AN EXPLORATION of CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY DON THORSEN

Second Edition

AN EXPLORATION of CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY

DON THORSEN

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Preface xi Abbreviations xiv

Part 1 | Basics of Theology 1. Theology 3 Conclusion 34 Questions for Further Reflection 34 What Is Theology? 4 Theology and Scripture 4 4. Scripture 36 The Meaning of Theology 6 What Is Scripture? 37 The Divisions of Theology 8 Canon 39 Augustine: A Classic Model of The Inspiration of Scripture 41 Theology 8 The Truthfulness of Scripture 43 Theology and Apologetics 9 The Interpretation of Scripture 48 Theology and Ecumenism 10 Conclusion 50 Conclusion 11 Questions for Further Reflection 51 Questions for Further Reflection 11 5. Apologetics 52 2. Revelation 13 What Is Apologetics? 53 What Is Revelation? 14 Ancient Church Apologetics 54 Understanding Revelation 15 Medieval Church Apologetics 55 Models of Revelation 16 Reformation and Counter-Reformation Revelation and Mystery 20 Apologetics 56 Conclusion 20 Modern (Enlightenment) Church Questions for Further Reflection 21 Apologetics 56 Postmodern Church Apologetics 59 3. Authority 22 Conclusion 62 What Is Authority? 23 Questions for Further Reflection 63 Developments in Religious Authority 23

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Part 2 | God 6. Who Is God? 67 Empirical Arguments 91 Doubts about God’s Existence 93 What Is God Like? 68 Volitional Justifications for Belief in The Doctrine of God 71 God 94 Tensions in the Doctrine of God 72 Conclusion 95 Language about God 74 Questions for Further Reflection 96 Conclusion 79 Questions for Further Reflection 79 9. The Works of God 97 What Are the Works of God? 98 7. The Trinity 80 Creator 98 What Is the Trinity? 81 Providential Caregiver 100 The Development of the Doctrine 82 Lawgiver and Judge 100 The Relevance of the Trinity 84 Savior 101 Contemporary Concerns 87 Sanctifier 102 Conclusion 88 Conclusion 103 Questions for Further Reflection 88 Questions for Further Reflection 103 8. Knowing God 89 Does God Exist? 90 Rational Arguments 90

Part 3 | Creation 10. Creation 107 11. Providence and Evil 118 What Is Creation? 108 What Is Providence? 119 The Development of the Doctrine of Evil 122 Creation 109 God’s Care for People 125 Creation and Evolution 111 Conclusion 125 Creation and the Environment 115 Questions for Further Reflection 126 Conclusion 116 Questions for Further Reflection 117

Part 4 | Humanity 12. The Image of God 129 13. The Human Person 136 What Does It Mean to Be Human? 130 What Are the Parts of Personhood? 137 Christian Anthropology 131 The Human Soul 139 The Image of God 132 Male and Female 141 Human Freedom 133 Individuality and Community 143 Original Righteousness? 134 Conclusion 144 Conclusion 135 Questions for Further Reflection 145 Questions for Further Reflection 135

Part 5 | Sin 14. What Is Sin? 149 Conclusion 155 Questions for Further Reflection 155 Understanding Sin 150 The Origin of Sin 152

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15. The Nature of Sin 156 Sin, Ignorance, Misery, and Bondage 166 Perspectives on Sin 157 Conclusion 166 The Extent of Sin 161 Questions for Further Reflection 167 The Sin of Innocents 164

Part 6 | Jesus Christ 16. Who Is Jesus Christ? 171 Why Did God Become Human? 189 Contemporary Christological Who Is Jesus? 172 Concerns 191 The Birth of Jesus 173 Conclusion 193 The Early Life of Jesus 174 Questions for Further Reflection 193 The Adult Life of Jesus 175 The Suffering and Death of Jesus 180 18. The Works of Jesus Christ 195 The Resurrection of Jesus 180 The Names and Titles of Jesus 196 The Search for the Historical Jesus 182 The Estates of Jesus Christ 197 Conclusion 184 The Offices of Jesus Christ 198 Questions for Further Reflection 184 The Atonement 200 Conclusion 204 17. The Incarnation 186 Questions for Further Reflection 205 What Is the Incarnation? 187 The Development of the Doctrine 188

Part 7 | The Holy Spirit 19. Who Is the Holy Spirit? 209 20. The Works of the Spirit 220 The Holy Spirit as Spirit 210 The Biblical Background 221 The Holy Spirit in Scripture 211 The Holy Spirit at Work 223 The Development of the Doctrine 212 The Holy Spirit and the Christian Contemporary Concerns 217 Life 225 Conclusion 218 The Gifts of the Holy Spirit 226 Questions for Further Reflection 218 The Baptism of the Holy Spirit 231 Conclusion 232 Questions for Further Reflection 233

Part 8 | Salvation 21. God’s Grace and Our Choice 237 Grace, Calling, and Illumination 258 Conversion 259 The Biblical Background 239 Faith 260 Historical Development 242 Repentance 262 Calvinism and Arminianism 247 Regeneration 264 Open Theism 249 Justification 265 Conclusion 250 Conclusion 266 Questions for Further Reflection 251 Questions for Further Reflection 267 22. What Is Salvation? 252 The Order of Salvation 253 Developments in the Christian Understanding of Salvation 255

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23. Living as a Christian 268 24. Christian Spirituality 281 More on the Order of Salvation 269 What Is Christian Spirituality? 282 Assurance 270 Spiritual Formation and Direction 283 Union with Christ 272 Spiritual Disciplines 284 Sanctification 273 Christian Virtues 285 Glorification 278 Varieties of Christian Spirituality 286 Conclusion 279 Conclusion 299 Questions for Further Reflection 279 Questions for Further Reflection 299

Part 9 | The Church 25. The Church 303 26. Ministry 317 What Is the Church? 304 What Is Ministry? 318 The Marks of the Church 305 Developments in Ministry 319 The Reformation Churches 307 Types of Ministry 321 Types of Churches 310 Contemporary Concerns 326 Differences among Churches 311 Conclusion 329 Ecumenism 312 Questions for Further Reflection 329 Church Governance 313 27. The Means of Grace 331 The Church and the World 314 Problem of Hypocrisy 315 Channels of Grace 332 Conclusion 316 The Sacraments (Ordinances) 333 Questions for Further Reflection 316 Baptism 340 Communion 344 Conclusion 348 Questions for Further Reflection 349

