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Performing Drip Irrigation by the Farmer Managed Seguia Khrichfa Irrigation System, Morocco Saskia Van Der Kooij

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Performing Drip Irrigation by the Farmer Managed Seguia Khrichfa Irrigation System, Morocco Saskia Van Der Kooij Performing drip irrigation by the farmer managed Seguia Khrichfa irrigation system, Morocco Saskia van der Kooij Thesis committee Promotors Prof. Dr C.M.S. de Fraiture Professor of Water Resources Management UNESCO-IHE, Institute for Water Education, Delft & Wageningen University Prof. Dr M.Z. Zwarteveen Professor of Water Governance UNESCO-IHE, Institute for Water Education, Delft & University of Amsterdam Co-promotor Dr M. Kuper, HDR Institute Agronomique Vétérinaire Hassan II, Rabat, Morocco Cirad, Montpellier, France Other members Prof. Dr A. Hammani, Institute Agronomique Vétérinaire Hassan II, Rabat, Morocco Prof. Dr C. Leeuwis, Wageningen University Prof. Dr C.J. Perry, Independent Researcher, United Kingdom Prof. Dr P. van der Zaag, Unesco IHE, Delft This research was conducted under the auspices of the Graduate School of Wageningen Social Sciences. Performing drip irrigation by the farmer managed Seguia Khrichfa irrigation system, Morocco Saskia van der Kooij Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of doctor at Wageningen University by the authority of the Rector Magnificus Prof. Dr A. P. J. Mol, in the presence of the Thesis Committee appointed by the Academic Board to be defended in public on Tuesday 31 May 2016 at 4 p.m. in the Aula. S. van der Kooij Performing drip irrigation by the farmer managed Seguia Khrichfa irrigation system, Morocco, 166 pages. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, NL (2016) With references, with summary in English ISBN 978-94-6257-762-6 Table of contents Chapter 1: General Introduction 9 1.1 Introduction 11 1.1.1 Modernization thinking in irrigation 12 1.1.2 Efficient drip irrigation? 12 1.1.3 Traditional Farmer Managed Irrigation Schemes (FMIS) 14 1.1.4 A possible marriage? 15 1.2 Problem statement, objectives and research question 16 1.3 Performance 18 1.3.1 Socio-technical approach to performance 19 1.3.2 Understanding performance - the social construction of knowledge 20 1.3.3 The complexity of efficiency 21 1.3.4 Socio-technical approach to efficiency complexity 22 1.4 Farmer Managed Irrigation Systems 22 1.5 Irrigation in Morocco 24 1.5.1 Drip irrigation as a solution 24 1.5.2 Drip policy in Morocco 24 1.5.3 Drip in the (Moroccan) field 25 1.5.4 Drip irrigation in FMIS in Morocco 26 1.5.5 Seguia Khrichfa 27 1.6 Methodology 30 1.6.1 Three phases of research 30 1.6.2 Methods 31 1.7 Outline of this thesis 32 Chapter 2: The efficiency of drip irrigation unpacked 35 Abstract 37 2.1 Introduction 38 2.2 Methodology 41 2.3 Narratives and epistemic cultures of drip irrigation studies 42 2.4 Measuring the water use efficiency of drip irrigation: experiments, 46 definitions, equations 46 2.5 Discussion and Conclusions 50 Chapter 3: Re-allocating yet-to-be-saved water in irrigation 55 modernization projects. The case of the Bittit Irrigation System, Morocco Abstract 57 3.1 Introduction 58 3.2 Methods 60 3.2.1 Ain Bittit irrigation system 61 3.3 Modernization 1: Drip irrigation in Morocco for sustainable extension of agriculture 62 3.4 Modernization 2: Lining projects in Bittit, (re)-allocating the Bittit sources based on efficiency estimations 66 3.5 Conclusions 71 Chapter 4: The material of the social: the mutual shaping of 75 institutions by irrigation technology and society in Seguia Khrichfa, Morocco Abstract 77 4.1 Introduction 78 4.1.1 Theorizing institutions as sociotechnical systems 80 4.2 Methods 81 4.3 The Seguia Khrichfa Irrigation System 82 4.3.1 Background 82 4.3.2 Water rights 84 4.3.3 Land tenure 85 4.4 Offtakes with open/closed gates: control over proportional water 87 distribution 87 4.4.1 Rehabilitation of the Ain Bittit irrigation infrastructure 87 4.4.2 Off-takes with circular orifices: calculated but un-transparent water distribution 87 4.4.3 Open/closed gates: making the proportionality visible again 89 4.4.4 Exchanging water turns 91 4.5 New modalities of water access through creative integration of groundwater and T.O.R. gates 93 4.7 Discussion and Conclusion 96 Chapter 5: A user-based conceptualization of irrigation 101 performance: drip irrigation in the Khrichfa area, Morocco Abstract 103 5.1 Introduction 105 5.2 Methods 107 5.3 Case study Khrichfa Canal 107 5.3.1 Drip irrigation in Morocco 107 5.3.2 The Khrichfa Canal 107 5.4 Performances of drip irrigation 108 5.4.1 Performance 1: Drip irrigation makes farming clean and modern 108 5.4.2 Performance 2: Drip supports the emancipation process of sharecroppers 111 5.4.3 Performance 3: Drip irrigation forges relations between Khrichfa and the State 113 5.5 Discussion and Conclusion 116 5.5.1 Re-thinking irrigation performance 118 Chapter 6: General Discussion 121 6.1 Conclusions 123 6.2 How does drip irrigation perform? 