World Meteorological Organization

Women working in meteorology and hydrology

Articles re-printed from Volume 52 No.2 (April 2003)

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Sulochana Gadgil

Dr Taba recounts: postdoctoral fellowship at MIT for one year. There- Jamsetji Nusserwanji Tata (1839-1904) was convinced after, she returned to Pune, accepting temporary work that the future progress of India depended on at the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology and research in science and engineering. He envisaged an met several scientists with considerable knowledge Institute where fundamental research in all branches about monsoon. She joined the Centre for Theoretical of learning could be carried out. He constituted a Pro- Studies at the Indian Institute of Science in 1973. visional Committee to plan the set- Since then, she has carried out ting of the Institute and, on research on many facets of 31 December 1898, a draft text pre- monsoon variability and the pared by the Committee was pre- nature of the coupling of tropi- sented. The constitution of the Insti- cal convection and the oceans, tute was approved and the Order was with analysis of conventional signed in May 1909. In early 1919, the and satellite data and theoreti- foundation stone was laid and on 24 cal investigations with models, July the first batch of students was and has also investigated the admitted. links between rainfall variabil- 3 The Institute has made many ity and agricultural productivity contributions to science. Prof. Satish in collaboration with several Dhawan, who was the major archi- scientists. She has also devel- tect of the Indian Space Programme, oped models of interacting pop- was the director of the Institute from ulations in collaboration with 1962 to 1981. He nurtured science, as biologists at the Institute. well as engineering, in many new In close collaboration with areas. He was particularly interested agricultural scientists and in meteorology and offered our Sulochana Gadgil farmers, Sulochana has set up a interviewee of this issue, Sulochana farmers’ network in order to Gadgil, a faculty position in the Centre for Theoretical identify acceptable strategies for enhanced produc- Studies at the Institute, soon after she returned from tion in a variable climate, particularly in rainfed areas the Massachussets Institute of Technology (MIT) in on which climate variability is known to have a large the USA. Her work and collaboration with meteorolo- impact. With the setting-in of the fatigue of the green gists from different institutes in the country and her revolution in the last decade, enhanced production in interactions with fluid dynamicists, particularly Prof. rainfed areas has become more important than ever R Narasimha, led to the establishment of the Centre before. Sulochana and her collaborators have worked for Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences in 1982. During to develop decision-support systems, based on infor- 1989 to 1996, when she was the chairman of the Cen- mation and prediction of climate variability, for the tre, several new faculty members were recruited, rainfed belt. They showed that models which incorpo- making it one of the best centres in the country. rated the indirect impact of climate variability via the Sulochana was born in 1944 in Pune, India. She triggering of pests/diseases needed to be combined obtained her M.Sc. in applied mathematics from Pune with existing crop models for a realistic simulation of University in 1965. In 1970, she received her Ph.D., the impact of rainfall variability. Such models will be also in applied mathematics from Harvard University a major tool for assessing different management (USA). Her thesis dealt with the dynamics of the options. They found that input from farmers was nec- meanders of the Gulf Stream. Coming from a country essary for model development, as well as elucidation where the meteorological phenomenon of monsoon and assessment of management options. is of vital importance, she decided to learn more Sulochana has been active in planning climate about this mighty weather event. She was lucky to and global change research and has served on advi- have the opportunity to work with Prof. Charney on a sory committees of several important institutions in India. She played an important role in the formulation scientific interests. She says that they have enjoyed of the Indian Climate Research Programme (ICRP) the most fulfilling family life. and was a leader in planning and organizing the first This April edition of the WMO Bulletin is dedi- ICRP observational experiment in the Bay of Bengal cated to women working in meteorology and hydrol- in 1999. ogy and I consider myself fortunate to have been able As regards contacts with WMO, Sulochana was a to interview Sulochana, a great lady and eminent sci- member of the Joint Scientific Committee (JSC) of the entist, for this issue. Her scientific career, her interests World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) from in so many topics related to monsoon, agriculture, cli- 1990 to 1998 and Officer from 1994 to 1998. Accord- mate, ecology and evolutionary biology and her mod- ing to several members of that committee, she was elling work in all these domains make her unique. extremely effective in that role. She was involved in Moreover, this remarkable lady has skillfully com- WCRP monsoon activities and the Atmospheric bined her family life with a successful scientific career. Model Intercomparison Project (AMIP). She partici- She is generous, sharing her knowledge with her stu- pated in the WCRP International Conference on dents and colleagues, and is kind and agreeable. Monsoon Variability and Prediction in Trieste, Italy I enjoyed my contacts with her on the occasion of this (May 1994) and in the International AMIP Scientific interview and am grateful to her for her collaboration. Conference in Monterrey, Mexico (May 1995). She played an important role in the Global Change Sys- H.T — Please tell us the date and place of your tem for Analysis, Research and Training (START) birth, your parents and the environment you Climate Prediction and Agriculture (CLIMAG) proj- lived in. ect. At present, Sulochana is a co-chair of the START S.G. — I was born in 1944 in Pune (also known as 4 Scientific Steering Committee. Poona). My great-grandfather was an engineer who Sulochana has written more than 40 papers in served as a Minister in the state of Tonk (north-west the field of tropical dynamics and monsoon; ocean India). I heard the tales of his heroic efforts to help the dynamics and ocean atmosphere coupling; climate people during the severe droughts that are so common variability and agriculture and evolutionary biol- in that part of the country from my grandfather.Both ogy. She has also edited two books on climate vari- my grandfather and my father were respected physi- ability and agriculture. This is an enormous scien- cians. My grandfather was also a freedom fighter and tific achievement, considering that she has been an several active participants of the struggle against colo- active member of no fewer than 10 scientific and nial rule were guests at our house. Even after independ- technical advisory committees, both on the national ence, one of the important leaders from Maharashtra, and international level. Sulochana is a fellow of the Senapati Bapat, stayed with us every year. I was thus Indian Academy of Sciences, the Indian National exposed to tales of colonial rule and the struggle for Science Academy and the Indian Meteorological freedom throughout my childhood. My father not only Society and has received several important awards. had an M.D. degree in allopathy, but also studied the Sulochana has close professional ties with her Indian systems of medicine, Ayurveda and Yoga, in husband, Madhav Gadgil, a professor of biology at depth. My mother was one of a thriving group of the same Institute. They have always shared their women writers in Marathi, our local language. I was the third of four daugh- ters. My parents encour- aged us all to study and take to learned profes- sions; two of my sisters are physicians. H.T. — Perhaps you could also tell readers something about Pune in a geographical and historical context. S.G. — Pune was the erstwhile capital of the At Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, 1967 (front row, fifth from left) Maratha kingdom that held out to the last against the British. Pune lies just to B.G. Tilak. I opted for natural sciences and majored in the east of the crest-line of the Western Ghats, a hill chemistry, physics and mathematics. I did very well aca- chain that runs parallel to the west coast of India for a demically, though Madhav, the fellow student whom distance of 1 000 kilometres from the southern tip of the I eventually married, claims that I caught his attention peninsula. The south-west winds of the summer mon- when jumping out of a high French window of a lecture soon blowing over the Arabian Sea rise against the hall to escape from a boring class! I then went on to do a Western Ghats to pour as much as 5 000 mm of rain on master’s degree in applied mathematics at Pune Univer- the hills in the span of three months. While Pune itself sity. At this juncture, I became engaged to Madhav and receives much less rain, lying as it does in the lee of the together we decided to pursue scientific careers. mountains, it is a wonderful place to witness the grandeur of the Indian monsoon and has been a major H.T. — How come you went to study in the USA? centre of meteorological research in India for over a S.G. — Madhav and I felt that a sound foundation for century. Indeed, the clocktower of the Weather Obser- a career in scientific research might be laid in good uni- vatory,constructed out ofblack basalt rock,is an versities abroad, and we applied together to four of the important feature of the city. world’s leading universities. Luckily, we were both Pune had been a seat of learning under Maratha admitted with scholarships to Harvard, our first choice. rule and quickly emerged as a centre of social reform In 1965 we married and went to Harvard together. and Western education soon after the British take-over I was a graduate student of applied mathematics and, in 1818. One of the first schools for girls from disadvan- with my interest in the natural world, shared with Mad- taged communities, using the curriculum introduced by hav, decided to work in physical oceanography. My the British, was started in Pune in 1848, a stone’s throw guide, A.R. Robinson, was keen for me to have an excel- away from our ancestral house in the heart of the old lent grounding in applied mathematics and physics in 5 city. Laxmibai, a Maratha queen, leading the charge of addition to atmospheric and oceanic dynamics, and her army on horse-back, became the most celebrated I took several courses at Harvard. One of them, on plan- figure of the 1857 uprising against British rule. In the etary fluid dynamics, was taught by Jule Charney, then 1880s, Ramabai, a woman physician trained in visiting Harvard from MIT. With that began a fruitful Philadelphia, became a leading educator in Pune. The interaction with this great meteorologist, which contin- city witnessed the establishment of a women’s university ued throughout my stay at Cambridge. I also spent a in early 1900s. Many Puneites, including women, took summer at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, to the newly emerging technical professions. where I had the opportunity of meeting Henry Stommel1, George Veronis and Wilhelm Malkus. H.T. — What about your schooling. For my thesis I worked on the theory of time- S.G. — I studied in Pune, in the Marathi medium, at dependent topographic meandering of the Gulf Stream; the elementary school level, in a famous school that had and on the side completed an investigation into the been built on the site of the stables of the Maratha cav- structure of jets in rotating fluids. We had an outstand- alry. The girls were reputed to be as boisterous as the ing and a very active group of geophysical fluid dynam- horses they had replaced. I then went on for high-school icists between Harvard, MIT and Woods Hole. Some education in English to Rishi Valley, a boarding school in members of the group, George Philander, Eugenia the neighbouring state of Andhra Pradesh. Rishi Valley Kalnay and Peter Webster and I have continued to was located in beautiful hilly countryside. Lying as it did interact to this day. Because of Madhav, I also devel- in the heart of the semi-arid tract at the centre of the oped an interest in mathematical ecology and evolu- southern Indian peninsula, it enjoyed a drier climate tionary biology and began some work in that field. than that of Pune. I returned to this setting 40 years later, when I started working with farmers on the ques- H.T. — Did you return to India immediately after tion of what they wanted to learn from the meteorolo- you obtained your Ph.D.? gists. At Rishi Valley, we were encouraged to study what S.G. — By the time I completed my Ph.D. thesis in we wished,as we wished,without any pressure.I greatly 1970, I had become interested in the monsoon circu- enjoyed learning classical Indian music and dance. lation. Jule Charney offered me a postdoctoral fel- lowship to spend a year with him at MIT to work in H.T. — What did you study at university? tropical meteorology. I jumped at the chance, espe- S.G. — I came back to Pune for my undergraduate cially as Madhav had taken a two-year appointment studies at Fergusson College, one of the oldest colleges of India, founded by the great nationalist leader, 1 Interviewed WMO Bulletin 40 (2) as a lecturer in biology at Harvard after completing his hire me as a geophysical fluid dynamicist and Mad- Ph.D. in 1969. Knowing my interest in the monsoon, hav as a mathematical ecologist. We were delighted to Charney sent me to visit T.N. Krishnamurti2 at Florida join this lively group at an outstanding scientific insti- State University. My interaction with TNK and his wife tution in 1973. Ruby, who is an outstanding geophysical fluid I decided to learn about all facets of the monsoon, dynamist, continues to this day. I have learnt a great applying the traditional tools of synoptic meteorology deal from TNK about the monsoon. After that year at and the newly emerging tools such as those of satellite MIT,both of us very much wanted to go back home meteorology, working on models at a variety of levels of and we headed back, spending a fortnight en route in complexity from simple geophysical fluid dynamics the national parks of East Africa. models to the global circulation models, and discover- ing what agriculturists really wanted from meteorolo- H.T. — What happened after you returned to Pune? gists. I also decided to continue some work on model- S.G. — Neither of us had proper jobs on returning to ling in ecology and evolutionary biology. Moreover, my India, but we swam for two years in the Scientific Pool of son Siddhartha was born in 1974. All this meant a rel- the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. Pune atively modest rate of publications. But today I am was the seat of an important centre of the India Meteo- happy that I made those choices. They have permitted rological Department (IMD). Most of the active meteo- me to build an excellent broad-based school of atmos- rologists were at IMD or at the Indian Institute of Tropi- pheric and oceanic sciences at IISc and help many cal Meteorology (IITM) that had been set up in Pune other groups in the country. They have also permitted after the International Indian Ocean Expedition. me to enjoy a most fulfilling family life. I accepted an assignment as a Sci- 6 entific Pool Officer at the IITM in H.T. — When did you become 1971. This turned out to be most Professor and how did your opportune,as the Institute had some activities differ from previous of the most active researchers in years? meteorology such as D.R. Sikka, S.G. — I became an Associate Pro- Y. Ramanathan and H.S Bedi. fessor in 1981 and a Professor in I learnt a great deal about the mon- 1986, but that meant no change in soon from them and a fruitful col- my activities. A change came about laboration with them continues to in 1982, however, when the IISc this day. My daughter, Gauri, was decided to establish a fully fledged born in 1972, and soon after that Centre for Atmospheric Sciences. both Madhav and I received offers R. Narasimha, a fluid dynamicist of Assistant Professorships at the and a professor of aerospace engi- Indian Institute of Science (IISc) in neering was the first chair. This Bangalore. meant the possibilities of building up a larger, active group of atmos- H.T. — What did the new job pheric and oceanic sciences, and entail? this task has been a focus of my S.G. — The IISc was established attention for the last two decades, in 1909 and is India’s premier especially between 1989 and 1996, institution of scientific and techno- when I served as the chair of this logical research. From 1963 it had Centre. In 1990, we obtained a been headed by Satish Dhawan, major grant from the Department an aeronautical engineer and of Ocean Development and the architect of India’s space pro- As a graduate student at Harvard, 1966 Centre was renamed the Centre for gramme. In 1971, he founded the Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences. Centre for Theoretical Studies as a part of the IISc, It now has eight full-time faculty members with expert- comprising an interdisciplinary group of scientists in ise ranging over radiation and climate, atmospheric all fields interested in mathematical modelling. They thermodynamics and convection, dynamics of the already had a few theoretical physicists and decided to monsoon, ocean and ocean-atmospheric coupling and atmospheric chemistry, who are involved in modelling, 2 Interviewed WMO Bulletin 49 (2) field observations and laboratory experiments. Sikka, who not only knew a great deal about the monsoon but had studied satellite meteor- ology as well. This study was to yield rich divi- dends in terms of eluci- dating the nature of intraseasonal variation of the monsoon and pro- vided insights into the basic system responsible for its occurrence.We dis- covered that, throughout the summer, the cloud- bands propagate from the With Profs. E.S. Sarachik, J. Charney and E. Kalnay, 1977 equatorial Indian Ocean into the heated subconti- H.T. — You have covered a wide range of scien- nent at intervals of two to six weeks. This basic feature tific activities. You started as a mathematician of the intraseasonal variation is seen every year, irre- and then became involved with agriculture and spective of whether there is a drought or whether it is a farmers. Have you been able to use your mathe- good monsoon year.We further showed that large-scale 7 matical knowledge in conducting these activities? monsoon rainfall over the Indian region is associated S.G. — I was trained as an applied mathematician and with a continental ITCZ. During the summer mon- had the good fortune to learn from some of the best sci- soon, an ITCZ also appears intermittently over the entists in the field, including George Carrier and Syd- equatorial Indian Ocean and there is competition ney Goldstein. Carrier gave an outstanding course on between the two TCZs with active spells of one being the