paranormal (1976) stated that both drug and non-drug OBEs have experiences, the use of psychedelics, and kundalini the same characteristics and that the OBE is the extreme experiences has also been found in two studies, and manifestation of a normal human process. Grosso there is also a weak, but repeated, correlation between further proposed that drug states nicely demonstrated transliminality, drug use, and paranormal experience this continuum of out-of-bodyness by exhibiting a with Australian psychology students. Where specified, range of body-image alterations, from feeling taller to the relationship with paranormal experiences, belief being completely bodiless, offering the most promising in the paranormal, transliminality, and tolerance of means of experimental OBE induction (see section 1.4 ambiguity is reduced compared to psychedelics with for a discussion). Nevertheless at this time, a systemic respect to cocaine, heroin, and alcohol, perhaps reflecting comparison of the various chemically-induced OBEs and Metzner’s (2005) classification of these as consciousness- more spontaneous ones is long overdue. contracting drugs. The same is also true for the negative A recent survey substantiates Grosso’s (1976) relationship with the fear of psi found with psychedelics, notion by finding that 32% of a sample of 28 first- which is not apparent with heroin and actually reversed time users of ayahuasca report alterations in self-body with alcohol, although replication and analyses for Psychoactive Substances and Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 125 specific classes of drugs is necessary. Correlations between Pahnke cited the long delay in testing from dosage and, self-reports of cannabis use and thought transmission somewhat similarly to Whittesley (1960), the use of an in psychiatric research are apparent, often indirectly, ESP machine with sterile symbols as counterproductive though such experiences are also more widely commonly factors. Pahnke proposed that future research would reported in the apparent absence of pathology, with or benefit from the use of familiar sender-receiver pairs, without cannabis. Many of the surveys fail to adequately with both under the influence, and the use of a stimulant identify which substances lead to which experiences, (e.g., caffeine or amphetamine) along with a psychedelic although a switch to such taxonomic research is now such as 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) or evident (Luke & Kittenis, 2005). 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine (abbreviated as DOM, but also known as STP). Despite Pahnke’s 4. Experimental ESP Research reported failure, the psychiatrist Grof (1970) reported Several experiments have attempted to elicit his own experience taking LSD in one of Pahnke’s psi directly through the controlled consumption of experiments in which Grof successfully described a psychedelics. These experiments have been reported remote target in each of three attempts. Grof (1970) quite differently, sometimes as entire monographs in aptly described the dissonance between the task and the excess of 100 pages or at other times as footnotes within experience that occurs to the psychedelic participant, another published report, often without useful details a mixture of both complete acceptance and fear of psi, and statistics. The majority of these experiments were when he wrote: essentially pilot studies and were mostly conducted When I got the third correct answer in a row, the during the psychedelic research period of the 1960s. feelings [of a universe where no laws of time and 4.1 Forced-Choice Designs space exist] were so powerful that I could not Forced-choice designs are those in which the continue. The reason for discontinuation of the ESP target is chosen from among just a few known target experiment was a strange mixture of a conviction types, as with the classic Zener cards. Whittesley that it was absurd to test the obvious and, on the (1960) reported on the use of LSD (no dose specified) other hand, a metaphysical fear of confusion that in a forced choice ESP task with 27 participants, using would follow if I had to give up the usual concept of mostly psychiatric outpatients receiving psychotherapy time and space and with it all the related reference (with LSD presumably). Using ESP cards concealed points we feel so secure with. (p. 3) within opaque envelopes, participants performed two runs of 25 guesses, one before and one after dosing. Prior to using free-response procedures with LSD, Neither performance yielded significant deviations Masters and Houston (1966) also experimented with from mean chance expectation (MCE), although a an ESP-card guessing procedure. With each participant chi-squared analysis of the extent of variance revealed performing ten 25-card runs, only 4 out of the sample a significant reduction in variance (p < .001) for scores of 27 participants did better than chance. Those few in the experimental condition. Under the influence of participants performing better were known very well by LSD, participants had reported that the card guessing- the trip guide and had reported a high degree of empathy task was “ridiculous, petty, mundane, etc.” (p. 221), (with the guide presumably). Masters and Houston and Whittesley suggested such an exceptional lack of noted that participants very quickly became bored with deviation from MCE was due to participants feeling so the task and complained that it was “psychedelically constrained. Little can be said of the methodological immoral” (p. 90) to have them perform card guessing merits of this simple experiment because little detail is while tripping. given, but it is questioned whether the variance analysis As part of a larger series of individual ESP was pre-planned. tests with 36 participants under the influence of Making similar use of ESP symbols, Pahnke psilocybin, Asperen de Boer, Barkema, and Kappers (1971) reported a pilot study with five participants given (1966) found that, in ten 25-card runs, no individual a high dose of LSD (200-400 micrograms) and tested scored significantly better than in their own no-drug 8-9 hours later. The results did not reveal an increase control condition. The results of the 29,000 ESP-card from pre-drug scores for the experimental condition. trials for the 36 psilocybin and 44 control participants

126 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Luke (a few participants did multiple conditions) were a secure non-intentional forced-choice precognition significantly above chance (p < .01) overall. However, design task with 100 participants (Luke, Delanoy, & a closer inspection of the results showed that, when Sherwood, 2008) was correlated positively (rs = .27, p = compared as a group, those in the psilocybin condition .008, two-tailed) with the reported number of consumed scored higher (MCE = .2; mean correct = .214, p < .05) psychedelics over the lifetime. than the control condition (mean correct = .206, p = Despite earlier cautions (e.g., Masters & .09), although the difference between the groups was Houston, 1966; Pahnke, 1971; Whittesley, 1960) not significant. However, there is some indication that that ESP-card tests are too boring to those affected by order effects reduced any difference between the groups, psychedelic drugs, two later studies (Tinoco, 1994; Don, because the psilocybin condition always occurred after McDonough, Warren, & Moura, 1996) found further the control condition, possibly resulting in test fatigue, support for the forced choice task boredom factor as described in the following section (4.2.1). with the use of ayahuasca in Brazil. In a series of 825 Kugel (1977) reported very briefly on the results ESP-card guessing trials conducted in two 90-minute of a telepathy experiment with LSD, in which test sessions with one sender and one receiver, both under scores actually declined under the influence of LSD in the influence of ayahuasca, no significant deviation from comparison to the periods before and