Part 10 | The Future 28. Eschatology 353 Conclusion 374 Questions for Further Reflection 374 The Scriptural Setting 354 Doctrinal Developments 356 30. Heaven and Hell 376 Conclusion 364 The Scriptural Setting 377 Questions for Further Reflection 365 Humanity’s Future 378 29. Future of the Unevangelized 366 Hell 385 Heaven 388 Judaism and Christianity 367 Conclusion 392 Exclusivism, Pluralism, and Inclusivism 368 Questions for Further Reflection 393

Epilogue: From Theory to Practice 395 Glossary 397 Notes 410 Name Index 414 Subject Index 416 Scripture Index 427

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1. Theology 3

2. Revelation 13

3. Authority 22

4. Scripture 36

5. Apologetics 52

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Theology

Always be ready to make your defense to anyone who demands from you an accounting for the hope that is in you; yet do it with gentleness and reverence. 1 Peter 3:15–16

cripture tells of the time Jesus walked with life and ministry. It represents a theological his disciples near Caesarea Philippi, a site statement about Jesus. That is, Peter describes Sof pagan worship. While walking, Jesus Jesus—the Messiah—in relationship to God asks his disciples, “Who do people say that I and suggests how that relationship potentially am?” In response, the disciples give several an- affects the Jewish people and others. swers. They mention how some people consider Over the centuries, the Christian under- him John the Baptist returned from the dead. standing of Jesus as the Messiah has gone Others consider Jesus to be one of the ancient through a variety of interpretations. Some prophets like Elijah, who has reappeared to the have questioned what the people in Scripture Jewish people. Finally, Jesus asks his disciples understood and expected the Messiah to be. who they think he is. Peter blurts out that Jesus Others have questioned whether Jesus was is the Messiah, “the anointed one,” appointed conscious of being the Messiah or whether by God to bring about redemption and libera- his messianic role was only determined later tion (Mark 8:27–29; cf. Heb., mashiah, “the by the early church. Still others have ques- anointed one”; Gk., Christos, “the Christ”). Pe- tioned the relevance of Jesus’s messianic role ter’s declaration serves as a pivotal point in the for today. Regardless of the types of questions development of the Gospel (Gk., euangelion, we ask, they remain theological questions be- “evangel,” “good news”) accounts of Jesus’s cause they concern our understanding of Jesus

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in relationship to God. In fact, any questions Desktop Dictionary we ask that are somehow related to God are theological questions. theology pl. theologies n. the science which All of us are “practicing theologians” when studies God and all that relates to him, including we think to ask about God or any matters religion and morals. Christian theology has many related to God. We may not be professional branches, e.g., ascetical (dealing with training in theologians, just as we may be neither pro- virtue), dogmatic (the formulation of doctrine), fessional doctors nor professional plumbers. moral (the behavior of man in the light of his final However, just as we become practicing doc- destiny), mystical (contemplation of union with tors when we bandage a cut finger or prac- God), natural (in which God is known by the ticing plumbers when we unclog a drain, we light of human reason alone), pastoral (dealing become practicing theologians when we re- with the care of souls) and positive (dealing with flect on or talk about God. All of us are doing revealed truth) theology when God becomes a part of our The New Lexicon Webster’s Dictionary considerations. of the English Language

of God. However, in this book we will look What Is Theology? particularly at the Christian study of God. The first time I took a course in theology, a student sitting next to me asked a question on the first day of class that perturbed the Theology and Scripture professor: “What is theology?” The professor responded caustically by saying that the In a sense, Scripture represents theology, since student obviously did not understand the it describes God and things related to God. nature of theology and so should not be in Of course, Christians usually consider biblical the class. (Wasn’t that the reason I was taking teaching different from other theological dis- a course in theology—namely, that I didn’t cussion or sources of religious authority. Scrip- know what it was?) The professor’s response ture is considered special revelation, inspired was very intimidating, because I was unable by God. It gives examples of early theological to think of a precise definition for theology. reflection and different approaches taken by Therefore, immediately after class, I rushed Jewish and Christian authors. For example, it to my desktop dictionary and looked up the is helpful to contrast some of the approaches word. In its simplest meaning, theology rep- taken to describe Jesus in Scripture. Let us look resents the study of God and all things related at the Gospels of Luke and John, two of the to God (which includes everything!). four Gospels in the New Testament. The etymology of the word “theology” Luke introduces his story of Jesus the fol- comes from the Latin word theologia, which lowing way: “Since many have undertaken to is derived from the Greek words theos (“God”) set down an orderly account of the events that and logos (“word, language, discourse, study”). have been fulfilled among us, just as they were Theology can be used to describe any study handed on to us by those who from the be-