modelling of complex systems, which together with associated with weak spells of the other. These results, my work on modelling of phenomena relating to the discovered by subjective analysis of satellite photo- oceans, the atmosphere and evolutionary biology, laid a graphs, have been verified subsequently by several sci- strong foundation for work on complex natural sys- entists using outgoing longwave radiation data. tems. This has made it possible for me to work on crop Around the time that we discovered the northward models and to develop new models of the triggering of propagations of the cloudband, a similar feature was pests and diseases by weather events. observed in the rainbands simulated in a simple climate model (axisymmetric with a continent poleward of H.T. — Tell us about your studies of monsoon and 18°N) developed by Peter Webster and his students. current knowledge. This led to collaboration with Peter Webster and S.G. — At MIT I was exposed to Charney’s theories of J. Srinivasan, who had just joined the Mechanical Engi- the tropical convection and particularly the ITCZ. neering Department of IISc, aimed at understanding I started learning about the Indian monsoon when the underlying mechanisms. Srinivasan is an expert in I joined IITM in 1971. To begin with, Sikka and radiation and has been an active collaborator in vari- I tested a hypothesis proposed by Ramaswamy about ous facets of monsoon research. A student of ours, Ravi the influence of mid-latitude circulation on the breaks Nanjundiah, developed a simple climate model, which in the monsoon. After painstaking data collection from could simulate the most important features of the charts (which in itself was educative), we rejected the intraseasonal variation of the monsoon. Ravi has sub- hypothesis. I also investigated the impact of the topog- sequently joined the faculty of our Centre and contin- raphy of the Indian subcontinent on monsoon circula- ues to collaborate with me in monsoon modelling. tion, a problem addressed in the early years of the cen- Simulation of the precipitation patterns associated tury before the development of geophysical fluid with the Indian monsoon has proved to be a great dynamics. I then started a detailed study of the daily challenge for the global climate models. This is because variation of the zonal cloudbands (generally associated there are two favourable locations for the tropical con- with the ITCZ) over Indian longitudes with the help of vergence zone; one over the warm waters of the equa- NOAA satellite imagery and in collaboration with torial Indian Ocean and the other over the heated sub- continent. While in nature it occurs intermittently over H.T. — What about relations between climate and each of these locations, the models tend to get locked agriculture? into one of these locations. Our analysis of the simula- S.G. — Since ancient times, the Indian economy has tions of 30 models run under AMIP revealed this. been a gamble, as agricultural production is linked to Even today, most models cannot simulate the the rainfall, and that is why monsoon research has interannual variation of the Indian monsoon, even always been supported in the country. However, while when the SST is specified from observations. More most meteorologists employ this fact to talk of the work is required before they can be used for predictions potential use of meteorological predictions, there have on the intraseasonal or interannual scale. hardly been any studies of what sort of predictions are required for farm-level decision-making and the extent H.T. — What were your particular interests in your to which they can be generated. In fact, even the exten- studies of the ocean? sive knowledge of rainfall variability derived from the S.G. — I began my career as a student of A.R. Robin- rich datasets at IMD, cannot be readily used by farm- son at Harvard, working on the meanders of the Gulf ers, since they use 14-day periods linked to appearance Stream. We developed a simple model for the impact of of constellations in the sky rather than the pentad or the bottom topography on an eastward current, consider- week that the meteorologists use. Around 1994, ing steady,as well as time-dependent,solutions.After a I started working with Seshagiri Rao, an ecologist- gap of several years (in which I was involved with the farmer and my colleague at the centre, K.N. Rao, on monsoon) I worked with my student, Vinayachan- using the knowledge and predictions of rainfall vari- dran,and a colleague,D.Sengupta,on the simulation ability for farm-level decisions. In talking to the farm- of the circulation of the Bay of Bengal with an ocean ers, we realized that it would be possible to enhance 8 general circulation model. production considerably (or reduce risks) if the avail- able knowledge of rainfall variability was used in con- H.T. — Then you switched to climate problems. junction with crop models. Can you please outline some of the fields of your Traditional crops/varieties and farming practices interest? must have evolved to be appropriate for the nature of S.G. — I have worked primarily on climate variability the rainfall variability of the region by years of experi- and not too much on climate change. I have always ence. However, the crops/varieties now grown in most been interested in monsoon variability. To Indians, the regions are not the traditional ones. Hence, the tailor- word monsoon is synonymous with rainfall (although ing of crops/varieties and farming practices to the for the Arab sailors who variability of the region first used the word, the has yet to be achieved. seasonality of winds was Most of the recommen- far more important). dations generated by I addressed the problem agricultural scientists of deriving “coherent (who do not take rainfall rainfall zones” for the variability into account) Indian region, i.e. zones are found to be incorrect for which the rainfall by farmers. We studied time-series (for the sum- the problem of the opti- mer monsoon rainfall) at mum planting dates for any pair of stations in rainfed peanuts in a the zone are positively semi-arid tract of the (significantly) correlated Indian peninsula with a so that the variation of crop model run for 100 the rainfall at the sta- years, for which rainfall tions within the zone is With husband and children at their housewarming ceremony, 1977 data were available. We in phase. In other words, found that the risks of a station is not likely to have a drought when another failure would be high if the recommendations of the experiences excess rainfall and hence the average rain- agricultural scientists were accepted; on the other fall over such zones is meaningful. Such zones should hand, the sowing period currently used by the farmers be the basis for the study of space-time variations of involved less risk.Within that period,however,later rainfall. planting would enhance production. This result, not anticipated by the farmers, is now being tested in their tant implications for the mechanisms leading to the fields. The lesson appears to be that participatory interannual variation of convection over the oceans research, in which scientists collaborate with farmers, and hence the monsoon. has to replace the top-down approach adopted by sci- entists so far. We have developed a network of farmers H.T. — Please tell us about the Indian Climate in the region in order to gain from their vast knowl- Research Programme (ICRP) edge of the complex ecosystem and understand the S.G. — I have worked on many facets of the Indian possible decision options open to them. In this way, we monsoon, including analysis of conventional and satel- have been able to develop a model for the triggering of lite data to understand the nature of its space-time pests and diseases by wet and dry spells. variation and coupling with the oceans and modelling to identify the responsible mechanisms. Several scien- H.T. — A major factor in all your studies must tists in this field realized that one of the lacunae in the have been the important question of the investigations in India was that we had not conducted atmosphere-ocean system or atmosphere- observational experiments over regions that play a crit- ocean coupling? ical role in determining monsoon variability, such as S.G. — Our studies of satellite imagery had clearly the oceans around the subcontinent. This was clear shown that northward propagations of cloudbands from the enormous contributions of TOGA and generated over the equatorial Indian Ocean played an TOGA-COARE to our understanding of ENSO. How- important role in the large-scale monsoon rainfall ever, most of the experiments of this type, beginning over the Indian region. Also, Indian meteorologists with IIOE in the mid-1960s and including MONEX in had known for a long time that most of the synoptic- 1979, were led by scientists from outside the region. scale disturbances which give us rainfall come from While the need to change this situation was recognized, 9 the Bay of Bengal or the Arabian Sea. Thus, it is clear such a change could not have been accomplished with- that the monsoon depends on the convection over the out the active participation of scientists who were not oceans.It is important to understand,therefore,what only interested in the monsoon but were capable of determines the variation of organized deep convection handling state-of-the-art equipment, i.e. who had ade- over the ocean. In collaboration with P.V. Joseph at quate training in engineering as well. Narasimha’s IMD and N.V. Joshi at our Institute, I addressed this group of fluid dynamicists fitted the bill and he and problem by analysing the D.R. Sikka led a national first digitized dataset on observational experi- satellite-derived cloudi- ment on the monsoon ness—the Sadler trough boundary layer in dataset—together with 1990. Around the same the dataset on SST of the time, G.S. Bhat, a north Indian Ocean mechanical engineer who available at the IMD. had modelled clouds in We found that the rela- the laboratory for his tionship between organ- Ph.D. thesis and who was ized cloudiness and SST primarily interested in is complex and highly tropical convection and non-linear. There is a air-sea interactions, threshold SST of about joined our Centre as a 27.5°C, above which the faculty member. With propensity of cloudiness such expertise available increases rapidly. SST With collaborating farmers and scientists, 1999 in the country it became being above the thresh- possible to think of obser- old is a necessary—but not a sufficient—condition vational experiments on the monsoon. with some fraction of the warm ocean remaining In the early 1990s, there was an increasing real- cloud-free because the dynamics is not favourable. ization that important contributions by Indian scien- This result has been shown to be valid for all the tropi- tists over the years had not been recognized, partly cal oceans with better datasets on satellite cloudiness. because they were not always published in interna- It so happens that the SST of the north Indian Ocean tional journals. There was a need to synthesize what is above the threshold every summer. This has impor- we knew about the monsoon studies which would lead to a deeper understanding and hence better predictions. Thus was born the ICRP, for which I pre- pared the science plan in collabo- ration with scientists at our Centre and other institutions in the coun- try. This plan envisaged a multi- pronged attack involving observa- tional experiments, as well as theoretical and empirical studies. H.T. — Please tell us about the observational experiment you organized over the Bay of Bengal. With colleagues at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 2003 S.G. — The Bay of Bengal Mon- soon Experiment (BOBMEX) was organized by a nessed over the last decade with rate of production group of scientists from different institutions in the growth declining markedly. Hence, the problem of country. With the support of all the concerned Govern- enhancing production in the rainfed tracts (which can- ment departments, BOBMEX was successfully con- not be reduced beyond 50 per cent of the cultivated ducted in July/August 1999. The second experiment area) assumes great importance. The problem is all the 10 under the ICRP,the Arabian Sea Monsoon Experiment more difficult because it involves tailoring crops/vari- (ARMEX), was carried out in June-August 2002. eties and management practices to the rainfall variabil- ARMEX and BOBMEX are important achievements. ity of the region and its prediction. We need to work They were completely national efforts from the stage of with the farmers if we are to avoid major difficulties in formulating the problems to be addressed to planning the future. and execution, which was possible because several agencies and institutions collaborated effectively. I H.T. — Let us talk about your contacts with WMO. believe that these experiments have added a further You were associated with the Joint Scientific Com- dimension to meteorological research in India. mittee (JSC) of the WMO World Climate Research Programme (WCRP). H.T. — Can you describe or express your opinion S.G. — I enjoyed working with the JSC, firstly because about the links between increasing human popula- it was an opportunity to listen to the latest develop- tion, climate variation and food availability. Do ments in the field (something I had not had the chance you foresee any immediate problems in this area? to do since coming back to India in 1971) and, sec- S.G. — In the early part of this century, the population ondly, because I learned how international pro- was low and per capita food availability was steady. grammes are formulated, launched and executed. When the population started increasing (mainly due to These lessons were important for the development and the suppression of epidemics) per capita food availabil- execution of the ICRP. I was deputed by the JSC to ity started decreasing. The variability of the monsoon serve on the standing committee of START and I have always had a large impact on food production. The enjoyed that association. With encouragement from lowest level of per capita food availability for India was Larry Gates (then chair of the JSC) and Hartmut reached in 1945 just before we achieved independence. Grassl (then director of the WCRP) and the active par- Since independence, the per capita availability has ticipation of the WCRP, the International Geosphere- increased steadily because of the programmes of the Biosphere Programme (IGBP) and the International Government. During the green revolution, the increase Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environ- was particularly rapid. Hence, despite the growing pop- mental Change, Mike Manton (also a member of the ulation, the per capita food availability registered an JSC), Will Steffen (IGBP) and I helped START to increase. However, enhancement of food production organize a workshop at Bogor in February 1997 to con- during the green revolution occurred mainly over irri- sider an end-to-end approach for modelling climate gated regions. The variability of the monsoon contin- variability and agriculture. This led to the launch of ued to have a particularly large impact over rainfed the START CLIMAG programme with several tracts. A fatigue of the green revolution has been wit- demonstration projects. START has nurtured the pro- gramme over the past five years and a work plan is developed for addressing problems of climate variability now being prepared. and agriculture and its application for identifying farming strategies (such as for planting dates) is going H.T. — What sort of research work are you con- to be recognized as a major contribution as it has the ducting these days? potential to help farmers considerably. S.G. — I continue to work on different facets of the monsoon. Our Centre now has such a talented faculty H.T. — Would you like to say something about your with expertise in different areas and I thoroughly enjoy family? the interaction with my colleagues. I continue to col- S.G. — I have been particularly fortunate in having a laborate with scientists from other institutions as well. wonderful family. My husband has complementary Recently, I finished a paper on breaks in the Indian interests which have enriched both our lives. I helped monsoon with P.V.Joseph at Kochi University. Not too him in his modelling work and we have several joint long ago, I collaborated with T.N. Krishnamurti on his publications in evolutionary biology. With him and our work on super-ensembles for prediction. In addition, children, I have spent many a happy hour watching I am working with colleagues at our centre and experts birds, butterflies, elephants and other wildlife and at the Centre for Ecological Sciences of our Institute on enjoying a variety of landscapes from the peaks of the climate variability and agriculture. In particular, we Himalayas and Western Ghats to our beautiful are establishing teacher-student-farmer networks in beaches. He has served as Chair of the Global Envi- the climate-agriculture work. ronment Facility Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel and gained an understanding of global environ- H.T. — Which aspect of your work did you or do mental issues. We have just embarked on a collabora- you appreciate the most? tion on the issue of adaptation to climate change. He is 11 S.G. — I have thoroughly enjoyed my endeavour to also interested in the modelling of crop pests and dis- develop a comprehensive eases and the use of understanding of the teacher-student-farmer monsoon in the most networks in climate- congenial atmosphere agriculture work. possible. I have also My children are learnt a great deal during grown up now. My lively my work on climate and daughter is a journalist, agriculture from col- married to an outstand- leagues and farmers. I ing mechanical engineer. have never participated They live at Pune where in the scientific rat race my roots are. My son is a and yet I believe my con- mathematician—a tributions have received topologist who enjoys his the recognition they mathematics as much as deserved more often than Madhav and I enjoy our not. I have also enjoyed research (not more than working in a society in us, because I cannot which a woman scientist Sulochana and Madhav Gadgil imagine anyone enjoying is treated as a scientist the scientific endeavour who happens to be a woman and not one who requires any more than we do!). He has just joined the faculty at affirmative action. the Indian Statistical Institute at Bangalore. H.T. — Can you tell us about one or two most unforgettable events of your professional life? S.G. — The high points of my professional life have H.T. — Your scientific achievements, your skill at been the discovery of the phenomenon of the north- harmonizing career and family and your enthusi- ward propagation of cloudbands over India and unrav- asm make you a role model for women working in elling of the relationship between convection over the meteorology and related fields. This interview ocean and SST, including the existence of the SST makes an excellent introduction to this special issue threshold. I also believe that the methodology we have of the WMO Bulletin. Thank you. PPaarrttiicciippaattiioonn ooff wwoommeenn iinn tthhee aaccttiivviittiieess ooff WWMMOO:: rreessuullttss ooff tthhee 22000011 ssuurrvveeyy