after intoxication. MCE was found (Tinoco, 1994). A second automated Participants had been given trial by trial feedback and ESP-card precognition test involved one of the previous it was noticed that there was a very strong tendency for participants in 625 trials over two separate sessions participants to respond to this feedback by responding lasting one hour and 40 minutes each, the scores of with the same call after a hit and a different one after which were slightly below chance but not significantly a miss, the latter action being known as the gambler’s so. However, it is apparent that no control condition fallacy. Analysis revealed that this feedback susceptibility was evident for comparison. As in earlier studies, both increased under the influence of LSD, possibly accounting participants reported that the tasks were boring and that for the poorer test performance. No further details about the tests lost their meaning and importance because it the methodology or statistical results were provided in was more important to live the visions of the moment. this paper. As part of a larger investigation into EEG In an indirect experiment with participants variations with ayahuasca use, Don et al. (1996) selected for good psi scoring, Palmer, Tart, and Redington similarly found no significant deviation from MCE with (1976) found a positive correlation between scores on an a small group of (presumably experienced) participants automated ESP-symbol guessing task in the laboratory using the an automated ESP task under the influence and the reported frequency of marijuana use outside of ayahuasca, though again, like Tinoco’s (1994) of the laboratory, with a negative correlation between study, without non-drug controls. Despite the poor ESP scores and alcohol consumption (see Tart, 1993). preliminary psi-task results, which Don et al. attributed However, a follow-up study (Tart, Palmer, & Redington, to methodological factors, the use of ayahuasca was 1979) failed to replicate these results, although Tart shown to significantly increase 40-Hz (gamma) activity (1993) suggested that this was due to the difference in within the occipital-temporal-parietal area, particularly sample groups and the rising popularity of marijuana as a when the participant’s eyes were closed. It was noted social drug rather than as a tool of self-development. Tart that amplification of this kind has often been observed explained this with the observation that the subjective during successful psi-tests in previous studies with gifted effects of marijuana are highly susceptible to changes in participants. Don et al. hypothesized that the reported psychological set and expectation, echoing Weil’s (1972) psychic effects of ayahuasca were due to this particular suggestion that marijuana is primarily just an active 40-Hz activity amplifying unconscious psi information placebo. Nevertheless, direct experimental telepathy to conscious levels; however, an independent ayahuasca- research with marijuana by the parapsychologist Dr. EEG study by Stuckey, Lawson, and Luna (2005) failed Thelma Moss was apparently unsuccessful (Rogo, 1976), to replicate the power increases in the gamma frequency though no original research papers on this are readily range, but instead found increased gamma coherence available. Even so, some similar findings to the original across the cortex with ayahuasca when compared to Palmer et al. (1976) study were found when scores on control periods. Psychoactive Substances and Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 127 Unlike most of the other forced choice designs, of pilot studies with three participants “failed in card- a series of successful experiments were reported by guessing tests but showed encouraging success in tests Puharich (1959, 1962), one of which utilized a 10-image with free material, particularly token objects” (Rush & unseen picture-matching test with participants who had Cahn, 1958, p. 300), though, unfortunately, further ingested the psychedelic mushroom Amanita muscaria. details were not given in this paper. Further to these Preliminary exploratory work had led Puharich to preliminary reports, Marti-Ibanez (1965) gave a second- report the subjective feeling of telepathy himself, and hand account of success with mescaline in a series of one of his gifted participants perfectly matched two unpublished telepathy experiments conducted at the sets of ten unseen pictures in three seconds. Controlled Pasteur Institute in Paris. Likewise with mescaline, experimental work with 26 unselected participants in presumably in self-experiments, Breederveld (1976, independent trials revealed an overall chance occurrence 2001) reported success in consistently winning above of hits in the control picture matching series (106/1140; chance at roulette experiments in casinos using real MCE = 114) compared to the experimental group (141 money, although the mescaline was only one of several hits; p < .01), indicating a positive effect of the mushroom mostly successful methods. Nevertheless, Breederveld’s on ESP, later repeated in a telepathy-type design. success echoes anecdotal reports concerning the 4.2 Free Response. pioneer psychedelic researcher, Al Hubbard, who, after 4.2.1 Psychometry (object reading). Several apparently developing his psychic ability through the use experiments have opted for a free-response design, of LSD (Stevens, 1988), became somewhat notorious for which is arguably more conducive than forced choice in winning on gaming machines in casinos, his reputation eliciting meaningful responses from participants under being such that he was politely escorted out when he the influence, and psychometry has been especially reached a certain limit of earning (Krippner, 2006a). popular. In an exploratory study, using a special The most extensive object-reading test of sample of six mediums, Osis (1961a) administered 100 participants under the influence of psychedelics formed or 125 micrograms of LSD to each of them prior to a part of a battery of ESP tests conducted in a large- psychometry test. Five performed at chance whereas one scale psilocybin study (Asperen de Boer, Barkema, was extremely successful. Although further details were & Kappers, 1966). In a no-blind repeated-measures not provided about the successful participant, Osis noted design, 44 no-drug control and 36 test participants that the others were too absorbed in either the aesthetic (30 participants did one of each condition, whereas a pleasure of the experience or the quest for philosophical few other participants did multiple conditions) given knowledge. The mediums distinguished the visions from 10 or 20 mg. of psilocybin, were individually tested normal perception and stated that the LSD experience for four hours for ESP performance with ESP-cards, was unique and caused a sense of profound unity object reading, traveling clairvoyance, telepathy, and with the world unlike that occurring during psychic clairvoyance tests regarding both people and objects. experiences. Osis advised continuing research with Using a complex system for evaluating the success of the drugs where the experiments were brief (only 20 mins.), free-response tests, the experimenters jointly estimated as longer sessions appeared impractical and were thought the degree of probability for each statement given by the to result in negative scores because participants would participants and then determined the extent to which the lose interest. Limited information is provided about this probability of correct statements outweighed the number study, although it is assumed that participants were not and probability of incorrect statements. All participants experienced with psychedelics. were considered to have performed better than chance Smythies (1960, 1987) reported a preliminary overall in the object reading, traveling clairvoyance, and psychometry investigation—planned more like a remote clairvoyance-for-persons tests, but those in the psilocybin viewing task—conducted in 1950 with one volunteer