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ginning were eyewitnesses and servants of the implications about the nature and works of word, I too decided, after investigating every- Jesus. thing carefully from the very first, to write Both presentations of the gospel represent an orderly account for you, most excellent valid and important contributions to Christian Theophilus, so that you may know the truth understanding. They emphasize the historical concerning the things about which you have and theological dimensions of Christianity been instructed” (Luke 1:1–4). Luke’s Gospel and the ongoing need to uplift both dimen- is written to Theophilus, a sions. Together, they affirm person of prominence whom necessary parts of Scripture Luke calls “most excellent.” What is theology as well as the ongoing need to In his account, Luke intends but faith seeking study Christianity with great to do his best to present a his- understanding? breadth and consequence. torical account of the life story God wants belief In this book, I will examine of Jesus. Accordingly, Luke re- numerous aspects of Scripture, fers to eyewitness accounts as that is mature including the historical facts of well as to careful investigation and confident. the life and ministry of Jesus. for the orderly account he in- Yet I will do much more. I will tends to write. Luke wants to God also wants us summarize Christian teachings give careful attention to all the to share our faith that look at the “big picture.” details in order to present the I will consider the implication best history of Jesus to date. using Scripture, of biblical and Christian teach- John’s Gospel takes a dif- church history, ings for addressing a myriad of ferent approach to describing critical thinking, issues related to God and, as I the life and ministry of Jesus. and experience already said, all things related John begins his story of Jesus to God. that is relevant. in the following way: “In the Any attempt at describing beginning was the Word, and the gospel message of Chris- the Word was with God, and the Word was tianity can be “a stumbling block to Jews God. He was in the beginning with God. All and foolishness to Gentiles” (1 Cor. 1:23). It things came into being through him, and represents an obstacle to Jews because Jesus without him not one thing came into being. claimed to fulfill so much of the Hebrew What has come into being in him was life, and Scriptures (or Hebrew Bible)—what Chris- the life was the light of all people” (John 1:1– tians call the Old Testament. It represents 4). John immediately takes his introduction foolishness to gentiles because the story of far beyond the historical facts about Jesus. Jesus, and especially his crucifixion and res- Indeed, John contends that Jesus is divine; urrection, includes so much that seems ratio- Jesus participated in creation and redeems nally and empirically—as well as culturally— life through the light he brings. John’s intro- objectionable. Ironically, the New Testament duction represents a theological approach to claims that the story of Jesus reflects both the discussing Jesus. He presents a cosmic, eternal wisdom and the power of God for those who perspective on Jesus, which has far-reaching believe in him (1 Cor. 1:17).

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The Meaning of Theology Theology is Christocentric; that is, it focuses on Jesus Christ as the preeminent revelation of In trying to comprehend the meaning of theol God. This focus underscores the authority of ogy, it is helpful to analyze several definitions Scripture as the source of information and in- put forth by contemporary theologians. Each vestigation about Jesus Christ. Thus, Christian definition contributes to a holistic under- theology is dependent on revelation, centered standing of theology that defies the particu- primarily in the words of Scripture. larity of each. I chose three definitions based The goal of theology is to construct a co- on their diverse approaches to the subject mat- herent worldview that places God and Jesus ter, which will lead us to a more integrative Christ in proper relationship to people and view of theology. In defining theology, they to the world as a whole. In particular, Chris- also discuss the task and methods of theology. tian theology is done by those who are themselves Christian—those who are “in Christ.” First Definition: Thomas Oden Although anyone can do theology, theology that is distinctively Christian is done within Thomas Oden (1931–2016), a Protestant the context of faith. theologian, provides a traditional definition of theology: “Theology . . . is reasoned discourse about God gained either by rational reflection Second Definition: Francis or by response to God’s self-disclosure in his- Schüssler Fiorenza tory. Christian theology is the orderly exposi- Francis Schüssler Fiorenza (1941–) is a con- tion of Christian teaching. It sets forth that temporary Catholic theologian who provides understanding of God that is made known in a similar albeit distinct definition of theology: Jesus Christ. It seeks to provide a coherent re- “Theology is a fragile discipline in that it is flection on the living God as understood in the both academic and related to faith. As an community whose life is ‘in Christ.’”1 Oden academic discipline, theology shares all the emphasizes the logical way in which people scholarly goals of other academic disciplines: attempt to talk about God. Knowledge of God it strives for historical exactitude, conceptual is derived in two primary ways: the first way rigor, systematic consistency, and interpretive pertains to knowledge that can be determined clarity. In its relation to faith, theology shares by use of reason; the second way pertains to the fragility of faith itself. It is much more a knowledge that can be determined by investi- hope than a science. It is much more like a gation into the revelation of God. raft bobbing upon the waves of the sea than Theology presents, in an orderly fashion, a pyramid based on solid ground.”2 Fiorenza the teachings of the Christian church (the focuses on the fragility of theology—that is, community of believers) about God and all on the human character of people reflecting things related to God. In the early church, on issues related to a transcendent God. By theology fulfilled a very practical need to definition, that which is transcendent sur- summarize basic Christian teachings. Today, passes our finite human understanding. Still, theology continues to function like a map that people speak of God because of God’s revela- situates Christian teachings. tory self-disclosure to us.

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Theology is also fragile because of its dual ing human endeavor hopeful of appropriately character. Theology is an academic discipline, establishing Christian faith today. like other branches of learning, which uses scientific methods that include induction and Third Definition: Paul Tillich deduction. Theology is also a matter of faith, which involves belief, trust, and loyalty to Paul Tillich (1886–1965) is another Protes- God. Such faith appears fragile from a human tant theologian who provides a definition of perspective because it reflects a personal as- theology that emphasizes the need to correlate sociation with God that defies rational and our beliefs with reference to the contempo- empirical analysis. Paradoxically, Christians rary human situation: “Theology, as a func- believe that their faith, as well as their study of tion of the Christian church, must serve the theology, benefits from historical exactitude, needs of the church. A theological system is conceptual rigor, systematic consistency, and supposed to satisfy two basic needs: the state- interpretive clarity. ment of the truth of the Christian message The academic study of theology does not and the interpretation of this truth for every always appear or feel as if it contributes to new generation. Theology moves back and faith in God. There seems to be an inherent forth between two poles, the eternal truth of antagonism between a faith that can be in- its foundation and the temporal situation in tensely personal and private and the academic which the eternal truth must be received.”4 Til- study of theology, which can be intensely im- lich underscores the church-centered function personal and public. However, because most of theology. If the church is not responding to Christians believe that “all truth is God’s the immediate needs of its own people, then truth,” the academic study of theology is it is not functioning appropriately. Likewise, not inherently harmful to faith but conducive if the church is not responding to the needs of to it. the world as a whole, then it is not functioning Fiorenza describes theology as more an appropriately. expression of hope than of science. In church Tillich, like many other Christians through- history, Christians have often described out church history, developed an extensive theology as a science. This is because, as theological system. His system allows for Fiorenza said, theology “strives for historical expansion and development in areas that are exactitude, conceptual rigor, systematic con- relevant to the human situation. sistency, and interpretive clarity.” In the Mid- Theology is not self-sealing. That is, it re- dle Ages, theology was considered the apex mains open to new insights about the truth (or “queen”) of the sciences. Today, people of the Christian message and to its applica- more often think that the faith dimension tions for every new generation. In this sense, of theology gives it more the appearance of theology is always reforming, just as the Prot- “bobbing upon the waves of the sea than a estant Reformers intended. It is a living ex- pyramid based on solid ground.”3 This does pression of how people understand God and not necessarily mean that the solidity of the God’s relationship to them and to the world. divine starting point of theology is absent. It Theology is a dynamic enterprise that tries means that the task of theology is an ongo- to integrate what is believed to be divine truth

