A picture of the grammar

grammar context

Sense and Reference SYNTAX SEMANTICS PRAGMATICS

Foundations of Semantics But remember what we had to do to get from linguistically LING 130 encoded meaning to the proposition expressed: James Pustejovsky ! Assign reference Norman talked to her in the bedroom. Norman Bates talked to the mother of Norman Bates in the master bedroom of Norman Bates’ house. Thanks to Dan Wedgewood of U. Edinburgh for use of some slides

A picture of the grammar A revised picture

grammar context grammar context

SYNTAX SEMANTICS PRAGMATICS SYNTAX LINGUISTIC PROPOSITIONAL PRAGMATICS SEMANTICS SEMANTICS

reference assignment

implicature Kinds of meaning Kinds of meaning dog (n.): domesticated, four-legged dog (n.): domesticated, four-legged carnivorous mammal of the species carnivorous mammal of the species canis familiaris canis familiaris

! Two kinds of definition here ! Two kinds of definition here:

1. listing essential properties

Kinds of meaning Kinds of meaning dog (n.): domesticated, four-legged dog (n.): domesticated, four-legged carnivorous mammal of the species carnivorous mammal of the species canis familiaris canis familiaris

! Two kinds of definition here: In fact, stating properties also assigns

1. listing essential properties an entity to a class or classes:

2. stating membership of a class " domesticated things, 4-legged things, carnivores, mammals… Properties and sense Sense and denotation

On the other hand, properties determine So we have two kinds of meaning, which relationships between linguistic look like “two sides of the same coin”:

expressions: ! The entity / class of entities that an animal vegetable expression picks out carnivore herbivore carrot pea leek cabbage whale dog mantis giraffe silk- rabbit ! The relationships between expressions worm labrador poodle within the language green

mammal thin

Sense and denotation Sense

So we have two kinds of meaning, which The sense of a linguistic expression: look like “two sides of the same coin”: the sum total of all of its sense-relations ! The entity / class of entities that an with other parts of the linguistic system expression picks out DENOTATION Recall

! The relationships between expressions ! synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy… within the language SENSE ! paraphrase, contradiction, entailment Denotation and reference Sense and denotation

A further distinction on the side of “what’s Sense and denotation are interdependent: picked out in the world”: ! you can’t normally know one without knowing

! Reference occurs in context, as a result of the other using referring expressions …and in a partly inverse relationship: ! ! Denotation can be used (also) for what other The broader the denotation, the fewer detailed expressions pick out, independently of context sense relations e.g. dog : denotes the class of dogs animal : broader denotation, less detailed sense my dog : used to refer to a particular dog dog : narrower denotation, more detailed sense

Sense and denotation Extension and intension

Though closely connected, these are two Extension: sometimes equated with significantly different ways of approaching denotation, but contrasts with… a theory of meaning Intension:

! We will be concentrating on denotation ! The defining property of an expression

" connects to the truth-conditional view of " the ‘dogginess’ of dog, the ‘redness’ of red, meaning the ‘runningness’ of run, etc Extensional and intensional Extensional and intensional denotation denotation

You can pick out entities or classes of But what is it to pick out a ‘defining property’? entities… ! This isn’t obviously ‘something in the world’ …or you can pick out a defining property ! Perhaps more like a concept – i.e. a mental object, not an external one ! Both are kinds of denoting ! An important connection between extension and intension: Intensions determine extensions

Intensions and sense The whole schema

Intensions and sense are clearly connected:

! both are concerned with properties MEANING

! hence some analysts conflate the two reference sense denotation terms extension intension

! In fact, there’s a lot of terminological variation out there The whole schema Referential theories

! Truth-conditional semantics is based in a MEANING kind of ‘referential theory’ (or extensional theory) of meaning reference sense denotation ! referential theories of meaning have had a

extension intension bad press…

Some problems for referential Some problems for referential theories theories

! function words? the, of, ’s ! function words?

" Don’t have extensions themselves ! non-existent ‘entities’ – unicorns, etc.

" But we can deal with them in terms of ! same extension, different concept? their effects on the truth-conditions of the morning star versus the evening star complex expressions " these do show the need for intensions Some problems for referential theories Predicates

! function words? We’ve said that some words denote a class of entities: e.g. dog ! non-existent ‘entities’ – unicorns, etc.

! same extension, different concept Let’s make this more concrete:

! verbs? dog denotes the set of all dogs in the world

" No individual entity to point at Likewise: But extensions aren’t only individuals… run denotes the set of all running entities red denotes the set of all red entities

Predicates Nouns as predicates

Common nouns are semantically predicates ! recall that determiners can turn them into referring expressions (picking out entities): Predicates denote properties my dog, the sandwich ! ‘predicative use’ of common nouns: Extensionally, this means sets Snuffles is a dog. " Needs no copula be in many languages: Mari gyerek ‘Mari is a child’ (Hungarian) Juma mpishi ‘Juma is a cook.’ (Swahili) Predicates and arguments Set theory and extension

If predicates are sets, predication is locating We can now use mathematical set theory to an entity in a set understand how meaning is built up John runs compositionally: John is in the set of running things ! predication is the relation ‘is a member of’ The kettle is broken ! complex predicates can be interpreted as set The kettle is in the set of broken things intersections: The boy is a genius a white dog `one of the members of the intersection of the set of white things and things The boy is in the set of things (people) that are that are dogs’ geniuses

Combining predicates The truth about cats and dogs

! complex predicates as set intersections: This way of composing extensions gives a

………… ……… way to relate linguistic structure to truth ……………………… ……… ……… ……………………………. . .. ………… .. .…… .. dogs conditions white …………………………… .. . ……...... …….. ….. things ………………….. . ……….. …… ……. ……….. …….. …. Snuffles is a white dog is true if and only if …….. . . . …………… ………………………...... … ……… . ………… ………… … . ..… .… .... ………. . . …….. .. (iff) ………… …………….. ………. . ……. …. .….. . .. ………………. …………… ………………… … ...... ……… ...... ……….. `Snuffles is a white dog’ is true ……………… ……….. … . . …… .. ……...... ………. ……… ...... …… ……. ……. ……….. .. …………...... ………. . . white dogs . . . The truth about cats and dogs The truth about cats and dogs

This way of composing extensions gives a This way of composing extensions gives a way to relate linguistic structure to truth way to relate linguistic structure to truth conditions: conditions: Snuffles is a white dog is true if and only if Snuffles is a white dog is true if and only if (iff) (iff) Snuffles is a member of the intersection DOG(Snuffles) & WHITE(Snuffles) of the set of white things and the set of is true dogs

Combining predicates Summary

(Snuffles is a white dog is true) ! Terminology: Sense, denotation, ………… ……… extension, intension, reference ……………………… ……… ……… dogs ……………………………. . .. ………… .. .…… .. ! Using sets to compose extensional white …………………………… .. . ……...... …….. ….. things ………………….. . ……….. …… ……. ……….. …….. …. meanings …….. . . . …………… ………………………...... … ……… . ………… ………… … . ..… .… .... ………. . . …….. .. " Predication as set membership ………… …………….. ………. . ……. …. .….. . .. ………………. …………… ………………… … ...... ……… ...... ……….. ! Truth conditions tested against set- ……………… ……….. … . . …… .. ……...... ………. ……… ...... …… theoretic extensions ……. ……. ……….. .. SNUFFLES …………...... ………. . . white dogs . . . Oh but …..

! Things are so much more complex.

! But let’s start with a simple model.