condition were not considered to have performed better using mescaline. Although the participant was unable than those in the control condition. However, the free- to discern the targets under adequate blind, remote- response results were combined for these three tests so viewing style conditions, informal questioning about that no separate comparisons between the groups on the target location typical of psychometry tasks elicited these tests were reported. Overall performance on the promising responses. Similarly using mescaline, a series telepathy test revealed 3 hits out of 220 sessions, where 7 128 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Luke were expected by chance, making comparisons between use of LSD and psilocybin in what was primarily an the groups of little relevance, and similarly little success ideographic, psychoanalytic study. In a series of three occurred with the clairvoyance-for-objects test. control, five psilocybin, and four LSD trials, three Asperen de Boer et al. (1966) concluded that it participants performed in a single-blind (water placebo) is not possible to induce ESP with psilocybin, although free-response clairvoyance test. In each trial there were Bierman (1998) argued that their participants should 10 targets of combined, yet incongruous, elements be pitied for having to do such a range of boring and (e.g., a foot with an eye), which Parker (1975) unduly strenuous tests while tripping, a burden unlikely to be criticized for being improbable. Only one participant imposed in modern research. Parker (1975) also criticized had a positive attitude towards psi phenomena and all the study for promoting a scientific methodology at the were inexperienced with psychedelics. Participants were expense of interpersonal factors. Furthermore, Asperen given low doses of LSD (40, 50, and 75 micrograms) and de Boer et al. made little account for the methodological psilocybin (10 mg), much criticized by Blewett (1965) for shortcomings of the psilocybin condition, even though failing to consider the possible dose-dependent nature of they reported that more than half of the psilocybin psychedelic-induced ESP. Yet despite the low doses and participants, mostly drug novices, were distracted by extensive psychological screening one participant had an their visions. The authors did note, however, that there anxiety attack in the first LSD session, which the authors may have been some order effects because the psilocybin attributed to demand characteristics expressed through condition always occurred after the control condition. Of the anxiety and anticipation of the experimenters. the five participants who completed two control trials, The participants’ mentations were rated for four did worse in the second trial, possibly indicating correspondences by three experimenters and then fatigue effects independently of the drug. Asperen de independently by two blind judges, with reasonable Boer et al. also reported briefly on a previous series of correspondence between the judging groups, though more promising unpublished psychometry trials with Blewett (1965) argued otherwise. Compared to the LSD that were conducted prior to switching to the control conditions, the blind judges’ results with both psilocybin, which they considered to be less distracting. the LSD and psilocybin showed a clear improvement Out of several LSD participants some exceptionally in ESP ability, with some accurate correspondence with accurate accounts of object reading where given, for about one in five of the targets for both drugs. Notably, which Kappers (1983) later suggested only a paranormal no success at all was achieved in the three control explanation seemed possible. conditions, though unfortunately no estimation of the 4.2.2 Other clairvoyance experiments. Perhaps probability of the results was given, nor were inferential the first psychedelic ESP experiment was conducted by statistical analyses possible because the design had no the French researcher Rouhier who gave mescaline to decoy targets in the judging process, as duly criticized six subjects, one of whom temporarily developed very by Smythies (1965). Although the results are positive, detailed and accurate clairvoyant abilities and was able to caution is raised concerning any inferences drawn from describe the contents of a nearby room (Rouhier, 1925, so few trials. Cavanna and Servadio (1964) suggested that 1927). The same sentiment was reported by the man who further research should make use of: stronger emotional coined the term psychedelic, Humphry Osmond, after targets, greater emphasis on interpersonal relations, and his own mescaline experiences in 1951. Osmond (1961) use of free association rather than interview. also reported that, in 1957, he and his fellow researcher A study of some indirect relevance investigated Duncan Blewett, both under the influence of mescaline, the effects of low-dose LSD (65 micrograms) on apparent successfully transmitted telepathic information in an subliminal perception with five participants (Freidman informal experiment to such a degree that an independent & Fisher, 1960). Participants were shown a bold image observer became acutely panicky at the uncanniness of faded out below the subjective threshold of (conscious) the event, though, unfortunately, no formal experiment discrimination with several layers of paper and presented with a larger sample is reported. after a blank control image in repeated trials. Analysis Using the more popular substances of the 1960s, of free-response descriptions of the hidden image by Cavanna and Servadio (1964) reported extensively on a independent judges revealed that participants gave repeated-measures clairvoyance design with the alternate significantly more accurate descriptions of the target Psychoactive Substances and Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 129 in the experimental condition under the influence of ganzfeld together. With only subject judging this time, LSD compared to the control condition, and that these participants in the psilocybin group scored 7 direct hits participants also performed significantly better with out of 12 trials (58%), a figure that even with only a LSD in the experimental condition than they had done few trials is significantly deviant from MCE (p < .05), six weeks previously without LSD. The results were although uncorrected for a stacking effect (see Milton & interpreted as indicating the enhancement of subliminal Wiseman, 1997, p. 93). perception with LSD; however, they might also be due, 4.2.3 Telepathy experiments. Bierman partly or wholly, to the enhancement of ESP with LSD. (1998) continued with the previous work, this time This is because the design mimics an ESP-study design in a telepathy design using a within-subjects control in protocol, and there is some evidence to suggest that condition with 20 psilocybin-experienced participants ESP is an active factor in subliminal perception research who each performed one control and one psilocybin (Stanford, 1990). Alternatively the results may be due ganzfeld trial with a sober sender. Participants in the to poor methodology, such as order effects, quasi- psilocybin condition scored at chance (25%), whereas experimental design, and expectation or other bias due in the control condition they performed slightly below to the lack of blind controls across all conditions and (20%), with no significant difference between the two. the repeated use of the same subliminal target image. However, a post hoc analysis of the results for negative Furthermore, according to Cheesman and Merikle and positive clips revealed an interaction between target (1986), the mere perception of information from between emotionality and drug state, with a much higher hit the subjective and objective threshold, as in this study, rate for positive clips (44%) than negative clips (8%) in is not strictly subliminal perception, but unconscious the psilocybin condition and a reversal of this effect in perception. the control