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and the particular, human, finite context in beliefs, values, and practices to the church and which that truth must be received, under- the world. stood, and applied. Discerning what is true All these theological studies overlap with and knowing how to integrate or contextu- one another and are interdependent. The ap- alize it appropriately represent a tremendous proach of this book will be predominantly challenge in a world in which there are so systematic, which involves arranging Christian many personal and social challenges. What beliefs, values, and practices in an organized are the contemporary needs of people today? or methodical way. Topics include the study What are the needs of society? How does our of revelation, authority, Scripture, God, cre- theology speak to those needs, and how does ation, Jesus Christ, the Holy Spirit, salvation, our theology lead us to act appropriately? The spirituality, church, sacraments, and eschatol- dynamic interplay between eternal truth and ogy. Several of these topics will be subdivided temporal situation provides a fertile context in into separate chapters because some topics are which theology becomes moving and relevant more extensive than others. Altogether, they for today. provide an orderly and comprehensive introduction to Christianity.

The Divisions of Theology Augustine: A Classic Model Theology functions in a variety of ways. of Theology Thus far, I have spoken of it only in general terms. However, various divisions of Augustine of Hippo (354–430) is the most theology help us learn the nature and extent widely known and respected theologian in of its relevance. church history. His influence extends far be- There is more than one way to divide the yond the boundaries of Christianity because functions of theology. Sometimes theology Augustine had tremendous impact on the de- is used to encompass all biblical, historical, velopment of Western philosophy, historiogra- philosophical, and theological studies. How- phy, and literature. His prominent theological ever, at other times, distinctions are made understanding remains influential today. So an between biblical, historical, systematic, phil- investigation into who he was and what he osophical, and practical theologies. Biblical believed can provide us with a model for how theology organizes the theological teachings we approach theology today. in Scripture according to prominent biblical Augustine argued that we have knowledge themes. Historical theology studies the de- (Lat., scientia) of sense experience, which velopment of theology from biblical times is adequate (albeit uncertain) for living in a to the present. Systematic theology arranges world that is temporal and changing. How- Christian beliefs, values, and practices in an ever, we do not have the ability to understand orderly and comprehensive manner. Philo- fully the eternal and unchanging aspects of the sophical theology interacts with philosophy world, God, and ourselves. Only God provides in establishing and apologetically defending wisdom (Lat., sapientia) adequate for under- theology. Practical theology applies Christian standing certain things.

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God reveals wisdom primarily through so that I may believe; but I believe so that I may Scripture, which represents God’s special reve- understand. For I believe this also, that ‘unless lation to humanity. Revelation provides that I believe, I shall not understand’ (Is. vii.9).”7 which reason alone cannot know. Although God establishes the validity of rational knowledge, people must submit themselves to the Theology and Apologetics authority of God’s revelation in order to have sufficient understanding. One of the most important objectives of Au- All people depend on authority of one sort gustine’s theology was apologetics. Apolo- or another. We submit to the authority of par- getics represents the defense or explanation ents, teachers, governments, and so on. This of Christian beliefs, values, and practices in submission represents an act of faith. Augus- a way that is well reasoned and relevant to tine considered faith to be thinking with as- life. In the ancient church, apologetics was sent, particularly assent to God and to God’s sometimes a matter of life and death, since revelation. Augustine notably said, “Under- Christians were martyred for their religious standing is the reward of faith. Therefore do affirmations. Apologetics represented an -im not seek to understand in order to know, but portant need of the growing church to defend 5 believe in order that you may understand.” Christianity from its critics and persecutors. Our understanding leads us to the point of By the time Augustine wrote, Christians were faith because faith is not unreasonable. not formally persecuted. However, they con- This enlightenment may occur as a sudden tinued to be blamed for problems in the Roman flash of insight or understanding. Augustine Empire, including the sack of Rome in 410. In participated in this type of enlightenment at response to such criticisms, Augustine wrote the time of his conversion. Some have inter- such famous books as The City of God, which preted his experience as being almost mystical answered criticisms about whether the Roman in orientation, because of the sense of union Empire had been weakened by Christianity. Augustine felt with God. Although Augus- tine emphasized the need for divine illumi- Every age and period of history raises new nation, he considered faith and reason to be questions or revives ancient ones. Therefore, complementary. apologetics continues to be an important part Over the centuries, many Christians have of Christian theology. Christians have an on- looked to Augustine as a model for how to going need to answer questions and criticisms approach theology. One may study theology raised against it. While the purpose of this for a variety of reasons, but one should not book is to introduce theology, I will address first seek understanding in order to believe. a few of the questions and criticisms that As noted above, Augustine urges all to “believe have been leveled against the church. For ex- in order that you may understand.”6 A clas- ample, I will discuss the following apologetic sic reformulation of this approach was later issues: articulated by Anselm (ca. 1033–1109), an influential medieval churchman and theologian, • Does God exist? who stated, “For I do not seek to understand • How much can we know about God?