Introduction The 2001 survey The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action of The objective of the 2001 survey on the participation the 1995 United Nations Fourth Conference on of women and men in the activities of WMO was to Women challenged society, governments, non-gov- update the 1997 baseline data and track progress in ernmental and international organizations to recog- achieving full opportunity for women in the meteoro- nize the crucial role of women in all spheres of logical and hydrological professions. The survey ques- human activity and to take action to encourage the tionnaire requested information in three main areas: advancement of women in all walks of life. Among previous national studies and analyses on the topic, its recommendations that are relevant to issues of participation of women and men in the activities of science and technology are: improved access for WMO Technical Commissions and Regional Associa- women to technology, information, science educa- tions, in delegations to the WMO Executive Council tion, technical training, non-traditional employ- and Regional Technical Conferences on the Manage- ment, and strengthening of the position of women ment of NMHSs during 1996-1999, and 1999 data on scientists and technologists. Importantly, there was the employment of women and men at NMHSs. 12 an open challenge to encourage gender-sensitive The final tally of 105 questionnaires returned policy-making and planning universally, and the from a total WMO Membership of 185 States and Ter- participation of women in decision- and policy- ritories was deemed reasonable enough to allow making. meaningful analysis, considering that respondents comprised the overwhelming majority of those coun- The WMO response tries that have the largest proportion the global mete- In response, WMO organized the International orological and hydrological communities. The survey Expert Meeting on the Participation of Women in results and analysis will assist in the deliberations Meteorology and Hydrology in Bangkok, Thailand, and debate among participants at the Second WMO in December 1997 with the objective of increasing Conference on the Participation of Women in WMO the participation of women meteorologists and Activities held during 24-27 March 2003, at WMO hydrologists in the programmes and activities of Headquarters, Geneva, Switzerland. the constituent bodies of WMO, and to encourage the creation of equal opportunities for women to Analysis and evaluation attain senior positions in their chosen fields of Participation in WMO technical commissions atmospheric and geophysical sciences. The meeting WMO technical commission members were 11.2 per reviewed the role, progress and problems of women cent female,ranging from as high as 19.2 per cent of in meteorology and hydrology and made recom- members from RA III to as low as 8.5 per cent from mendations on how to effect desired change in the RA II. Of the total of 2 492 persons participating in all workplace. Technical Commission activities, 13.3 per cent were WMO noted that male professionals over- women; they formed 20 per cent of all participants whelmingly outnumbered females in meteorology from Region III, but only 9 per cent from Region V. and hydrology and, in his address to the WMO Commissions with the least women were CIMO (6.8 Bangkok Meeting, the Secretary-General of WMO per cent) and CAS (9.1 per cent); those with the most appealed to Members to take certain positive steps were CAeM (22.1) and CCl (20.9 per cent). There were to actively promote increased participation by 12 female Technical Commission rapporteurs out of women in these professions. Prominent on the meet- 124—or 9.7 per cent. ing agenda was a debate on the results of the first Of 693 delegates attending Technical Commis- WMO global survey, done in 1997, on the participa- sion meetings 89—or 12.8 per cent—were women. tion of women and men in the activities of WMO They formed as much as 22 per cent of RA III dele- and in the fields of meteorology, operational hydrol- gates but only 4 per cent of those of RA V. The RA VI ogy and related geophysical sciences. 335-member female delegation was the largest, being GENDER MAINSTREAMING AND WMO