condition. This interaction was explained in Based upon earlier recommendations to avoid terms of psilocybin participants possibly detecting the boring and repetitive test procedures with participants positive ESP targets, but blocking the negative images under the influence of psychedelics, a series of pilot to deter bad trips, given that participants were tripping ganzfeld experiments with cannabis (marijuana) and alone this time; however, the reverse effects for the psilocybin were conducted (Wezelman & Bierman, control condition are not as easily explicable. Bierman 1997; Bierman, 1998). In the first series, Wezelman interpreted this result as suggesting that psychoactive and Bierman utilized a no-sender auto-ganzfeld set- drugs affect psi performance and that target emotionality up with 40 participants pre-selected for experience and the psychological set of the participant may interact with marijuana. In a randomized crossover design, to alter the results. It is also worth noting that ganzfeld participants performed two trials each, one self-dosing experiments with psychoactive drugs are likely to induce marijuana condition and a control condition. All but a unique, possibly combined, state of consciousness, four participants, who became nauseous and dropped unlike the usual drug or ganzfeld experience alone, out after the first session, completed both trials. A given that the ganzfeld environment is considered by planned mixture of subject judging or external judging many scholars to already induce a unique kind of ASC was used. The control condition had a hit rate of 15% (e.g., Wackerman et al., 2000). However, this idea needs (MCE = 25%) compared to 30% for the marijuana further verification. condition, and Bierman (1998) noted that the score for Coming from the field of psychedelic the marijuana condition was mainly due to the external experimentation rather than parapsychology, towards judges, particularly one experimenter-judge who was also which they reported being skeptical, Masters and using marijuana. However, scores for the experimental Houston (1966) conducted a series of ESP experiments group were not significantly different from MCE. in which they demonstrated a much greater degree than Wezelman and Bierman (1997) also reported on their contemporaries of familiarity with the effects of findings from a no-sender ganzfeld pilot-study conducted the drugs being used. They provided an experienced with six psilocybin-experienced participants performing trip guide, with whom most participants were familiar, two trials each under the influence of psilocybin. There and utilized experienced trippers as participants. The was no control condition. Utilizing a buddy system study had 62 receivers, with their guide as the sender to deter bad trips, pairs of receivers performed the of the 10 static image targets, and only the receiver 130 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Luke under the influence of LSD. Using independent judges, hostile towards the idea of drug-induced psi. The design the majority of the 62 receivers (77%) gave free-recall relied on a computer-recorded random number-series responses approximating the target at least 2/10 times, guessing task with a non-drugged sender elsewhere, with five of these participants approximating the target though where was not specified so sensory leakage image 7/10 or 8/10 times. The remaining 14 participants cannot be ruled out. Participants scored at chance in the (23%), who performed worse, were either unknown control condition (35 hits in 297 trials, nonsignificant) to the guide, anxious, or primarily interested in their and after ingestion of A. muscaria repeated the test own personal psychological narrative rather than the (average 40 mins. later) and made a combined score of 65 ESP task, though these observations may be post hoc. hits in 432 trials (p < .005). Scoring returned to chance Sometimes, receiver statements also matched non-target after two and half hours, as they had in the previous thoughts of the sender. But Parker (1975) noted that clairvoyance experiment, although participants still non-verbal communication from the guide could not be reported feeling that their intuition was active. Puharich ruled out. Once again, no estimation of the probability (1962) attributed the results to the neurochemical of describing the target image is known, because no action of cholinergia heightening the ESP function by decoy images were used in the judging process and no activating the parasympathetic functions (slow heart comparison was made to a control condition to establish rate, etc.) indicative of the trance state. However, if LSD actually improved scores. Nevertheless, accuracy this explanation is somewhat erroneous because the rates were similar to those reported in the clairvoyance psychoactive principles in A. muscaria—muscimol and procedure of the same nature by Cavanna and Servadio ibotenic acid—can both calm and stimulate the central (1964), where LSD and psilocybin scores exceeded nervous system, respectively, whereas the cholinergic those in control conditions. Cavanna and Servadio chemical, muscarine, is now known to be only a trace and further reported an exploratory sender-receiver telepathy psychologically inactive constituent of the mushroom design with one LSD trial and one control, where only (Michelot & Melendez-Howell, 2003). There is also the the receiver took LSD. The results indicated accurate possibility that optional stopping occurred in this latter comparisons in approximately one in three of the targets experiment as indicated by the different number of trials for LSD, with a rate of only one in ten for the no-drug in the control and experimental conditions, and Krippner control condition. (2006a) also raised concern that Puharich’s research, as Following up from a previous forced-choice with Masters and Houston (1966), was reported in a self- ayahuasca ESP study (Tinoco, 1994), Tinoco (2011) authored book rather than a peer-reviewed journal. conducted a free response task in 1995 with three 4.3 Summary of Experimental Research participants under the influence of ayahuasca acting as Due to the exploratory nature of most of these senders and receivers in a telepathy-type task. No use experiments, it is difficult to fully assess their efficacy of decoy targets was made in the judging procedure, using psychedelics to produce ESP (no PK experiments nevertheless three independent judges concluded that having been attempted). In most cases this could have there was no correlation between the target and the largely been improved with an adequate control condition response in any of the 15 trials; however, no exact without order effects (Palmer, 1978), and the blind use probability of getting a hit can be calculated with of decoy targets in the judging process. Procedures using this method, and the interpretations of the judges are subjective probability estimates by experimenters (such as subjective. Furthermore, no control group was used for Asperen de Boer et al., 1966) are now virtually obsolete comparison, it is not clear how the targets for sending in parapsychology because they are so difficult to assess were initially chosen, and participants complained that and are prone to bias (Parker, 1975). In the one ESP- they were not getting any visual imagery and, as with the card experiment to use a control condition, scores in the two previous ayahuasca studies, that the task was boring psilocybin condition were significantly different from in such a state. chance and were also superior to the control condition, Finally, Puharich (1962) followed up his earlier although not significantly (Asperen de Boer et al., 1966). success at clairvoyance with Amanita muscaria with a Nevertheless, it is apparent that those experiments using demonstration for four Los Angeles news reporters, who ESP-card type symbol guessing procedures were largely also acted as participants and who were either skeptical or unsuccessful compared to chance expectation.