125 6.3 Performances perform 128 6.4 Irrigation categorisations perform 131 6.4.1 Implications - drip irrigation and the farmer managed Khrichfa Canal: a meaningful marriage 133 6.5 Performing drip irrigation 134 References 135 Annex 1 List of reviewed articles belonging to Chapter 2 150 Summary 155 Acknowledgements 160 About the author 165 Academic publications 166 Chapter 1 General Introduction Chapter 1 10 General Introduction 1.1 Introduction In 2006 I participated in a practical course in Southern Spain where I encountered a beautiful small-scale, farmer managed irrigation system, Yunquera. It belonged to a peaceful and quiet village where old farmers seemed to have all the time to Chapter 1 wait for their irrigation turn. While we walked through the irrigation system we saw remnants of the Moorish past: the acequia irrigation infrastructure, aqueducts, water mills and a tower – the shadow of which used to indicate when a ‘water turn’ was finished. While admiring the traditional irrigation system, I heard farmers talk about the modernization of Yunquera: they were planning to install drip irrigation. These plans of the Yunquera water users confused me as the combination of modern drip irrigation with a traditional farmer managed irrigation system seemed a contradiction. In conventional irrigation thinking, drip irrigation - and in particular its capacity to apply precise amounts of water to plants, accurately matching water deliveries to crop water requirements and thereby increasing water use efficiencies - is associated with progress and modernity. Converting a traditional farmer managed irrigation system to drip irrigation would therefore imply an irreversible modification of age-old water infrastructures and management systems in favour of supposedly more rational and efficient methods and technologies. It would, in other words, imply the destruction of a beautiful cultural heritage inscribed in landscapes and people. It was because I cherished this cultural heritage that my impulse was to reject the idea of drip irrigation in Yunquera. I returned to Yunquera in 2008 (for my MSc thesis research) to understand why drip irrigation would be installed in Yunquera. I did not only aim to understand the reasons for installing drip irrigation because of my own discomfort with modernizing this traditional irrigation system but also because the most logical reason for installing drip irrigation – increasing irrigation efficiency - was absent. As no-one had complained about the availability of water, there seemed little justification for installing efficient drip irrigation here. In retrospect, I had a romanticized view of farmer managed irrigation systems (FMIS) and an engineering biased view of drip irrigation. Approaching FMIS as markers of tradition and drip irrigation as an icon of efficiency and modernity indeed implied that the two would never be able to ‘marry’, as it places them in different worlds. These categories that I used to make sense of drip irrigation and of FMIS mutually excluded each other: choosing one automatically meant rejecting the other. While I was afraid that drip irrigation would destroy a rural ideal, others (aligning with a modernization discourse) would instead see Yunquera’s traditionality as a hindrance to the efficient use of the country’s scarce 11 Chapter 1 water resources. While I felt attracted to the idyll of the past, many irrigation engineers would instead be attracted by the introduction of drip irrigation which would help bring about a modern, entrepreneurial future based on a more efficient use of water. 1.1.1 Modernization thinking in irrigation Conventional irrigation thinking favours a future in which water is used ever more rationally and efficiently (van Halsema, 2002; Bolding, 2004; Zwarteveen, 2006). Irrigation modernization thinking has “strong positivist beliefs in technology as a motor of progress” and “perceives development as an evolutionary, linear process of change which takes societies from their pre-modern, primitive, phase through a series of stages towards the final destination of modernity” (Zwarteveen, 2006, p.53). In this line of thinking, drip irrigation is favoured over supposedly more wasteful surface methods of irrigation. Its use will help achieving a desired future: “Use of drip irrigation methods in field crops is inevitable in the near future because of the problem caused by crop patterns and traditional irrigation methods.” (Topak et al., 2011 p.80). Indeed, in the epistemic communities of irrigation scholars, the term ‘modernization’ is used to refer to a conversion from supposedly backward and wasteful surface irrigation methods to supposedly more efficient and rational irrigation technologies and modes of management. The latter for instance include canal lining, automatically controlled water distribution methods, water pricing and drip irrigation. In irrigation thinking, modernization thus refers to the “upgrading” (Burt, 1999, p.15) of irrigation systems, aimed at attaining higher water use efficiencies and water productivities through the improved control of water (van Halsema, 2002). As drip irrigation enables full control over water and thus allows applying precisely the right amount of water to crops at the right moment it represents an icon of the engineering ideal to increase irrigation efficiencies.
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