We know about streamlines and stream functions, jet streams and Gulf streams, but what about gender main- streaming? First, why do we use the word “gender”? Is there a difference between “women’s issues” and “gender issues”? The answer is “yes”. The biological differences between women and men do not change. Gender, however, refers to the roles women and men play in society, in their homes, and in the economic, political and cultural fabric of their countries. Gender has to do with the attributes and opportunities associated with being male and female, and these can—and do—change. An example of a gender issue, highlighted later in this issue of the WMO Bulletin, is the situation in many countries where women are in charge of fetching clean drinking- water but men make the decisions about how water projects are carried out. The fact that 50 per cent of customers of meteorological information are female means that gender is an issue for WMO. Men and women are not always looking for the same thing in weather or climate forecasts. In simplest terms, gender mainstream- ing means taking into consideration these differences when designing and implementing our programmes. Within the private sector and government, people have come to the realization that taking gender into account makes good business sense. Companies realize that to better serve their clients and to make best use of their employees, they must taken into account the differences in what men and women want and what they can bring to their organizations. On the international level, activities over the last two decades have led to a clear recognition that progress in the areas of environment, human rights, population and social and economic development all depend on the advancement of women. The UN Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 13 affirmed women’s vital role in achieving sustainable development and environmental protection. The increased recognition of the importance of the role of women led to the landmark Fourth World Conference on Women held in Beijing in 1995. From this Conference arose a Platform for Action which, amongst many other recom- mendations to governments around the world, admonished UN agencies to develop gender-sensitive policies and programmes. As a result, the concept of gender mainstreaming was introduced into the planning process and programme implementation of many United Nations agencies. Gender mainstreaming is defined by the United Nations as: ... the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legisla- tion, policies and programmes, in any area and all levels. It is a strategy for making women’s as well as men’s concerns and experiences an integral dimension in the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes, in all political, economic and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally, and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality. (Economic and Social Council, substantive session of July 1997). A first step in mainstreaming gender is to do a gender analysis. Although WMO has not yet undertaken any formal gender analysis, some members of our community have recognized the gender dimensions of their activities. For instance, the Drought Monitoring Centre in Nairobi is working with a team of experts to investigate the role of women in the application of climate information in the Greater Horn of Africa region (see article on page….). They make the case that timely access and application of weather and climate information by rural women is crucial to poverty reduction, environmental management, disaster management and sustainable development. Jennifer Francis, Executive Secretary of the Gender and Water Alliance, tells us of the progress being made through the application of a gender mainstreaming in the water sector (page …). She notes that equitable gender participation throughout a project cycle is essential to its success. Bella Abzug, a well-known US politician and fighter for human rights, took gender mainstreaming one step further. Abzug co-founded the Women’s Environment and Development Organization (WEDO), which was instrumental in changing the way the United Nations thought and acted regarding women and the environment. She said: Women do not want to be mainstreamed into the polluted stream. We want to clean the stream and trans- form it into a fresh and flowing body; one that moves in a new direction—a world at peace, that respects human rights for all, renders economic justice and provides a sound and healthy environment. almost half of all women attending technical com- agement) compared with 13 per cent in the 1997 sur- mission meetings. vey. All countries employed female support staff (e.g. technicians, observers), varying from 0.9 per cent in Participation in activities of the regional Niger to 48.3 per cent in Guinea-Bissau. Overall, associations women constituted 18 per cent of support staff com- Globally, there were 48 women delegates at regional pared to 16 per cent in 1997 and 17.4 per cent of the sessions out of 264 persons attending—or 18.1 per combined (professional and support) workforce. cent. Of the 86 Members that sent delegations, 23 All countries employed women professionals in included both men and women, 59 had men only and, Region II, with a regional average of 31.6 per cent, almost as an anomaly, four had women only. The high- varying from 0.3 per cent in Pakistan and 1.6 per cent est regional average of female delegates was in in Japan (1.6 per cent) to 72.7 per cent in Maldives and Region III—32.4 per cent—and the lowest in 63.3 per cent in Uzbekistan. Similarly, all countries Region V—8.3 per cent. employed women support staff varying from 0.3 per There were no female rapporteurs in Region II, cent in Pakistan to 84.3 per cent in Kazakhstan for an one each in Regions I, III and IV, and three in overall regional average of 48.8 per cent. This statistic Region VI. Women comprised 12.3 per cent of the total is strongly influenced by China's employment of over of 65 rapporteurs in all regions. Region III led the way 80 per cent of the Region’s female support staff. Alto- in composition of working groups/teams with women gether, 38.3 per cent of the total workforce was female, constituting 30.8 per cent of the membership, followed indicating an apparent progressive trend of employ- by 19.4 per cent in Region VI and only 4.3 per cent in ment of women in some of the Region’s NMHSs. Region I. Women comprised 36.4 per cent of the profes- 14 Globally, a total of 525 persons were involved in sional staff in Region III, compared to 21 per cent in regional activities, including 88 women (16.8 per 1997, varying from 18.1 per cent in Ecuador to 56.1 cent), 33 of whom came from Region VI; however, per cent in Uruguay. The Region’s support staff was Region III percentages for regional participation of 26.9 per cent female compared to 18 per cent in 1997, women were consistently the highest in all activity varying from 10.8 per cent in Ecuador to 51.5 per cent categories. in Guyana. Overall, women comprised 28.9 per cent of the regional combined workforce. Participation in Executive Council (EC) In Region IV, national averages for the employ- delegations ment of professional women varied from 11.1 per Opportunities for participation in EC meetings are cent in El Salvador to 36.4 per cent in Barbados, for a limited since only about one-sixth of WMO Members can participate in EC at one time. The percentage of female delegates was around 10 per cent from 1992 to 1995 (Figure 1), and increased slightly to near 15 per cent by 1998, and to 20 per cent in 1999, the last increase due mainly to a decrease in the number of men attending as delegates, rather than an increase in women. Overall, the participation of women as dele- gates to EC meetings continues to be low, with men five times more likely to be delegates than women, compared to nearly seven times in the 1997 survey;

Attendance at regional technical conferences Altogether, there were 192 persons attending Regional Technical Conferences of the Management of NMHSs, of whom 27 (14.1 per cent) were women. They formed 18.2 per cent of delegates from Region III, 17.9 per cent from Region I and only 9.1 per cent from Region V.

Employment of women in NMHSs In Region I, women comprised 15.3 per cent of the professional category (e.g. operations, research, man- Figure 1 — Male and female participation in delegations to the Executive Council regional average of 13.7 per cent, lower than the cate that there are increased opportunities for women 17 per cent in the 1997 survey. The USA and Canada among the professional staff. Thus, within the WMO employed a total of 564 women professionals, 95.8 per Secretariat, women are much more likely to serve in a cent of the Region’s total. In the support-staff cate- support category than in one of programmatic or pol- gory national percentages varied from 7.1 per cent in icy responsibility. Netherlands Antilles and Aruba to 55.6 per cent in Dominica, with a regional average of 20.8 per cent, Participation in WMO Congresses just lower than 22 per cent in 1997. Overall, the com- Women have participated in the affairs of WMO since bined workforce was 16.3 per cent female. it came into force in 1950 but in extremely limited All seven responding countries in Region V numbers and, usually, at levels lower than that employed women professional staff, varying from 5.5 involved with important decision-making. For the per cent in Indonesia to 22.2 per cent in Singapore, for first seven Congresses (1951-1975), only one woman, a regional average of 12.6 per cent compared to 12 per H. Gudmundsson of Iceland, participated as Principal cent in 1997. Female support staff worked in all coun- Delegate but the number of male Principal Delegates tries, varying from 2 per cent in Fiji to 30.9 per cent in increased steadily. At Twelfth Congress there were Singapore, with a regional average of 12.6 per cent. only five women (3.1 per cent) among 161 Principal Overall, women comprised 12.6 per cent of the com- Delegates and 11 (6.4 per cent) out of 170 at Thir- bined workforce, the lowest of all Regions. teenth Congress. Employment of female professionals in The participation of women as members of dele- Region VI varied from 0 per cent in the Syrian Arab gations to Congress increased gradually (Figure 2) Republic to as high as 86.9 per cent in Estonia, with from two at First Congress in 1951, to 21 at Ninth Con- several post-socialist countries of eastern Europe gress; then followed a major jump to 79 at Thirteenth 15 showing significantly large percentages, e.g. Russian Congress in 1999. However, this number is still very Federation (70 per cent) and Lithuania (63.8 per small. Historically, men were more than 10 times cent). Overall, women comprised 59.7 per cent of the more likely to serve as members of delegations but professional workforce compared with 38 per cent in that ratio improved to about eight over the last two the 1997 survey. The percentage of female support Congresses. Delegation size peaked at Eleventh Con- staff ranged from 8.2 per cent in the Syrian Arab gress to some 4.3 persons, and decreased by Thir- Republic to 86.7 per cent in Slovakia, with a regional teenth Congress to some 3.6 persons, indicating an average of 51.9 per cent, which is an improvement on overall decrease in opportunities for participation. the 42 per cent in 1997. Altogether, women comprised The slight increase in the number of women per dele- 56.1 per cent of the combined workforce, by far the gation could be interpreted as a positive indication highest of all Regions. that some action is being taken at national and gov- ernment levels to increase the participation of WMO Secretariat women in the activities of WMO. There were 138 women (52 per cent) out of 264 staff at the WMO Secretariat in 1996 and 133 (50 per cent) out of 266 in 1999. At first glance, these numbers suggest that there is gender equity within the Organization, with even a slight bias in favour of women. However, in 1999, women comprised only 18.9 per cent of the professional staff and 78.6 per cent of the gen- eral services staff, i.e. ratios of Number of women about four males to one female in the Professional category reversed to four females to one male in the General Services category. This is a recurring pattern without any Congress detectable staffing trend to indi- Figure 2 — Female delegates to Congress (1951-1999) Conclusion Given this evidence, and the increasing signifi- The key finding of the 2001 survey is that, although cance of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for there have been some small, incremental increases in Action, it is imperative that WMO and its Members the percentages of women participating in some continue to work together to ensure and encourage WMO activities since 1997, there has been no signifi- the participation and advancement of women in the cant change in the overall participation. Women fields of meteorology, operational hydrology and remain markedly under-represented in WMO activi- related geophysical sciences. There is an urgent need ties. Participation in Technical Commissions, to implement gender-sensitive measures and policies Regional Associations and the Executive Council, as which, while being consistent with the goal of main- well as employment in both NMHSs and the WMO taining the highest standards of efficiency and com- Secretariat, continue to be overwhelmingly male- petence, are also cognizant of the meaningful and dominated. Furthermore, global employment data vital contribution of women to our Organization and indicate that women are much more likely to serve in science. In view of the fact that the looked-for a support category than in one of policy or decision- progress in creating increased opportunities for making responsibility. Even though women may com- women has so far not really materialised, it would be prise a reasonable fraction of the NMHS workforce, worthwhile to continue monitoring changes that they constitute only around 10-15 per cent of the par- would update the information gathered in the survey ticipants in most WMO activities. and, perhaps, indicate positive future trends. WWoommeenn wwoorrkkiinngg iinn mmeetteeoorroollooggyy 16 aanndd hhyyddrroollooggyy:: aa ssuurrvveeyy