Psychoactive Substances and Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 131 The use of the symbol-guessing procedure has for philosophical knowledge (Osis, 1961a), a deep soul- been widely criticized for being far too mundane under searching self-examination (Blewett, 1963), one’s own the influence of psychedelics (Grof, 1980; Masters & personal drama (Millay, 2001; Parker, 1975), and the Houston, 1966; Pahnke, 1971; Parker, 1975; Rogo, flow of thoughts (Ryzl, 1968). In addition, participants 1976; Stafford & Golightly, 1967; Smythies, 1960; may have difficulty communicating because of the lack Tart, 1968; Whittlesey, 1960). Even so, using Amanita of adequate language (Lilly, 1969), the overwhelming muscaria, Puharich (1962) demonstrated that forced- flood of ideas and emotions (Ryzl, 1968) and the speed of choice procedures could be successful with picture- change of the internal experience (Blewett, 1961b, 1963). sorting tasks. More engaging, free-response procedures The experience of dissociation (e.g., with ketamine) can have demonstrated at least some success in all but one of also hinder communication when participants become the studies that have used psychometry, although rarely no longer present or aware of their physical environment with any control condition for comparison. A clearer and, as Huxley (1961b) pointed out, there is a need to indication of possible psychedelic-induced ESP, even assure participants of their identity once constructs at times in comparison to a control condition, comes of space and time disappear. Blewett (1961a) further overall from the clairvoyance and telepathy designs, warned of other unwanted psychological reactions that except for the Asperen de Boer et al. (1964), Tinoco may occur if participants attempt to either escape from (2011), and the marijuana ganzfeld studies (Wezelman or rationalize their experience. & Bierman, 1997). Replication, however, is needed However, it is apparent that these obstacles to and, in some cases, with better methodology and pre- research may be greatly alleviated or even eliminated if planned analyses. It remains curious that no formal participants are experienced with the use of psychedelics explicit experiments with precognition or PK have been (Blewett, 1963; Parker, 1975; Tart, 1977). Indeed, about performed, particularly the former because powers of a quarter of inexperienced participants are expected to divination are traditionally attributed to many plant have intense spontaneous mystical experiences during psychedelics. their first trip (Wulff, 1997, 2000). Yet, very few of the studies reviewed here (only Bierman, 1998; Masters & 5. Methodological Critique Houston, 1966; Wezelman & Bierman, 1997) specifically of Experimental Research reported the use of participants experienced with these When consideration is given to what has been psychedelics, although it is worth noting that those that learned from these largely pilot studies, experimenters did were relatively more successful than those that used and commentators alike have highlighted the difficulties inexperienced participants. Further to this, it has been involved in attempting to test for psi with participants suggested that experienced psychedelic participants who have taken a psychedelic. Aspirin de Boer et al. (1964) can be better trained to stabilize their experience suggested that the participant’s willingness to perform (Millay, 2001; Tart, 1977) and may even naturally train in the task was important, but given that participants themselves to stabilize experiences through repeated have difficulty maintaining alertness, self-control, focus, use (Levine, 1968). Regardless of training, it has been interest, and orientation to the task (Edge, Morris, strongly advised that participants be allowed to stabilize Palmer, & Rush, 1986; Millay, 2001; Rogo, 1976), it their experience before testing begins (Blewett, 1963, seems much more important to consider the participant’s 1965; Millay, 2001; Parker, 1975; Tart, 1977). Pahnke “capability” to perform in the experiment rather than (1968) further recommended an 8- to 12-hour pre-dose their mere willingness. Parker (1975) notes that a preparation period when working with terminal cancer participant’s increased sensitivity to subtle influences patients, although Ludwig (in Tart, 1968) questioned under psychedelics is both a boon and a bane to research. the necessity of this in a parapsychological context. Indeed, using psychedelics to induce psi is a double-edged Stabilization of the experience may even sword, namely all of the reasons cited in the introduction be expedited by inducing hypnosis prior to drug that make such research alluring also make participants administration (Parker, 1975; Tart, 1968) in what has poor test subjects. This is because participants may been called the “hypnodelic” state (e.g., see Levine & become engrossed in the experience (Rogo, 1982), the Ludwig, 1965; Ludwig 1968; Tart, 1967). Alternatively, aesthetic rapture (Osis, 1961a; Smythies, 1960), the quest Ryzl (1968) reported re-inducing LSD states through 132 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Luke hypnosis, as is also reported elsewhere, although it was combining stimulants with psychedelics, whereas uncertain how successful this was (Ludwig, 1968), though Asperen de Boer et al. (1966) chose psilocybin over LSD, success inducing other drug states (e.g., MDMA, heroin) due to it being milder, with which Cavanna and Servadio has also been reported (Hastings, 2006; Hastings et al., (1964) agreed. Indeed, LSD has a much longer duration 2000; Ludwig & Lyle, 1964). Similarly, Farber (2000) of action than psilocybin and as Blewett (1963) noted, 10- has described the successful re-induction of psychedelic hour trips are hard to staff. Ryzl (1968) also questioned states using hypnotic anchoring techniques available the utility of LSD in psychedelic psi testing and proposed in neuro-linguistic programming. Perhaps, the entire that the ideal substance, if it can be synthesized, should psychedelic experience can be stabilized and anchored inhibit cortical activity to suppress the stream of during test trips with experienced users and then thoughts, depress sub-cortical activity to block incoming later re-induced, with or without hypnosis, so that no stimuli and excite spheres of the cortex involved in ESP psychedelics are actually taken during the test procedure. production, yet maintain rational insight, and increase Testing for psi under such “controlled flashbacks” may suggestibility. However, such a designer drug is far in the overcome most of the stipulated problems, and have the future, though such psychochemical engineering may added advantage of investigating Rogo’s (1976) question one day be possible (Brown, 2012b); moreover, there of whether it is the neurochemical action of the drugs or are an increasing number of ethnobotanical substances the state induced that can seemingly produce psi. becoming known that have traditionally been used for Although some researchers (Halliday, 1961; psychic purposes, which have not yet been thoroughly Nicol & Nicol, 1961; Paterson, 1961a; Smythies 1960; tested, or even tested at all (e.g., Salvia divinorum). Tart in Levine, 1968) suggest that using good psi scorers, Tart (1993) further suggested that marijuana was psychics, and mediums in drug studies would improve an ideal