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• By what authority or authorities do personal, social, cultural, and intellectual cri- Christians make decisions about what teria, among others. they believe, value, and practice? Historically, the church has believed that • How reliable is Scripture? the Holy Spirit safeguards God’s revelation • To what degree does God determine to humanity. Christian people have also be- what happens, and to what degree lieved that God uses the church as the theo- are people free to choose for them- logical safeguard to what should be believed selves? in general and about Scripture in particular. After all, it is the community of believers— • Did God create everything, and how the church—that is responsible for handling does creation relate to science and God’s revelation. evolution? Since there are so many churches, it seems • If God is almighty and loving, why nearly impossible to discern those that could does evil occur? be considered true or orthodox (Gk., orthos, • How are people saved, and what hap- “right, true,” and doxa, “opinion, belief”). pens to those who have never heard of The concept of orthodoxy pertains to those Jesus Christ? beliefs, values, and practices representative of the historic or widely accepted views of It is important for Christians to respond the church. However, as the church developed to challenges against essential beliefs, val- over the centuries, so did its beliefs, values, ues, and practices. Some apologetic issues and practices. It would be incredible to think have caused strife and division. These chal- that there exists a single, untainted strand of lenges will be discussed at length in chapter 5, Christianity. “Apologetics.” Consequently, in this book I will explore the full Christian tradition by providing an ecumenical sketch of its beliefs, values, and Theology and Ecumenism practices as they developed in history. Because of the multiplicity of religious movements, de- What keeps the trajectory of Christian theol nominations, and orders in Christianity, it is ogy on track? What prevents it from spiral- impossible to present every theological devel- ing out of control into corrupt or irrelevant opment. However, we can describe in broad directions? In theory, nothing guarantees that strokes some of the most formative theological theology will not become woefully distorted developments in church history. This ecumeni- in one way or another. Certainly we can imag- cal approach does not seek church unity so ine a variety of theological trajectories that much as it seeks a unity of understanding and we—you or I—consider to be pretty much out appreciation for the varieties of church tradi- of touch with reality, much less with Scripture tions. It intends to be inclusive of churches and church history. However, by what “reality” East and West, North and South, and ancient do we evaluate theology? There are, of course, and medieval, modern and postmodern. a variety of realities or criteria by which to When some consensus over particular be- judge theology. There are historical, religious, liefs and practices has been achieved in church

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history, that consensus will be our focus. When may not. However, the more knowledgeable no consensus has been reached, a variety of we become about our beliefs and values, the viewpoints will be presented. I hope that this more effective we may become in evaluating approach will be fair to, as well as apprecia- and implementing them. tive of, the variety of theological contributions It is the purpose of this book to introduce made by Christians over the centuries. theology to those largely unschooled in the Because this book is being written in a par- theology of Christianity. A breadth of theo- ticular time and place, it would be naive to logical issues will be presented, along with a think that a great deal of concern will not comprehensive overview of how Christians be given to the interests of contemporary have attempted to deal with them. Although American perspectives on Christian theology. the overview will be comprehensive, it cannot Such interests will be present in this book, be in-depth in terms of the multitude of theo- but I hope that they will not detract from logical questions that could be raised. But it the attempt to present an ecumenical view is hoped that the issues will be discussed in a of theology representative of the worldwide way that is stimulating as well as fair to the Christian church. variety of theological traditions representative of Christianity, regardless of when, where, and how they developed around the world. Conclusion Readers are encouraged to read and decide for themselves with regard to the theological is- Whenever we think about God or any matters sues discussed. Even more, readers are encour- related to God, we are doing theology. That aged to continue in their study of questions is, we are attempting to relate God to what we and ideas that are important to their under- believe, value, and eventually put into prac- standing of God and God’s relationship to tice. We may be good at doing theology, or we them.

QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER REFLECTION

1. What is the relationship between what are your thoughts about God in what you think, value, and believe (in the- you say and do? ory) and what you say and do (in practice)? For example, how might belief in 3. Can theological studies be spiritu- God affect what you say, where you go, ally harmful to people? Because some what you do, and how you spend your people consider Christian faith and money? reason to be in conflict, what liabilities are there in “faith seeking under- 2. When do you think theologically, that standing” (Anselm)? What are the is, when do you most often consider benefits? God in your thinking? How important

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4. How important is it for Christians to 6. What is meant by an ecumenical ap- defend their beliefs, values, and prac- proach to theology? What are the tices? What is their responsibility for benefits and liabilities of such an explaining Christianity to others? approach?

5. Which of the definitions of theology do you consider the most helpful? Why?

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Long ago God spoke to our ancestors in many and various ways by the prophets, but in these last days he has spoken to us by a Son, whom he appointed heir of all things, through whom he also created the worlds. Hebrews 1:1–2

hen visiting the city of Joppa, the hand, it was contrary to everything he knew, apostle Peter one day climbed up based on the revelation of the Hebrew Scrip- Won the roof of the house in which tures and historic traditions. Such religious he was staying in order to pray (Acts 10:9–16). authorities were not to be taken lightly or ig- While praying, Peter went into a trance or nored. Yet circumstances that occurred after deep sleep. He envisioned a large sheet low- Peter’s vision led him to modify his beliefs. ered from heaven, which contained a variety Cornelius, a gentile, converted to Christianity of creatures, reptiles, and birds considered and had a vision of an angel who told him to ritually impure according to Jewish law. Then speak with Peter. Peter, in turn, verified the au- Peter heard a voice saying that he should kill thenticity of Cornelius’s conversion, conclud- and eat what he saw. But Peter vehemently ing that gentiles, or non-Jews, should share in refused because he believed that Jewish law the salvation provided by Jesus. These experi- prevented him from eating anything consid- ences also helped Peter understand what God ered profane or unclean. The vision appeared revealed to him in the vision. Not only did to Peter three times and suddenly disappeared. Peter come to believe that all foods should be Peter was greatly puzzled with regard to viewed as clean; he also came to believe that how he should interpret the vision. On the one God accepted all people without partiality.