In 1997, WMO conducted a survey among Member Another survey of a similar nature was con- nations on the participation of women and men in ducted by WMO in the year 2001 and the results will various aspects of the professions of meteorology, be issued as a WMO technical document (see preced- hydrology and related geophysical sciences. Data were ing article). The second WMO Conference on Women presented for each country regarding the percentages in Meteorology and Hydrology (March 2003) will of women involved in various aspects, including par- assess progress (or lack thereof) in the participation ticipation in training and university programmes, of women in WMO activities since the last WMO employment in the profession, and membership of meeting on women’s participation in meteorology professional societies. In general, the results of the and hydrology, which was held in Bangkok in 1997. analysis showed that women represent far fewer than In April 2002, the Education and Training half the participants in these areas, and more often Department of WMO conducted a survey on Mem- less than 25 per cent. Women are better represented bers’ training requirements, opportunities and capa- among the student ranks than in paid employment. bilities. The questionnaire requested information on Women participate in professional societies and in the current staffing of National Meteorological and WMO activities at lower rates than men. Hydrological Services (NMHSs), including the num- On a global scale, and based on averaging partic- ber of women staff at both professional and techni- ipation rates from all countries, the survey results cian levels (no information on the participation of show that women comprise about one-quarter of the women in other related geophysical sciences was students enrolled in meteorology, hydrology and requested in this survey). Replies from 100 countries related geophysical science educational programmes, were received. and, on average, women account for about one-fifth Analysis of the responses to the survey question- (~20 per cent) of the professionals and one-third naire shows that there is a considerable variability in (~33 per cent) of the support personnel in the fields the women to men ratio in the staffing of NMHSs of meteorology, hydrology and related geophysical from country to country and from one WMO Region sciences. A summary of the study (Gaffen et al., 1998) to another. In 1999, the global scale ratio for women was published in the Bulletin of the American Meteo- to men at the professional level in meteorology was rological Society, 79, 861-864. Full details, including 25.6 per cent, rising to 26.4 per cent in the year 2002. data tables, are included in the WMO report. At the technician level, the ratio was 25.1 in 1999 and rose to 25.4 in 2002. In hydrology, the ratio in 1999 was 34.1 per cent at the professional level and 35.8 per cent in the year 2002, while at the technician level it 90 was 30.8 per cent in 1999 and dropped to 30.2 per cent 80 70 in 2002. 60 With regard to WMO fellowships for women, 50 records show that the number of women trained 40 30 under various WMO programmes increased gradually 20 M 10 from 37 in 1998 to 99 in the year 2002. W 0 Figure 1 shows the WMO regional distribution of Least Developing Countries Developed women to men ratio at both professional and techni- developed countries with countries cian levels for meteorology and hydrology. The ratio countries economies in transition varies from 8.8 per cent for RA I and 38.8 per cent for RA VI. Women Men Figure 2 — Ratio of female to male NMHS staff at professional and technical levels on the global scale

100 90 80 It can also be seen that the highest women to 70 men ratio is in the staffing of NMHSs in countries 60 with economy in transition. In addition to the plan- 50 40 ning process in those countries, the availability of 30 qualified women personnel in meteorology and oper- 17 20 ational hydrology, the variation of salaries at various 10 W 0 locations could attract more men to other domains. Region123456 I II III IV V VI The findings suggest that women were given Women Men more opportunities for education and more chances Figure 1 — Ratio of women to men by Region at professional and technical levels to join skilled and technical jobs. At the professional for meteorology and hydrology level in hydrology, there are more women than at the technician level, while meteorology attracts women to Although it is desirable to encourage women to jobs at both levels. They also suggest that the partici- explore the domain of meteorology and hydrology in pation of women in meteorology and operational all regions, RAs I, IV and V require particular consid- hydrology and in the activities of the WMO is increas- eration to be paid to this issue, which is an important ing slightly and that these fields are becoming gradu- factor for capacity building and social development. ally a traditional employment areas for women* as Figure 2 shows the ratio of female to male NMHS for most other kinds of physical science, particularly staff on the global scale at both professional and tech- in developing countries. More women now work in nician levels. Looking at the four main UN categories meteorology, and their number is growing. Today, of WMO Member countries, it can be seen that the women figure in the ranks of research scientists, fore- staffing ratio of NMHSs in the least developed coun- casters and weather service administrators and other tries is almost the same as that in developed coun- related jobs at all levels. tries. Women in developed countries might find jobs which are more attractive than meteorology or hydrology, where the working conditions could be more convenient, while in the case of the least devel- * Traditional employment areas for women defined as the oped countries, the problem may be the non-avail- area where the employment rate for women is more than ability of women with suitable qualifications. 25 per cent.

❀ ❀ ❀ WWoommeenn,, ddiissaasstteerr rreedduuccttiioonn aanndd ssuussttaaiinnaabbllee ddeevveellooppmmeenntt1

This is not an article about how any one superwoman confronted, survived or managed to reduce the impact “In the smallest islands of Micronesia, virtually of a major flood or tropical storm. Nor is it the opposite inaccessible except by cargo ship, society func- story about the poor and defenceless woman who tions with very clear gender roles. Men are gen- could, would or should do nothing than wait and see. erally responsible for things related to the ocean This story conveys hope and the insight that both and women are responsible for land-based (and women and men are part of the same society, which as near-shore reef-based) activities. These every- we know, does not mean we have the same rights, edu- day responsibilities translate easily into prepara- cation and options to manage, neither in “normal” tory activities of an oncoming hazard, such as a times, nor when a disaster strikes. A few examples from typhoon, where the men secure the structures, Central America, India and the Pacific illustrate how canoes and objects needed for fishing, etc. and women’s action shows a way forward. Several studies the women gather plant cuttings, prop banana do confirm, however, that women are usually much trees, and gather food and water and families in more badly affected than men when a disaster strikes, a designated shelter where everyone awaits the 18 and when recovery begins. We therefore need to address storm. Afterwards, men rebuild structures and the specific concerns of women already in the initial women and children gather the salvageable stages of designing disaster-reduction policies and palms and food, women weave thatch, and measures. replant the gardens.”(Cheryl Anderson, Science Disaster-reduction policies and measures need Research Institute, University of Hawaii) to be implemented with a two-fold aim: to enable societies to be resilient to natural hazards, while ensuring that development efforts decrease the vul- social power in different social contexts need to be nerability to these hazards. Sustainable development taken into account. Men are usually seen as primary is not possible without taking multi-hazard risk income generators while women’s economic activi- assessments into account in planning and daily life. ties, often the mainstay of the household economy, are Disaster reduction is an issue that affects the lives of less visible. Women carry the primary responsibility both women and men. Given that the magnitude of a for the care of children, the elderly, the disabled and disaster is partially influenced by the political, eco- the ill, whose mobility and survival in disasters may nomic and socio-cultural contexts, mainstreaming be limited. Sex-specific dependencies and vulnerabil- gender into disaster-reduction policies and measures ities based on reproductive differences are relevant in translates into identifying the ways in which women disasters, as is the respective ability of women and and men are positioned in society. This enables the men to participate fully in household, community effective mapping, not only of the different and simi- and national decision-making about hazard and risk. lar ways in which the lives of women and men may be negatively affected, but also of the ways in which they Disasters: increased impact can contribute to disaster-reduction efforts. During the past decade, natural hazards, such as In other words, cultural patterns structuring the earthquakes, landslides, droughts, floods, storms and lives of women and men must also be clearly under- tropical cyclones, wildfires, and volcanic eruptions, stood. Women’s and men’s differing needs, roles and resulted in significant losses in human life and liveli-

1 Prepared by the Inter-agency Secretariat for the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN/ISDR), Geneva. The UN/ISDR collaborated with the United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women in the organization of the Expert Meeting on Environmental Management and the Mitigation of Natural Disasters: a Gender Perspective (Ankara, Turkey, 6- 9 November 2001). Prior to that meeting, a fruitful online debate took place in October 2001, moderated by Elaine Enarson, expert in gender and disasters. Many of the arguments and examples reflected in this article are based on the ideas and expe- riences shared during the online debate and the expert meeting, and a paper prepared by the UN/ISDR for the Commission on the Status of Women, 6 March 2002. hoods, the destruction of economic and social infra- structure, as well as environmental damage. Accord- “The women who lost all their ... belongings and ing to the reinsurance industry, economic losses have their life savings in India, after the recurrent increased more than 10 times each decade during the floods of the monsoons ... have not been able to last four decades. Losses from water-related disasters compensate their losses even after decades. This far exceed others: some statistics indicate 80-90 per situation has threatened their security within the cent of losses are due to floods.2 family relationship. Children (both girls and Anecdotal evidence suggests that women are boys) dropped out of school. And young girls, typically the most affected by disasters.3 Men lose whose families lost their savings and jewellery ... their lives more often than women due, in part, to which were to provide their dowry in marriage, their use of hazardous machinery in emergency relief either lost the opportunity or had to delay getting efforts and during the rebuilding phase. In contrast, married, which has serious implications for their women were highly over-represented among the social status, psychology and survival.” 120 000 people killed in the 1991 cyclone in (Madhavi Ariyabandu, Programme Manager Bangladesh, because cultural norms constrained their for Disaster Mitigation of Intermediate Technol- access to emergency warnings and cyclone shelters. ogy Development Group-South Asia (NGO Gender relations structure is part of the social based in Sri Lanka)) and cultural context that shapes a community’s abil- ity to anticipate, prepare for, survive, cope with, and recover from, disasters. In re-settling, extended fami- tained solely by women; in Nicaragua, 40 per cent lies have been divided in many instances, leaving the were female-maintained.4 old more vulnerable without the family support. 19 Although the loss of women’s home-based work Women—agents of change space, supplies and equipment can have serious Nevertheless, women are not only victims, they are repercussions for the household economy, these also agents of change. Further, women and men, losses are rarely documented. working together, can identify those hazards that are threats to their homes and livelihoods and work together to build safer communities. Some examples “The capacity of human societies to withstand illustrate how this can be done. disasters is primarily determined by the internal strengths and weaknesses of the society in ques- Gender-sensitive risk-assessment tion: namely, its level of social, economic and model in the Caribbean5 cultural development or vulnerability. Capacities Women’s community-based organizations in the to cope are different, depending on the class, gen- Dominican Republic and St. Lucia participated in an der, age and background (indigenous or not), exploratory project to map risk in their communities, etc., of the affected communities.”(Sálvano including the daily disasters that shape low-income Briceño, Director, UN/ISDR) women’s lives and the hurricanes, landslides, and fires to which they are exposed. With training in basic research methods, the women conducted interviews, In both rural and urban households hit by hurri- recorded life histories, developed photo essays and cane Mitch in Central America in 1998, significant drew risk maps to assess their own strengths and the increases were reported in rates of female headship, dangers they face. This information was then com- which doubled by some accounts. A year after the piled into community vulnerability profiles to be devastating storm, Honduran relief workers reported used by community leaders and shared with local that half the households still sheltered were main- emergency managers. A set of practical guidelines