substance for psi experimentation because of its scoring, Eileen Garrett (1961b) noted that although wide familiarity within the public, its mild psychedelic LSD enhanced her mediumistic experience it would not qualities and its reputed ability to induce psi, experientially improve forced choice test-scores. Echoing this, the Osis at least. Puharich’s (1962) apparent repeated success with (1961a) experiment has shown that using mediums did Amanita muscaria also needs replicating. Furthermore, not prove any more successful than the use of normal other non-psychedelic chemical psi research, such as de participants in the other psychometry experiments. This Pablos’ (2002) unsuccessful first-person precognitive- was probably due to all the problems mentioned already dream drug-study, could also be replicated with the that occur more with inexperienced psychedelic users, use of psychedelic substances that have actually been indicating that sample selection should primarily seek reported to induce psi in dreams. For instance, there to select experienced users over psi-effective participants, are reports of precognitive dreams, by both traditional although, presumably, ideal participants would be both, users and by modern consciousness researchers, with though not necessarily. substances such as Calea zacatechichi (Devereaux, 1997; Considering aspects of timing, several authors Díaz 1979; Mayagoitia, Díaz, & Contreras, 1986), Silene have offered advice, though no formal studies have been capensis (Hirst, 2000, 2005; Sobiecki, 2008, 2012), conducted. Both Ryzl (1968) and Grof (1980) suggested and tree datura (Brugmansia; Metzner, 1992; Schultes that the optimum period for testing psi during the LSD & Hofmann, 1992). Other substances seem best session was towards the end when the effects were leveling suited to other experimental designs too, for example, off, as in the Masters and Houston (1966) experiments, telepathy-like experiments might also benefit from the yet Pahnke (1971) disagreed. From extensive personal empathogenic effect of substances like MDMA, as the experience, Copley (1962) suggested testing for ESP once one participant under its influence in a remote detection the trip had finished. As regards to the duration of the experiment did exceedingly well (Brown, 2012a). The use psi-task, rather than the extended test periods favored of a placebo in a double-blind or blind control condition, by some researchers (e.g., Asperen de Boer et al., 1964; as in Cavanna and Servadio (1964), is of questionable Tinoco, 1995), Osis (1961a) suggested 20 minutes should utility in this type of experiment because at anything be the maximum for optimum performance. less than sub-threshold doses the participant is likely Some consideration has also been given to to easily detect the effects of the drug; nevertheless, the optimal substance. Pahnke (1971) recommended researchers should be aware that placebo drug effects Psychoactive Substances and Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 133 have been demonstrated in ESP research when coupled and supportive (Blewett, 1963). Psychological issues with positive false feedback on task performance (Pitman induced through interpersonal relations within the & Owens, 2004). laboratory become magnified when participants are on Several researchers have also commented on psychedelics (Blewett, 1963; Parker, 1975). Cavanna the importance of dosage (e.g., Braud, 2002; Levine, and Servadio (1964) highlighted this when one of 1968). Blewett (1961b) warned that giving participants their participants had an anxiety attack concurrent low doses of LSD may not be sufficient to break through with their own anxiety, which led them to advise that the barrier between the normal and the full-blown the experimenters themselves should be experienced psychedelic state and can be merely disorientating rather users of the psychedelic substance under investigation, than transformative, and he later suggested that doses as also advised by Strassman (2001). Tart (1968) also up to 1,500 micrograms of LSD (a very large dose) need recommended that the experimenter should guide investigating, because ESP might be dose dependent the experience towards the goal of the study, and has (Blewett, 1965). Support for this logic is also evident criticized previous work for assuming psychedelic states in escalating dose research with DMT (Strassman, automatically induce psi, because, as noted by Tart, 2001). It is additionally advised that experienced Osmond, and Beloff (in Levine, 1968), and Puharich participants control their own dosage (Tart, 1977), as (1959), in traditional scenarios the shamans who use in the experiment by Wezelman and Bierman (1997). these substances usually have extensive training and Participant’s self-reports of the depth of the altered state experience. It is further suggested that the experimental were also considered better than dosages as indicators task be shaped to the state of the participant, not vice of subjective effects (Tart, 1977). Self reports using versa (Tart, 1977), and utilize the strong motivation, the Hallucinogenic Rating Scale were also considered directed awareness, and complex ritual that is found in better indicators of dosage than physiological measures shamanism (Copley, 1962; Grof, 1980; Tart, 1968). Grob (Strassman, Qualls, Uhlenhuth, & Kellner, 1994), and Harman (1995) have also urged the integration of though the use of a scale of transpersonal experience, aspects from shamanic practices into scientific procedure such as the Self-Expansiveness Level Form (Friedman, so that there is attentiveness to factors of set and setting, 1983; Pappas & Friedman, 2007), would also likely such as intention, expectation, preparation, group be fruitful in discerning the relevant depth of the identification, and formalized structure, as well as the psychedelic ASC. Furthermore, some researchers (e.g., integration of the experience in the following months. Parker, 1975; Tart 1968, 1977) have noted that the Indeed a multi-method approach to studying psychedelic issue of dosage is largely irrelevant in comparison to the shamanic practices is advised, so that ethnography can influence of the psychological factors of set and setting, inform suitable experimentation (Giesler, 1984, 1985; as originally noted in psychedelic research by Leary, Luke, 2010a). Nevertheless, Storm and Rock (2011) Litwin, and Metzner (1963). In discussion of this, Vayne pointed out that, in psi research with psychedelics, (2001) suggested that the influence of psychological researchers need to be aware of the difference between factors on psychoactive drugs can vary their effects so shamanic techniques and merely shamanic-like much that the drug can be thought of primarily as an techniques; for example, the latter may lack the purpose experience, composed of set, setting, and substance. of serving one’s community. Furthermore, Tart (1977) Factors considered important in determining has recommended the implementation of mutual psychological set include the participants’ expectations, research, where participants are considered as co- attitudes towards themselves, idiosyncratic perceptions, investigators, to reduce experimenter bias and enhance a and emotional orientation to the experiment (Levine, sense of participation, trust, and motivation. 1968; Tart, 1968). It is also deemed imperative to 6. General Summary and Conclusions engender a sense of self-surrender, acceptance, and trust (Blewett, 1963). Factors considered important in ven though the subjective paranormal experiences, determining psychological setting include those that Eclinical observations and anthropological reports are are ordinarily considered under demand characteristics subject to all the usual criticisms and rebuttals that apply (Parker, 1975; Tart, 1968, 1977), particularly the to non-experimental cases (e.g., see Stokes, 1997) there is experimenter’s attitude, which should be warm, friendly, a growing body of reports, rooted in thousands of years of