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The question of revelation or of conflict- upon Israel and Judah (2 Kings 17; 24–25; Isa. ing revelations continues to be an issue today. 10:5–6; Hab. 1:5–6). Peter’s puzzlement finally came to resolution, Sometimes knowledge of the divine is gained though it was a resolution that continued to through the natural world. Psalm 19:1 states, be tested. What is our view of revelation? In “The heavens are telling the glory of God; and particular, what is our view of how and when the firmament proclaims his handiwork.” This God reveals special truths to us about God and general revelation is available to everyone, but salvation? it does not necessarily give specific knowledge of God. So revelation that is more specific is needed. What Is Revelation? Most often, Scripture records God commu- nicating to people through unusual methods. A common cartoon trope is a bearded man Those methods include walking down the street carrying a sign that prophesies some divine revelation of gloom • casting lots (Prov. 16:33; Acts 1:21–26), or doom. Of course, most of us look at such • divining stones (e.g., Urim and Thum- cartoons with amusement. However, the idea mim; see 1 Sam. 28:6), of receiving a special revelation from God— • deep sleep (Job 4:13; 33:15), regardless of whether it is for good or ill—is • dreams (Gen. 37:1–11; Dan. 2:19; 7:1; very sobering. Matt. 1:20; 2:13), Revelation signifies a “revealing, unveiling, or uncovering” (Lat., revelatio). Revelation • visions (Isa. 1:1; Dan. 8:1) can be of a very general nature, a revealing or • theophanies (Isa. 6:1–5; Ezek. 1:26, 28; unveiling of any type of knowledge about the Dan. 7:9, 13, 22; Rev. 4:1–5:14), and world and about ourselves. From a theological • angelic messengers (Luke 1:26–38; Acts perspective, revelation refers to the revealing 7:38; Gal. 3:19). or unveiling of God and of truths related to God. In each instance, God reveals knowledge Revelation represents a central part of the to people who then communicate it to others, biblical message. From the beginning of bibli- especially those in the religious community. cal history, God reveals many things to people, The authenticity of revelation needs to be including specific knowledge of God. These discerned, because it can be misunderstood revelations take place in a variety of ways. or fraudulent for a variety of reasons. There- To some people, God speaks directly (Gen. fore, the believing community needs to take 2–3). Other times God reveals things indirectly responsibility in their discernment of reve- through great events in history. Such events lation from God. include the exodus of the Hebrew people In the New Testament, Jesus embodies from Egypt (Exod. 3:20; Deut. 26:5–9) and the most complete self-disclosure of God to the destruction of the Northern and Southern humanity (Heb. 1:1–2). Through him, people Kingdoms at the hands of the various nations learn more about God and salvation than had that God used as instruments of punishment previously been revealed. Thus, so much of

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theology is Christocentric— human history proves God’s that is, it focuses on Jesus. He God reveals existence (Ps. 19:1–2). Others became the lens through which argue that the existence of God other revelatory information is much to us. Some is proven through the human to be evaluated. Jesus serves as revelation comes conscience or an innate sense a corrective as well as an illu- generally through of deity (Rom. 1:19–20). minator of God’s revelation to the world, but General revelation has been humanity. such revelation a topic of great debate because In time, most Christians knowledge of God determined needs more. came to view Scripture as the by rational or empirical means most authoritative source for alone is considered insuffi- discerning God’s revelation. God especially ciently certain or reliable. Our Some consider it their only reveals things to us human powers of thinking and source of divine revelation, through Scripture, investigation are subject to a while others consider it one which tells us of number of finite variables that among other important reli- give ambiguous knowledge of God, love, justice, gious authorities. Regardless of God and of things pertaining how one views it, Scripture— and salvation to God. its authority as well as its in- forevermore. For this reason, special reve- terpretation—remains one of lation from God is needed in the most important and thus one of the most order to supplement our finite human under- highly debated topics of Christianity. standing. In Scripture, God was believed to communicate directly to people in a variety of ways. Eventually, Jesus was thought to provide the best revelation of God (Heb. 1:1–4). Understanding Revelation However, the nature and extent of divine reve- General and Special Revelation lation have progressively come under critical scrutiny by people concerned about how to Over the centuries, Christians developed a discern truth about God, themselves, and the theological distinction between two primary world. Thus, a variety of understandings of types of revelation. The first type is called revelation have arisen in order to resolve ques- general revelation, which signifies knowledge tions dealing with the nature and extent of available to all people at all times and places. God’s revelation. This, of course, includes more than religious knowledge. However, theologically speaking, Progressive Revelation general revelation pertains to that knowledge of the world that points beyond itself to God. Progressive revelation signifies God’s in- For example, Christianity possesses a long creasing disclosure of truth to people. God history of those who argue that God’s exis- does not reveal all truths to people at once. tence is known through creation. Some argue Instead, God gradually reveals aspects of that observation of the physical world and God’s divine nature as well as God’s covenant

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A Comparison General Revelation Special Revelation Available to all people Available to a few Available at all times and places Available at particular times and places Intended for all people; they may discover it for Intended for all people; they must somehow be told themselves Declares God’s greatness Declares God’s grace Sufficient for condemnation Sufficient for salvation Biblical examples: Ps. 19:1–2; Rom. 1:19–20 Biblical examples: 2 Tim. 3:16; Heb. 1:1–4; 2 Pet. 1:20 Source: Adapted from H. Wayne House, Charts of Christian Theology and Doctrine (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992), 38.

relationships with people. The progressive Models of Revelation nature of revelation especially pertains to Scripture and how later revelation is built on Avery Dulles (1918–2008) was a Catholic earlier revelation. The revelation of God and cardinal-deacon and theologian who devel- salvation through Jesus, for example, is de- oped “models of revelation” to help us grasp scribed in Scripture as a new covenant, which the various ways that Christians understand 1 reveals more fully the character of God and God’s revelation. At times, models run the the ways in which God wants to relate with risk of oversimplifying complex ideas. But people (2 Cor. 2:12–3:18; Gal. 4:21–31). Dulles’s models are helpful for an introduc- Acknowledgment of the progressive na- tory study of revelation and for understanding ture of God’s revelation, particularly God’s how Christians articulate the ways in which special revelation, has several implications God reveals truth to people. His work provides for Scripture. First, Christians need to be the following models. careful about how revelation as a whole is understood. To what degree may God still Revelation as Doctrine be revealing truth to us? What constitutes the most reliable source or sources of reve- The most common way of understanding lation? Second, Christians need to be care- revelation may be described as the model ful about how they understand and interpret of revelation as doctrine. In this model, di- Scripture. To what degree are some portions vine revelation is communicated objectively of Scripture, presumably later ones, more and authoritatively through the words of reliable than other portions? How does one Holy Scripture. Doctrines are formulated in determine the degree to which later revelation correspondence with propositions stated in complements or replaces prior revelation? Scripture. Since Scripture is understood as the The answers to such questions may have pro- inspired revelation of God, it provides suffi- found impact on Christian beliefs, values, and cient information for determining all matters practices. of Christian faith, value, and practice.