2 Figures are higher if the consequences of the many smaller and unrecorded disasters at the community level are taken into account. 3 No systematic sex disaggregated data are available. 4 Patricia Delaney and Elizabeth Shrader, 2000: Gender and Post-disaster Reconstruction: the case of Hurricane Mitch in Honduras and Nicaragua 5 E. Enarson with Lourdes Meyreles, Betty Hearn Morrow, Audrey Mullings and Judith Soares: Working With Women at Risk: Practical Guidelines for Assessing Local Disaster Risk (www.fiu.edu/~lsbr) was developed to help guide women’s and other community groups in community-based action research to assess risk. This model is being tested in El Sal- vador and Dominica and will be revised accordingly. Reducing women’s risk, capitalizing on window of opportunity after hurricane Mitch Several studies show that increased violence against women is often a secondary effect of post disaster stress all over the world. The NGO Puntos de Encuentro was particularly active after hurricane Mangrove planting by volunteers saves lives and money in Viet Nam. Since 1994, the Viet Nam Red Cross has Mitch in Nicaragua, conducting a been planting and protecting mangrove forests in the north of the country to protect the coastal population from major household survey, partici- typhoons and storms. (Photo: Viet Nam Red Cross) pating in a social audit, launching 20 public education campaigns and developing work- taken by a programme channelled through the Cen- shops on women and reconstruction. To mitigate pos- tral American Disaster Prevention Centre with Ger- sible violence against women in the aftermath, Puntos man support, months earlier. A study conducted by de Encuentro integrated antiviolence education the Inter-American Development Bank7 in the after- directly into post-disaster recovery work. Working math of the hurricane stated: through various media outlets, they developed a com- Gender lectures were given and, consequently, the munity education campaign to transmit this mes- community decided that men and women should sage: “Violence against women is one disaster that participate equally in all hazard management men can prevent.”One observer recalled: activities. When Mitch struck, the municipality It is clear from the looks on participants’ faces that was prepared and vacated the area promptly, thus this workshop is not only enabling them to work avoiding deaths ... Women also took over from through the emotional difficulty of post-trau- men who had abandoned the task of continuous matic stress but also to consider the need for monitoring of the early warning system. transforming gender roles in their community. Some 20 years earlier, a similar pattern developed in Like other NGOs and women’s groups, Puntos de Honduras after hurricane Fifi, when women stepped Encuentro was highly involved in hurricane relief and in to carry on the soil-conservation measures aban- recovery but went much further. Their proactive work doned by men. around violence against women seems likely to help mitigate violence against women in future disasters Reducing social vulnerabilities: skills and is certainly a model for capitalizing on the win- training for women following disasters dow of opportunity to challenge structural inequali- Increased opportunities for non-traditional skills ties that undermine community solidarity in the face building and employment are often reported in the of disaster6. wake of natural disasters, although the gendered divi- Women’s efforts pay off. When the rural town La sion of labour defines the broad contours of both Masica, Honduras, reported no deaths after hurricane women’s and men’s emergency response work. In Mitch, some applauded women’s extensive involve- India, women received skills training in safe housing- ment in community education programmes under- construction techniques after the Latur and Gujarat

6 Patricia Delaney and Elizabeth Shrader, 2000: Gender and Post-disaster Reconstruction: the case of Hurricane Mitch in Honduras and Nicaragua 7 Mayra Buvini, 1999, Hurricane Mitch: Women’s Needs and Contributions. Inter-American Development Bank, Sustainable Development Department Technical Papers Series. GENDER, DISASTER REDUCTION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Gender: While the sex of an individual is biologically determined, gender refers to the socially constructed and adopted roles and relationships that society imposes on men and women. Gender is culturally specific and changes over time. Most societies are characterized by a male bias: the male norm is taken as a norm for society as a whole. Gender perspectives are “those which bring to conscious awareness how the roles, attitudes and relationships of women and men function to the detriment of women” according to the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM). A focus on gender stresses the identification of different needs of the community and the formulation of policies that address those needs, prioritizing equality of opportunity.

Gender analysis: Gender analysis involves the collection and use of sex-disaggregated data that reveal the roles and responsibilities of men and women that should be fed into the policy process. The analysis assesses how existing and future policies and programmes potentially affect men and women differently.

Gender mainstreaming: This is the process of bringing a gender perspective into the mainstream activities of governments at all levels, as a means of promoting the role of women in the field of development, integrating women’s values into development work. Gender mainstreaming in disaster reduction refers to fostering aware- ness about gender equity and equality, to help reduce the impact of disasters, and to incorporate gender analysis in disaster management, risk reduction and sustainable development to decrease vulnerability.

Link to sustainable development: State leaders at the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannes- burg, South Africa, 26 August-4 September 2002) recognized that disasters are a major threat to development and adopted a set of specific actions to address disaster risk in the Plan of Implementation. 21

Disaster reduction is about taking measures in advance to address vulnerabilities, reduce risk and anticipate hazards. They involve environmental protection, social equity and economic growth, the three cornerstones of sustainable development. “Development that is not engendered is endangered.”

earthquakes in India, working through community- of their way of life. Not only did Women on the Move based women’s groups, mitigation agencies and gov- advance women’s long-term recovery, it also fostered ernment recovery programmes. They also helped faith in women’s “own ability to shape and direct redesign new homes better suited to their needs as their lives” and encouraged women to “enter into new workers whose homes are workplaces as well as resi- relationships with their men and the society in which dences. Some accounts from the USA suggest that, they live.”8 after a flood or a hurricane, women may manage home construction, organize work crews, learn and Early warnings and getting the message practice new home-repair skills and negotiate with across—overcoming the barriers insurance agents to rebuild their homes. Some work Cheryl Anderson, University of Hawaii, gives some in warehouses, landscaping, and construction during examples from recent studies which illustrate how the recovery period. women are excluded from timely and understandable This was also evident in Montserrat when half early warning information. She recounts that a col- the population was displaced due to widespread vol- league’s research in a Peruvian fishing village focused canic eruption. Women there started a new group on forecasting methods and impacts from climate called Women on the Move which assisted women variability, specifically an El Niño-Southern Oscilla- displaced from their homes and workplaces by offer- tion (ENSO) event. After a strong El Niño event, it was ing skills training in both traditional areas and non- discovered that the fishermen had been warned about traditional fields such as information technologies. the upcoming event, and knew that the fishing would Through their efforts, more work became available for more women on male-dominated construction sites and women gained in self-confidence and eco- 8 Adapted from Judith Soares and A. Mullings, 2002: “A we run tings’: women rebuilding Montserrat”. In: G.D. nomic independence. The group’s consensual deci- Howe and Howard Fergus (Eds.), A Will to Survive: sion-making process reportedly helped unite women Volcanic Impact and Crisis Mitigation in Montserrat. traumatized by this unfolding disaster, robbing them Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press. be poor or even non-existent for the next several This is an example where targeting women with fore- months. The women in the village did not receive any casts and warnings may have some direct bearing on warnings about the upcoming conditions, because the reducing the impacts of hazards. climate forecasters issued warnings to those who would be directly impacted. The result of the ENSO When radios aren’t enough warm event was increased poverty, unemployment Another study, reported by Emma Archer (Interna- and harsh economic conditions. The women in the tional Research Institute for Climate Prediction/ village manage the household budgets. Had they Columbia University/National Oceanic and Atmos- known about the onset of ENSO, they would have pheric Administration, USA/South Africa) found that saved more household funds and budgeted expenses women farmers in South Africa (particularly those differently to prepare for the event. For some socio- who are not the head of the household) prefer seasonal cultural reason, the men did not discuss the warnings climate forecast information to be made available with their wives and continued to spend their money through the extension officer or school, rather than the without regard to their future situation. One of the radio (preferred by male interviewees): problems with male-dominated networks of informa- The farmers state that, in attempting to balance tion is that women are primarily responsible for gar- farming, child care and other domestic responsi- dening/agriculture, securing land-based food bilities, they are less able to schedule a fixed time resources, and budgeting water resources for house- to listen to the radio. They also prefer information hold consumption and gardening in these places. to be provided on site, in an environment where Without access to information, they cannot minimize queries can be handled immediately, and discus- risks associated with their regular activities. sion can take place. This confirms a growing 22 On a more positive note, Cheryl continues with sense in the climate impacts and applications an example of a study in Hawaii. During the 1997/1998 community that women are a crucially under- El Niño event, women participated as community served clientele. educators and there were three locations out of seven Radios and TVs are not always found in homes. in the study where a few women participated on the Fainula Rodriquez, International Institute for Disaster ENSO task forces to mitigate drought. These women Risk Management, Philippines, says: were responsible for developing public educa- tion and awareness pro- grammes. Information was carried from village to village and public service announcements were broadcast on radio and television. The drought impacts were severe but would have been much worse with- out the penetration of information that resulted in conservation and public health pro- grammes. The cam- paign to treat water before drinking (where rivers had dried consid- erably and groundwater was limited and/or sus- pect) actually reduced Women’s impoverishment and economic insecurity undermine resilience to disasters as do their high levels of malnutrition and the recorded incidence chronic illness, low levels of schooling and literacy, lack of information and training, inadequate transportation, and cultural of reported diarrhoeal limitations on mobility. Caring for others takes many women’s lives when sudden choices must be made about self-preservation disease significantly. or rescue of children and others. (Photo: PAHO/WHO) In some countries (Bangladesh, among others), These examples contributing to the shaping of women who are confined to the house or family the future programme of action for disaster reduc- plot have no access through radio, TV or other- tion should continue to be nurtured and supported by wise to warning information. This may seem self- policies, data and analyses that take into considera- evident, but there are many examples of how this tion the roles and needs of both women and men. is not considered—most warning programmes being designed as one-model-fits all. Therefore, Understanding the scope of disaster not only is there a need to develop gender/cul- and risk reduction ture/economic ... sensitive warning systems, but The United Nations adopted the International Strat- also to ensure that the other key elements are in egy for Disaster Reduction in 2002, as a partnership place, in particular focused information, educa- with governments, UN agencies, regional bodies, civil tion and public awareness programmes and the society and communities, to further pursue aware- necessary support for women and children to act ness and public commitment to vulnerability and risk on the warning. Preparing to leave an area about reduction, expanded partnership and networking, as to be hit by a cyclone can mean taking with you well as research and implementation on hazards, risk some very cumbersome assets which are basic to and specific disaster reduction measures. Disaster survival in ‘normal’ times. reduction, as envisioned within the ISDR framework, In many regions, women have been engaged in aims to build disaster-resilient societies and commu- risk-reduction activities outside formalized pro- nities to withstand natural hazards and related tech- grammes. For example, on the fragile charlands nological and environmental disasters, and reduce inhabited by poor people in Bangladesh, women environmental, human, economic and social losses. engage in extensive homestead gardening and raise ISDR, in addition, supports international cooper- 23 crops with medicinal properties for home-health care. ation to reduce the impacts of the El Niño phenome- Preserving seeds, conserving water, composting to non and other climate variability and to strengthen improve poor char soil, constructing housing resist- early warning capacities for disaster reduction. One of ant to strong winds and planting seedlings to stabi- the main partners within the Strategy for this pur- lize the shifting charlands are common activities pose is WMO. WMO chairs the Working Group on Cli- developed over time by women to make life safer dur- mate and Disasters of the Inter-Agency Task Force on ing floods. Disaster Reduction within the ISDR.