134 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Luke traditional psychedelic use, that supports the notion that run the risk of turning into bacchanalian scenes, as once genuine paranormal phenomena do occur. Nevertheless, witnessed by Puharich’s wife (Hermans, 1998). as evidence this data is not scientifically rigorous, yet it has However, now resumed, direct parapsychological great value in mapping the phenomenological terrain of research with psychedelics needs expanding beyond paranormal experiences with psychedelics. This body of the Netherlands and Brazil—the only place where reports is further supported by correlations from surveys experimental psi-chedelic research has been conducted linking psychedelic use with the increased reporting of since the 1970s—and treating these substances like any paranormal experiences and belief in the paranormal, other drug worthy of investigation within a medical or although again, self-reports have more phenomenological therapeutic context has recently proven a fruitful means merit than evidential value. Furthermore, even though of inquiry for many researchers (Doblin, 2004; Grob & it can be considered little more than exploratory at this Harman, 1995), although psi research does not readily stage, the experimental evidence is more positive than attract such funding at the present time. Nevertheless, not and proves promising so far, illuminating both it should be noted that psychedelics are considered as methodological pitfalls and possibilities. sacramentals by the spiritual and religious groups that It is apparent that parapsychopharmacology use them and they must be utilized and researched with is a multidisciplinary endeavor pooling expertise respect. It is also clear that besides trying to replicate the from anthropology, ethnobotany, phytochemistry, promising free-response studies, further experimental neurobiology, psychopharmacology, psychiatry, psychedelic research should utilize protocols that psychotherapy, transpersonal psychology, and indeed maximize psi effects, and this work can then parapsychology. It also owes much to the non-academic simultaneously enhance process research methodology explorers of consciousness, be they shamans, occultists, by indicating optimal conditions for psi through the or psychonauts. It is a branch of research that is still very psychologically magnifying effects of these substances. much in its infancy, and, along with other fields conducting For instance, Bierman’s (1998) psychedelic psi research research with the use of psychedelics, has been operating may have revealed the apparent psychic blocking of very quietly since the late sixties until a gentle turn in the tide negative images, and, from earlier experiments, forced- during the last decade or so has seen experimental research choice tasks are clearly too mundane. Research should resumed (see Grob & Harman, 1995). Nevertheless, also seek to study these substances in the shamanic further experimental research continues to need strict context in which they have most effectively been used, ethical and often governmental approval before it can designing appropriate test protocols for traditional proceed, requiring lengthy applications (see McKenna, settings. A recent example of which is Hirukawa et al.’s 2004; Strassman, 2001). Several years ago, Tart (1977) (2006) apparently successful demonstration of psi using recommended bypassing these difficulties by casually a field random event generator in an ayahuasca ritual enrolling participants who were already using psychedelics, with the Santo Daime church in Brazil. rather than having the experimenter administering the Additionally, following in the footsteps of substances directly. An example of this kind of experiment William James, there has already been some return involved several thousand Grateful Dead fans, renowned to self-experimentation with psychoactive drugs by for their psychedelic consumption, who acted as senders in de Pablos (2002, 2004), who has developed a viable a series of dream telepathy experiments with some success protocol for testing one’s own precognitive dreaming (Krippner, 1999; Krippner, Honorton, & Ullman, 1973; abilities with drugs, which might easily be adapted Roberts, 2004). Indeed, taking what Giesler (1984, 1985) to waking experimentation as well. All experimental calls a psi-in-process approach and keeping naturalistic research should also be designed and conducted with variables intact, group experiments may be one way to an appreciative consideration of Tart’s proposals for access the kind of group telepathy experiences that people the creation of state-specific sciences (Tart, 1972, 1998, tripping in groups sometimes report (e.g., Grey, 2007; 2000, 2001). In the future, parapsychologists might ask Nuttal, 1970; Stevens, 1989; Wolfe, 1971), especially their participants about their drug use, and researchers on DXM (Luke & Kittenis, 2005). However, without investigating the use of psychedelics might once more the grounded and controlled atmosphere of a concert or include questions relating to paranormal experiences shamanic ceremony, psychedelic group ESP experiments (e.g., Echenhofer, 2005). Furthermore, with an ever Psychoactive Substances and Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 135 growing number of substances being discovered and a References large natural data pool of psychedelic users, there is a need for more thorough and focused phenomenological Aardvark, D. (Ed.). (2002). Salvia divinorum and research that investigates and identifies the types of Salvinorin A: The best of The Entheogen Review: ER paranormal experience that occur through the use of monograph series, No. 2 (2nd ed.). Sacramento, CA: each of these diverse psychedelic substances (Luke, Entheogen Review. 2004a, 2004b, 2004c; Luke & Kittenis, 2005). Abraham, H. D. (1983). Visual phenomenology of the LSD Finally, there is much that can be offered flashback.Archives of General Psychiatry, 40, 884-889. to transpersonal studies from the investigation of doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1983.01790070074009 parapsychopharmacology, and vice versa. Certainly it is Addy, P. H. (2010). That deep internal voice: Controlled clear that no study of the extraordinary phenomena of the administration of Salvia divinorum (Unpublished psychedelic state would be complete without the insights doctoral thesis). Institute of Transpersonal and perspective of transpersonal psychology. Indeed, Psychology, Palo Alto, CA. many of the exceptional experiences encountered with Alvarado, C. S. (1995). Emilio Servadio at ninety: A psychedelics involve parapsychological elements and yet tribute. Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, they also go beyond the ordinary scope of parapsychology 60, 122-128. into the wider transpersonal realms (Luke, 2012b), such Alvarado, C. S. (1998). ESP and altered states of con- as entity encounters (e.g., Luke, 2011b) and profound sciousness: An overview of conceptual research mystical experiences (Luke & Kittenis, 2005). It is also trends. Journal of Parapsychology, 62, 27-63. somewhat inevitable then that this course of research is Alvarado, C. S. (2000). Out-of-body experiences. In E. as likely to culminate in transformation for the researcher Cardeña, S. J. Lynn, & S. Krippner (Eds.), Varieties as it is in evidence for the genuine existence or otherwise of anomalous experience: Examining the scientific of psychedelically induced paranormal phenomena (Luke, evidence (pp. 183-218). Washington, DC: American 2011c). It is also illuminating at this point to consider this Psychological Association. research in terms of Tart’s (2002) evaluation of these related American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic fields of enquiry, where parapsychology is to transpersonal and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text psychology what physics is to engineering: One researches revision). Washington, DC: Author. the fundamental technical nature of the subject matter so Andrews, G. (Ed.). (1997). Drugs and magic. Lilburn, that the other may apply it. In the current case a great deal GA: IllumiNet Press. can be learned, as Tart reminds, about the fundamental Andritzky, W. (1989). Sociopsychotherapeutic functions nature of mind through the study of parapsychology of ayahuasca healing in Amazonia. Journal of and—by looking to the psychedelic dimension—about Psychoactive Drugs, 21, 77-90. the neurochemical mediation of exceptional aspects of Anonymous. (2004a). Baby Woodrose telepathy: LSA and consciousness in particular. Ultimately, however, it is MDMA. Retrieved from http://leda.lycaeum.org/? down to transpersonal psychologists how they use this ID=5297 knowledge and apply it, though, fortunately, the history Anonymous. (2004b). Dream from hell: Telepathy, time here tells us that wisdom usually prevails. travel, and assorted craziness. Retrieved from http:// leda.lycaeum.org/?ID=5964 Acknowledgements Anonymous. (2004c). Salvia divinorum: Diviner’s sage. 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154 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Luke Wezelman, R., & Bierman, D. J. (1997). Process orientated Winkelman, M. (1989). A cross-cultural study of ganzfeld research in Amsterdam. Proceedings of the shamanistic healers. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 40th Parapsychology Association Annual Convention 21, 17-24. held in conjunction with the Society for Psychical Wolfe, T. (1971). The electric Kool-Aid acid test. London, Research, 477-492. UK: Bantam. White, W. E. (1997). Altered states and paranormal Woodruff, J. L. (1943). ESP tests under various experiences. In W. E. White, The Dextromethorphan physiological conditions. Journal of Parapsychology, FAQ: Answers to frequently asked questions about DXM, 7, 264-271. (version 4). Retrieved from http://www.erowid. Wulff, D. M. (1997). Psychology of religion: Classic and org/chemical/dxm/faq/dxm_paranormal.shtml contemporary (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Wiley. Whiteman, J. H. M. (1956). The process of separation Wulff, D. M. (2000). Mystical experiences. In E. and return in experiences out of the body. Proceedings Cardeña, S. J. Lynn, & S. Krippner (Eds.), Varieties of the Society for Psychical Research, 50, 240-274. of anomalous experience: Examining the scientific Whiteman, J. H. M. (1965). Psychical effects of mescalin evidence (pp. 387-440). Washington, DC: American and LSD considered in light of experimental Psychological Association. mysticism. Parapsychologia (South African Society for Wyllie, T. (1981). Phencyclidine and ketamine: A view Psychical Research), 6, 4-20. from the street. Unpublished manuscript, available at Whiteman, J. H. M. (1995). Short-term precognition, http://www.timothywyllie.com/PCP.htm time-skills and the world-plan for physical events. Wyllie, T. (1999). The entheogen impulse: An artist’s Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, 60, 300- viewpoint. Unpublished manuscript, available at 316. http://www.timothywyllie.com/Entheogenic%20 Whittlesey, J. R. B. (1960). Some curious ESP results in Impulse.htm terms of variance. Journal of Parapsychology, 24, 220- Xeper (2005). DXM and entity contact. Silver Star: A 222. Journal of New Magick, 4, 20. Wikipedia (2005). Levels of psychedelic experience. Zelnick, R. R. (2005). Psi-chedelics: Hallucinogens Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psyche and ESP. Unpublished manuscript, University of delic_experience Philosophical Research, Los Angeles, CA. Wilkins, L. K., Girard, T. A., & Cheyne, J. A. (2011). Zerda Bayon, R. (1912, August 27). The yage plant. Ketamine as a primary predictor of out-of-body A supposed cure for beri-beri. The Times South experiences associated with multiple substance use. American Supplement, p. 8. Consciousness and Cognition, 20, 943-950. Wilson, A. J. C. (1949). Ayahuasca, peyotl, yage. About the Author Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, 49, 353-363. David Luke, PhD, is Senior Lecturer in Psychology Wilson, C. W. M. (1961). Possible influence of drugs at the University of Greenwich where he teaches an on ESP Ability. In Proceedings on two conferences on undergraduate course on the Psychology of Exceptional parapsychology and pharmacology (pp. 43-44). New Human Experience, focusing on his two main research York, NY: Parapsychology Foundation. interests of psychedelics and the paranormal. David is Wilson, C. W. M. (1962). The physiological basis of also a guest lecturer at the University of Northampton paranormal phenomena. International Journal of for the M.Sc. program in Transpersonal Psychology Parapsychology, 4(2), 57-96. and Consciousness Studies, and is past president of Wilson, K., & French, C. C. (2006). The relationship the Parapsychological Association. Since 2008 he has between susceptibility to false memories, directed the Ecology, Cosmos and Consciousness dissociativity, and paranormal belief and experience. lecture series at the October Gallery in London and Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 1493-1502. is one of the core organizers of the biennial Breaking Winkelman, M. (1983). The anthropology of magic and Convention: A Multidisciplinary Conference on parapsychological research. Parapsychological Review, Psychedelic Consciousness. He sits on the council of the 14(2), 13-19. Society for Psychical Research and, along with Nicola Psychoactive Substances and Paranormal International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 155 Holt, Christine Simmonds-Moore and Chris French, he is author of the book Anomalistic Psychology (Palgrave Macmillan, 2012).

About the Journal

The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies is a peer-reviewed academic journal in print since 1981. It is published by Floraglades Foundation, and serves as the official publication of the International Transpersonal Association. The journal is available online at www. transpersonalstudies.org, and in print through www. lulu.com (search for IJTS).

156 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Luke