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Great care must then be taken in the inter- The Truth of the Christian Faith pretation of Scripture and the subsequent development of doctrine. Some Christian tradi- Although the truth of the Christian faith surpasses tions rely on the interpretations of the church the capacity of human nature, yet those things for determining proper doctrinal understand- which reason has inherently in possession cannot ings. Both individual and corporate interpre- be contrary to the Christian truth. tation of Scripture are thought to be aided Thomas Aquinas, Summa contra by the Holy Spirit, who gives illumination Gentiles (13th century) to those who seek to understand Scripture. Proper scriptural interpretation is thought to result in reliable Christian doctrine. ship in a church, denomination, or Christian This model of revelation as doctrine ac- organization. cepts the presence of general (or natural) reve- Augustine is a prime example of one who lation. However, general revelation is of minor viewed revelation as doctrine. He developed importance because it is insufficient for salva- numerous interpretive principles and rules tion. General revelation only pricks the con- for properly interpreting Scripture. Certainly, science of people; it does not provide the way Augustine looked for the literal and historical of salvation. The purpose of God’s special meaning of Scripture. However, he also looked revelation is to elicit saving faith through one’s for divine truths communicated through alle- encounter with divine truth found in Scrip- gorical and typological meanings found in it. ture. Jesus embodies the pinnacle of truth, and In addition, Augustine believed that spiritual it is one’s response to his life and ministry that purification was needed for the proper inter- is especially crucial for salvation. pretation of Scripture. Our relationship with This revelation, however, is not available God, as well as our openness to the prompt- to people at all times and places. Instead, it ings of the Holy Spirit, is necessary for dis- is revealed to particular people at particular cerning God’s revelation. times and places. Some call this the scan- dal of particularity because it suggests that Revelation as Inner Experience eternal truth is discernable from temporal events. It is also scandalous because not all At the turn of the nineteenth century, people seem to have equal access to it. Never- Christians progressively doubted the reli- theless, this model of revelation affirms that ability of Scripture as well as church tradi- it is God’s intention that particular people tion for discerning divine revelation. A view and events in history should be the means by of revelation as inner experience emerged. which truth about God and salvation is com- The intuitive quality of inner experience be- municated to others. This truth can be stated came prominent; it was considered the only in biblically based propositions, for example, reliable knowledge available to an individual. as found in the early doctrinal summaries of In this regard, revelation corresponds to the Christian belief such as the Nicene Creed. self-disclosure of God by God’s intimate Doctrines elevated to the status of dogma presence within the inner spirit or mind of a represent those beliefs required for member- human being. Therefore, greater emphasis is

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placed on the role of human intuition than is Revelation as Dialectical Presence found when viewing revelation as doctrine. In the twentieth century, Christians increas- A person is thought to know God intuitively ingly grew reluctant to accept the propositions without the need of sensory organs, ordinary of Scripture as the basis of divine revelation. experience, or reason. The purpose of reve- However, they also distrusted confidence in lation is to impart both a sense of commu- human experience as the means to discern nion with God and an awareness of one’s own divine truth and live in authentic relation- spirituality. ship with God. Therefore, a more dynamic Scripture remains important because it conception of divine revelation arose. God’s still contains the words of God. However, it self-disclosure was thought to occur in the is intermingled with human elements of su- perstition and error. One may critically study moment people encounter the word of God Scripture in order to discern truth in it, but as read or proclaimed in Scripture, a reve- the apprehension of truth depends on the per- lation facilitated by the Holy Spirit. The con- sonal illumination that an individual experi- tents of Scripture do not represent the word ences. Truth does not come primarily through of God per se but may become the word of historical investigation because history only God through the revelatory work of the Holy provides a mental image of human continu- Spirit. God is dialectically present because di- ity. Instead, intuition supersedes other critical vine disclosure occurs in the moment a person abilities to discern truth. encounters Scripture. The words of Scripture Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834) be- do not themselves embody the words of God, lieved that all people have a feeling of ab- but God uses Scripture as the means by which solute dependence on that which transcends God chooses to encounter people. personal existence. This inner experience The words of Scripture primarily repre- signifies more than just a feeling or emotion. sent the words of people that God uses as the It represents a fundamental structure of per- means by which to reveal truths that transcend sonal existence that reveals primary religious history. Scripture reveals that which is beyond truths related to God. The corporate com- history and our ability to discern truth his- prehension of redemption experienced by torically. Only by faith can we know of God the church represents the source for doctri- through a divine encounter. However, a divine nal formulations. Doctrine does not so much encounter paradoxically occurs through our embody the summation of biblical teachings interaction with Scripture, and particularly its as the summation of the church’s inner ex- witness to Jesus. By faith, we read and hear perience of God. Schleiermacher established Scripture, and in those moments, the words this approach to theology because of growing of Scripture become the word of God to us distrust in revelation that comes from sources by the work of the Holy Spirit, who facili- outside one’s own experience. Doctrines were tates our faith. Doctrines are dynamic rather seen as secondary conceptions of more pri- than static because they develop in response mary truths of religious experience, and sub- to our encounter with the presence of God sequently the former could be expressed in as we also encounter Scripture. However, it various ways. is our encounter with God, rather than with