Living with risk—a global review of disaster-reduction initiatives and gender-sensitive strategies (ISDR, 2002) For a comprehensive understanding of the scope of disaster reduction, the graphic representation on For more information on the subject of this article, the previous page describes the main context and contact UN/ISDR: activities, including elements necessary for gender- [email protected] or [email protected] (one of the sensitive strategies. It is important to stress that gen- authors of this article) or visit the ISDR Websites: der equality in disaster reduction policies and meas- www.unisdr.org and www.eird.org. ures require promoting women to have an increasing Elaine Enarson collaborated with the ISDR secre- role in leadership, management and decision-making, tariat in compiling examples. as well as recognizing women’s positions in their The results from the on-line debate quoted in the community and the larger society. Since disaster- article can be found at: reduction activities are part of development, they are www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/env_manage/ linked to promoting the general welfare of societies, without increasing the risk to hazards. Disaster-reduction strategies include vulnerabil- ity and risk assessments, as well as a number of insti- involvement of local community action and new tutional capacities and operational abilities. The forms of partnership motivated by cooperation and assessment of the vulnerability of critical facilities, shared responsibilities. Above all, functions associ- social and economic infrastructure, the use of effec- ated with disaster reduction need to be viewed not as tive early warning systems, land-use planning, envi- an expense, but as an investment in a society’s ronmental management and the application of many future. different types of scientific, technical, and other Consideration of the needs and roles of women 24 skilled abilities are essential features of a disaster is crucial in this context. There are fundamental ele- reduction strategy. ments in every disaster reduction strategy, but the The sharing of information and experience, priorities, relative emphasis, available resources, and both for the purposes of public information and all specific ways of implementation must take into forms of education and professional training, is as account practices that are most suited to local condi- important for creating a safety culture as the crucial tions, understanding and effectiveness.

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By Jennifer FRANCIS*

Introduction itation programmes. Most government guidelines, Women constitute half of the world’s population. project designs and programme policies now incorpo- They are the caretakers of children, the guardians of rate a gender dimension: this is regarded as crucial to family health and well-being and, frequently, the the sustainability of any programme or project. It has managers of household resources. been accepted that water-development and manage- In the developing world, where millions of fami- ment policies and programmes that exclude women as lies still lack clean water and adequate sanitation, it is actors, and as an interest group, bypass half the popu- the women who ensure that their families have water. lation and are lower in efficiency and effectiveness. Yet, despite their number, and their roles and respon- At the implementation level, however, the pro- sibilities, women often have no voice and so no choice motion of a gender balance is often lacking. in decisions about the kind of services they receive in This reveals that it is not enough to accord relation to water supply, sanitation and health. women paper rights through policy, law or institu- Many countries have recognized the benefits of tional reform. Instead, the overall goal of any gender involving women in all aspects of their water and san- strategy for the water sector should be: to develop a framework which ensures that both women’s and * Executive Secretary, Gender and Water Alliance, The men’s concerns and experiences are an integral Netherlands dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of water projects—as well as of legis- sion-making were also male prerogatives. Women lation, policies and programmes. were mainly involved in the physical work. They helped in digging the trenches or provided food and Gender and water sector drinks to well-digging teams. After construction, they Both men and women shoulder responsibilities relat- would become mainly responsible for preserving ing to water. But the gender division of labour within hygiene around the new pumps and taps, doing pre- societies determines who has control over its use. Bal- ventive maintenance and site cleaning. anced attention to the gender-dimension optimizes social and economic development, and reduces com- Women's demands not met petition and conflicts over water. In water and land development programmes in many Women, however, are not a homogeneous social countries around the world, demands by women for group. Class, age, religion and ethnicity create impor- domestic water supply were overlooked. As a result, tant variations in the conditions under which women water points for domestic use were located far from the live, influencing the needs they express, as well as settlement areas and women had to walk long dis- their priorities and demand for water. In general, tances to collect water. This resulted in lower amounts women comprise an above-average percentage of of water collected for the family, thus reducing hygiene those designated as poor, but the physical and social and health. It also reduced their time and energy for realities governing water supply and sanitation are other development activities such as education. often markedly different. The problems connected In other programmes, women were not consulted with women’s roles can therefore vary radically on the design and location of domestic water points. because of geographical context. When the points did not meet women’s requirements, they were not used. Giving more health education did 25 Women and water in the mid-1970s not make a difference, because the women had strong When community participation in water supply and and valid reasons for disliking the imposed locations sanitation started in the second half of the 1970s, it and design. Failure to consult women on latrine was synonymous with the participation of men. In design and location has also resulted in inappropri- project meetings and assemblies, mainly men would ateness of new facilities for local conditions and use. participate. If women attended, their culturally pre- scribed role was to listen, not to speak or take part in Women's expertise, commitment and indigenous planning and decision-making. Maintenance, financ- management functions unrecognized ing and management training, functions and deci- Women have traditionally played key roles in deci- sion-making on the use and management of water sources. Though men take the formal decisions on new construction and dig new wells, women have culturally accepted ways of initiating and mobilizing male resources and often care- fully manage indigenous domestic water supplies. Yet, indigenous management sys- tems of water are seldom assessed and built upon when installing new water supply and sanitation services. As a result, women’s traditional public management roles have gone unrecognized and women have lost management functions, jobs and status In Africa, 90 per cent of the household water and wood needs for food preparation is done by women. In many regions when new water and waste of the world, women spend up to five hours per day collecting fuelwood and water. (Photo: FAO/John Isaac) systems arrive. Existing sys- tems are neglected and holistic water resources man- agement traditions are overlooked. Focus on participation of women in the mid-1980s In the second half of the 1980s, it was realized that the lack of participation of women in planning, mainte- nance and management had negative impacts on the quality of the services and the overall position of women and their participation in development. As a result, many projects began to take special measures to involve women in decision-making and management of services.However,this greater focus on the participation of women was not without its risks either.

Women getting more work without influence and compensation Paid male mechanics were found not to perform well. They were therefore replaced by women. The women got technical training but, unlike the men, no arrange- ments were made for community payment for their 26 maintenance and repair services. 26 Women who were engaged as voluntary water tar- iff collectors found they had to spend more time on tariff collection than formerly on the collection of water. Women sat on water and sanitation committees Collecting water is usually a woman’s or a girl’s job (Photo: WHO) but without any real say in decision-making. In some cases, all important decisions were made at higher lev- to influence conditions and practices in either their els, where no women were represented. paternal homes or in their own home after marriage.

Men withdrawing from responsibilities A gender approach in the mid-1990s Water committees became all female committees and From the above review of historical developments and women became responsible for all work and even, for all cases, it is evident that neither an exclusive focus on payments for operation and maintenance. When only men nor on women will work. Both approaches have women were selected for training, husbands and fathers led to ineffective and unsustainable services and did not allow their wives and daughters to participate. behaviour change and have had undesirable effects on wider socio-economic development. Men bypassed in hygiene improvements If projects and programmes do not take the roles The focus on women's responsibilities in health and and responsibilities of both men and women into con- hygiene has increased their already heavy workload,fail- sideration, they may prevent men as well as women ing to address the availability of work-alleviating tools from participating in areas where, precisely, they have and the re-division of work within the households. In the capacity and influence. most countries, the work—e.g. constructing latrines— There is therefore a need for a more equitable and investment decisions needed for better family sani- gender approach in service participation and manage- tation and hygiene are traditionally the responsibility of ment by both women and men. In this approach, the men. Yet health and hygiene education projects do not access to new information and knowledge, the division address men on their responsibilities. of work and the sharing of decision-making, resources Furthermore, in a number of cultures, women and benefits, is divided more equitably between men cannot influence the behaviour of older males, be they and women of different age groups, classes and ethnic husbands, fathers and fathers-in-law or adult sons. and religious groups. Egyptian women said they felt powerless in influenc- In more recent programmes several examples of ing male behaviour. Tanzanian girls were frustrated by “promising practices” in gender-equitable approaches getting hygiene education in schools but not being able can be noted. Asia The women of Limaï in Indonesia marry into the vil- lage of their husbands and continue to be considered strangers, although they belong to the same ethnic group as their in-laws. The shared experience has cre- ated high solidarity among them and has stimulated them to unite and organize around their most press- ing need—a better domestic water supply. They formed a women’s group that initiated the water proj- ect, chose the locations and raised the initial capital by cultivating a communal field. Having got the proj- ect off the ground, they then invited men into the local water committees that manage the service. The management work is divided along gender lines: a man is in the chair at village level and a woman is the village water treasurer. Women chair water commit- tees at neighbourhood level. Men committee mem- bers clear the paths and sites from vegetation, open and close the water points and manage conflicts, spending in total about three times as much time as women members. Previously, the women’s group raised all the income to maintain the service. 27 Recently, they have been able to convince the men to also contribute financially as the domestic water ben- efits all members of the household. In Honduras, many communities collect their water from small streams that form near their houses in the rainy season. During the dry season, these water sources Latin America dry up and the women and children must walk long distances up and down steep hills to get water from larger streams. It is commonplace for them to have to walk In Tegucigalpa, Honduras, 400 000 people live in rap- one hour each way. (Source: WaterPartners International/Julie Daniels) idly growing peri-urban settlements without basic social services. In the early 1980s, most of these com- Africa munities lacked access to a drinking-water source. A In Doss,Niger,the issue of gender was first raised by the family could spend as much as one-third of its external support agency. However, the manager of the income buying water from a vendor. community participation programme remarked that In 1987, UNICEF and the National Water Board the programme itself had also noted the overburdening (SANAA) began a programme to provide safe, potable of women in the villages. For the water supply, sanita- water from boreholes and surface water. Under the tion and hygiene programme. it was also a matter of terms of the programme, a community becomes eligi- common sense to involve women more in the water ble for a water project by setting up an independent management and get more male support in matters of water committee to run and manage its own water health and hygiene. But how to change behaviour system from the construction process onward. Eventu- across the board: of men and women in villages, as well ally, the community becomes the owner of the water as staff? To start off, gender-determined tasks and system, and is responsible for collecting fees, manag- authority were investigated for old and young women ing the administration, operation and maintenance. and men and boys and girls in five villages in the pro- Women are the driving force behind the organi- gramme area. These formed the basis for discussions zation of communities, filling approximately one- about gender divisions of work and influence with proj- third of the positions on water boards. Some 62 per ect staff at village and programme level. The workshops cent of them function as committee president or have led to a greater gender consciousness of staff and financial controller. They make up half of the partici- also to some changes in their own practices.Acceptance pants in plumbing workshops. and pursuit of gender measures in the programme— Over 150 000 people living in 95 per cent of Teguci- organizing separate meetings with women; shared galpa’s settlements have today benefited from the committees; raising the awareness of men on their water-supply programme. Much of the programme’s responsibilities in water payments—have increased. success must be attributed to women willing to organ- ize themselves and motivate the men to work for the Women’s involvement does not translate to a benefit of their families and neighbours. Gaining access number of women vs. the number of men present to clean water was the first step in obtaining other serv- at meetings or being trained. Physical presence is ices and improving the community as a whole. not always a reliable indicator of involvement, given the great diversity of cultural and economic Lessons learned contexts. The presence of women as the sole crite- The cases mentioned indicate that awareness of the rion can be misleading. Similarly, women’s importance of a gender approach in water supply, sani- involvement is not an “all or none” phenomenon, tation and hygiene is gradually increasing. In the expe- but needs to be considered in terms of the needs rience of organizations such as PROWSS/UNDP in over of different categories of women (age, wealth, reli- 1 000 communities in 20 countries, four principles of gion, caste) and also needs to be linked with proj- overall importance are outlined below: ect effectives. Thus, while it is critical to make • To obtain women’s involvement we must go beyond special efforts to train women as pump mechan- women. ics and to ensure their success, it may self-defeat- There has been a tendency to interpret women’s ing to train women exclusively. involvement too narrowly. Experience shows that The most important indicator of women’s women’s (and men’s) involvement in water and involvement at all levels, from villages to higher sanitation projects has implications for every policy levels within governments and interna- project component, including choice of technol- tional agencies, is involvement in decision-mak- ogy, community organization strategies, afford- ing. This criterion is crucial to avoid creating a ability and cost recovery, human-resource devel- situation whereby we actually increase women’s 28 opment, sanitation and health education, as well workload by projects that are meant to decrease as applied research, monitoring and evaluation. their workload. As long as women’s involvement is viewed as one • To involve women and men, create sustainable sys- project component, women’s involvement, espe- tems and reach the poorest, water and sanitation cially in large-scale water and sanitation pro- programmes must include or be linked to economic grammes, will continue to remain peripheral; development and poverty-alleviation programmes. • Successful projects are ones in which managers In analysing successful programmes, it has been have become “managers of change” rather than found that direct support for micro-enterprises’ “managers of construction schedules”, so that proj- development, or linkages established with ects evolved and grew beyond the objectives origi- broader poverty alleviation programmes, are cru- nally conceived. cial. In Indonesia, for example, it was found that This may be characteristic of projects at the par- the driving force for women’s and men’s involve- ticular time of the water decade. Water and sani- ment in water-user groups was not water tation projects in Asia and Africa had changed. In improvement but the increase in cash income Bangladesh, the Urban Volunteer programme in through vegetable and fruit production. If we the slums of Dhaka started essentially as a pro- expect poor people, especially women, to pay for gramme to deliver oral re-hydration salt packets water and sanitation facilities, we must provide or to slum-dwellers and gradually changed to create opportunities for earning increased become a primary health care programme. In income. Kenya, a small project in Kwale started as a hand- pump testing project changed and expanded to Conclusion become an integrated water and sanitation proj- Programme and project planners have come to realize ect. These projects have attempted to involve that equitable gender participation is an essential ele- beneficiaries, both women and men, in a process ment throughout the project cycle. Data separated by that attempts to facilitate user involvement in sex on roles and responsibilities between men and decision-making, predict unpredictability, expect women have shown that men, women, boys and girls change and hence build adaptability to changing are all involved in, and have their specific knowledge situations in their programmes. of, tasks and requirements for the management of • Women’s participation does not preclude men’s or water supply and sanitation in the house, the commu- children’s participation nor does women’s participa- nity and the surrounding area. tion equal the number of women physically present Equitable gender participation throughout the or involved in a project/programme. project cycle permits men and women to consider a range of options and their consequences. It also FRANCIS,J.and C.VA N WIJK, 1997: Global Trends in Gender and Demand Responsive Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene. assists them to choose technologies, designs, mainte- Paper presented UNESCO Regional Workshop on Women's nance, management and financing systems that best Participation in Water Management, 24-26 November 1997, fit their needs and potential. Such a gender balance is Pretoria, South Africa. needed since neither the services themselves nor MADOUGOU, Labo,1995: Programme Hydraulique Villageoise wider development associated with them can be sus- Conseil de l’Entente Pays, Bas Phase III. Contribution au séminaire sur la gestion des relations hommes femmes. tainable when one-half of the population is either Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 13-31 mars. Conseil de passed by or overburdened. Only when both women l’Entente, Niamey, Niger, and men can participate in an equitable manner and MAHARAJ, N., 1999: Mainstreaming gender in water resources services respond to their differential demands and management: why and how: Background paper for the World capacities can we hope for an effective and sustained Vision process. Paris, France, World Water Vision Unit, World Water Council water and sanitation sector which is both a condition WIJK, C. van, 1985: Participation of Women in Water Supply and for, and a part of, wider socio-economic development. Sanitation: Roles and Realities. The Hague, The Netherlands, IRC and UNDP/PROWWESS. References WIJK, C. van, 1997: Gender in Water Resources Management, Water Supply and Sanitation: Roles and Realities Revisited. Asian Development Bank and United Nations Development The Hague, The Netherlands. IRC and UNDP/World Bank Programme (1990). Women and Water–Domestic Shallow Water and Sanitat ion Program. Well Water Supplies–The Family Hand pump Scenario. WIJK, C. van, 2001: The Best of Two Worlds? Methodology for Proceedings of Regional Seminar, Manila 29 August-1 Participatory Assessment of Community Water Services. IRC September 1989. Asian Development Bank, Manila, Technical Paper Series 38, IRC International Water and Philippines. Sanitation Centre,Delft,Netherlands. 29 WWoommeenn aanndd tthhee ffuuttuurree ooff mmeetteeoorroollooggyy