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unchanging doctrine, that is important for sonal transcendence and self-transformation. salvation. Scripture is viewed as a human document. Its Karl Barth (1886–1968) asserted that God historicity is not important because truth is initiates and fulfills divine self-disclosure discerned by reason or a kind of mystical med- without human effort. Although some schol- itation. Nevertheless, Scripture still serves as a ars question whether the label of dialectic helpful paradigm for nurturing people in their applies to the work of Barth, his theology divine creativity. Although traditional Chris- reflects the dynamic nature of God’s reve- tian doctrine must undergo reinterpretation, lation. Revelation does not involve an objec- biblical ideas may provide helpful concepts, tive doctrinal study of statically conceived images, and stories for promoting personal biblical propositions, nor does it involve the transcendence and self-transformation. analysis of an inner experience of God. In- Tillich sought common ground between stead, it involves a personal encounter with theology and secular thought—for example, God in the moment of faithful reflection on as found in psychology. He considered tradi- Scripture. To Barth, only Jesus represents tional Christianity to be limiting, and instead the “word of God” (John 1:1), though in a Tillich sought a universal foundation for one’s derivative—albeit important—way Scripture existence. His emphasis on ultimate concern also represents the word of God (Mark 7:13; reflected an attitude that transcended the limi- Luke 8:11). In the event of our encounter with tations of historic Christian understanding. God, more is revealed than what the words of No theology can encompass the fullness of Scripture say. The words of Scripture, how- the divine. Thus, Tillich argued that theology ever, may paradoxically serve as the means to must always be reforming, which he described reveal existential meaning beyond its historical as the “Protestant principle.” It reforms in content. accordance with a “method of correlation.” This involves an analysis of the existential situation in which people find themselves in life. Revelation as New Awareness Then the task of theology is to demonstrate During the twentieth century, there emerged how the symbols of Christianity may answer an understanding of divine revelation as that the questions or solve the existential problems which is discerned through a new awareness that arise. of personal transcendence and the power of self-transformation. Since we all are thought Revelation as Historical to share in divine creativity, we may tap into it by nurturing a heightened level of conscious- In the latter half of the twentieth century, ness that transforms our perceptions as well as a renewed concern for viewing revelation as ourselves. The emphasis is not on what God historical arose. This viewpoint rejects the may do but on what we may do through our purported historical unreliability of the bib- growing participation in that which is divine. lical account of revelation. Instead, Scripture Revelation as new awareness minimizes the is thought to record adequately the great deeds historic understanding of Christianity, though of God in human history that reveal the na- it retains biblical ideas that are helpful for per- ture and extent of God’s saving disposition.

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Reason aids people in the critical and his- 11:7; Dan. 12:9; 1 Cor. 13:12; 1 John 3:2). Thus, torical investigation of Scripture. Those who Scripture warns us that complete revelation will doubt the reliability of Scripture are thought not occur in this lifetime. In the meantime, suf- to do so because of presuppositions that they ficient revelation is available for all matters bring to the text rather than through a truly important for salvation and for living in ac- inductive investigation of the text. cordance with God’s will. Revelation is inextricably bound up with There are many reasons why God would history. Although God’s self-disclosure is re- not want everything revealed at this time. vealed indirectly through the totality of his- People are finite; they suffer from sin, igno- torical investigation, revelation is related to rance, misery, and various types of bondage the continuity and particularity of history. that limit their knowledge. Such limitations The events of history, especially as found in hinder their development both as people and Scripture, instill hope and trust in the God as Christians. Yet, by the grace of God and of history. God’s various means of revelation, Christians Wolfhart Pannenberg (1928–2014) consid- may speak meaningfully about God and mat- ered both faith and knowledge to be rooted in ters related to God. Despite mysteries that history. Jesus was a historical person, and his exist in Scripture as well as life, Christians do life and ministry must be understood within not need to hold back in proclaiming what its historical context. Thus, history must be they consider true and holy. They should not studied critically without modern presupposi- make their proclamations simplistically or tions that deny, by definition, the entering of without humility, but they should feel free to God into history. However, history must be un- make them boldly! derstood from an eschatological perspective— that is, from its end point. Pannenberg argues for a universal concept of history, so past and Conclusion present religious truths must be understood within the context of an eschatological goal All Christians accept that there is some form of that draws all history toward God. revelation and that our religious perspectives are dependent on it. All accept that revelation is divinely provided, one way or another. Differ- Revelation and Mystery ences occur when the nature of revelation and how it is appropriated are discussed. However, While Christians believe that God has revealed those differences do not lessen the priority of much to them in both general and special ways, revelation for determining personal beliefs, much remains that is mystery. Christians are not values, and practices. Divine self-disclosure embarrassed or sorry about the fact that mys- is integral to all of Christianity. Revelation— teries and paradoxes permeate their theology. however understood—forms the Christian Scripture itself talks about the mysteries (Gk., starting point of theological reflection. mystēria, “hidden things”) of the gospel (Eph. The distinction between general and spe- 1:9; 3:3–5, 9; 6:19). It is not God’s will that all cial revelation becomes clouded when we con- things be revealed at this time (Deut. 29:29; Job sider the various models of revelation. Some

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models place greater emphasis on the need matter of many views, taken together, inform- for special revelation, such as those in which ing our understanding of revelation. One or revelation is conceived as doctrinal, historical, more views may predominate; however, each or dialectical presence. Other models, such as view offers insight helpful for developing a those in which revelation is conceived as inner broad view of how God authoritatively com- experience or new awareness, allow for greater municates. So the issue of authority becomes emphasis on general revelation. Most Chris- important. Authority pertains to the degree to tians accept that some degree of both special which any particular understanding of reve- and general revelation come into play when lation affects people’s beliefs, values, and prac- reflecting from a theological perspective. It tices. Therefore, it is to the issue of authority is not a matter of accepting either one view that I next turn in our discussion. of revelation or another. Instead, it is more a

QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER REFLECTION

1. To what degree can we know about speaking, with how much subjectivity God, given only general revelation, or, do we determine our beliefs, values, in other words, things we can discover and practices? for ourselves? To what degree do we need special revelation? 4. What is the relationship between revelation and history? Can history pro- 2. To what degree does special revelation vide sufficient information about the provide propositional truth for the de- God who transcends time and space? velopment of doctrine? How clear-cut is truth? 5. To what degree does revelation represent a “dialectical presence”? How ex- 3. To what degree must we rely on the tensive is the paradox of finite humans more subjective aspects of an “inner having knowledge of an infinite God? experience” or “new awareness” for Can people live with a paradoxical the development of Christian beliefs, understanding of God? values, and practices? Practically

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