By Nancy CUTLER*

The future is shaped, but not determined, by the past. working in this field as their male co-workers. I had The future in our line of work is being determined by an interesting discussion with a woman who had women and men of vision and skill who recognize the worked in Great Britain with the Weather Service dur- value of bringing a range of strengths and positions ing World War II. Even these many decades later, her to bear on the problems of the science and the service face still lit up with interest and enthusiasm as she sides of meteorology. described how much she had enjoyed the work. When I began my career with the Meteorological Much remains of the old thoughts and ways but, Service of Canada (MSC) in 1968, there were only a fortunately, societal mores have begun to be shaped handful of other women already employed in the field. by the demands of women for equality in the work- There were a number of reasons why this was so, but, place. And they have been aided by men able to see nonetheless, the number of women available were the value of a diverse workforce, capable of bringing a considerably more than the number of women hired. variety of strengths and viewpoints to bear. It has Women have had to prove themselves against been shown in many studies that a team of workers, the burden of stereotypes in all fields, but in scientific bringing their viewpoints and experience to a prob- fields the effort has been among the greatest. In addi- lem will always create a better solution than one per- tion, the “double shift”, or the need to carry both son working alone, no matter how brilliant that single home and work responsibilities, has sometimes been person may be. too exhausting and has forced some women into at Women in developed countries are also getting least temporary retreat. some support in child care activities, although this is In spite of any early stereotypes, time has shown not as strong yet as could be wished. With enormous that science is a most suitable occupation for women, advances being made in every aspect of telecommu- and women have been every bit as stimulated by nications, women are freed somewhat to balance these responsibilities by the use of teleconferencing * Director General, Policy and Corporate Affairs, to replace long hours of travel, the use of e-mail and Meteorological Service of Canada easy movement of proposals and planning sequences. While there is a gender imbalance in the application aspirations. I have had many talks with women who and utility of information technology, the potential it had difficulty seeing how they could advance in, or holds means that it should remain an important tool even fit into, their current workplace. I have made it a for women. personal goal not only to help women one-on-one as Women bring strengths to the field of meteorol- I had the opportunity, but also to develop internal ogy as it changes to meet the demands of society and networks, workshops and other support mechanisms government. Meteorology is broadening from its to provide moral support and help each other find intense inward focus on advances in technology and opportunities. computing power to include a more outward stance I was the Chair of the first meeting looking at focusing on the end-user—areas where communicat- Women in Meteorology and Hydrology three years ago, ing and multi-tasking are an advantage. In today’s tight an experience never to be forgotten,and will be present and competitive marketplace, both within countries and supportive at the spring meeting on that topic and globally, the edge given by sound weather guidance again this year as we take the next steps in advancing can spell the difference the agenda. Within the between prosperity and MSC, I championed an Nancy Cutler has had a failure. Women provide original initiative with career in meteorology span- excellent analytical skills Environment Canada, and ning some 30 years, of which in the sense of seeing am now nurturing a simi- more than half were in man- these shifts and trends lar but more focused agement. She was frequently and recognizing how group within the MSC to the first and often the only their National Weather look specifically at the woman to follow certain 30 Service could adapt to needs of female scientists. training courses or to take up meet those needs. It seems to me certain posts. A particular oppor- essential that other pro- Her contributions to meteorology in Canada were tunity for women in the fessional groups form, recognized in 1997, when she was awarded the future may be in increas- use and maintain such Patterson Medal for distinguished service. ing service to clients in support networks. They A profile of Nancy was published as part of the developing nations, and must also work to con- Bulletin occasional series “Women in the service of ensuring effective dis- vince the senior manage- meteorology and hydrology” (WMO Bulletin semination of weather ment within their serv- 50(1) (January 2001)). information and warn- ices to actively and ings to vulnerable citi- formally support such zens and communities. undertakings. These They would also be invaluable in training and recruit- groups offer mentoring and can help women find ment, and in promotion of awareness programmes their way to follow satisfying careers. related to weather,climate and water. These groups also help make women visible. All Another role that falls easily to women is com- too often the lone woman can feel almost invisible municating and “selling” new methods and ideas to within the larger group of men, and may hesitate to business users. Women have a natural role to play in make her voice heard or demonstrate the full range of working with clients to explain both the science and her abilities. The groups can provide invaluable men- the application of the science to the problems faced toring to show less experienced woman “the ropes”, by the clients. Women with strong science back- introduce them to the right people and help guide grounds in addition to other personal skills are their career steps. invaluable additions to the modern Meteorological Women, possibly because they have not been Service. It is worth noting that the increasing study of trained in the same way as men, often do not seek out interrelationships between the variables of atmos- opportunities for networking. They have to make a phere, land and oceans and the subsequent need to conscious decision to do this. Although there is but a do cross-sector research (weather/climate with agri- small “old girls network”, women must nonetheless culture, health, forests, etc.) means that the science actively seek out that support and guidance. Another will as likely be biology or chemistry as physics and way women can get invaluable experience is through mathematics. their professional associations. These offer the oppor- During my career I have long recognized that tunity of accepting responsibilities on committees women need to be supported and encouraged in their and working groups, and provide the chance to demonstrate capacity in different but related experi- man/machine mix, and the interactions and effects of ences outside work. weather forecasting on business, to the theory and I have always been a believer in being a partici- techniques of modern selling. pator in change. I have had many firsts in my career, Meteorology, both as a science and as a from being the first woman to work at the military service/business, is changing rapidly worldwide, as it weather office in Halifax, to taking a lead position in has done since the inception of the International the conversion to metric. I have been involved in Meteorological Organization in 1873 and, subse- some of the largest changes undertaken by the MSC, quently, the World Meteorological Organization in including direct weather broadcasting, putting our 1951. Change and growth are part of the essence of relationship with NAV Canada (aviation services) on meteorology, and opportunities for women are a business-like footing, and the implementation of increasing both because of the expansion and the Doppler radar and lightning networks. Places because of the fluidity of change. This is a deeply where movement is happening are the places where interesting and exciting time to be involved in this there are opportunities to make changes. The system field. Get hold of that excitement, it can carry you a is more fluid, and when everything is changing you long way. can also make the changes that you need. Systems where everything has been fixed for the last 50 years Acknowledgements are almost impossible to budge a centimetre. Another thing that I would urge is to keep up I would like to thank my colleagues Martha McCul- with the field, and not just the pure science. Follow loch and Leslie Malone for their support in writing advances in everything from the psychology of the this article. 31 WWoorrkkiinngg iinn aaiidd pprrooggrraammmmeess iinn SSuuddaann aanndd tthhee CCaarriibbbbeeaann——aa wwoommaann’’ss ppeerrssppeeccttiivvee

By Lea LESKINEN*

My work in Sudan started in October 1989, when the • Rehabilitation of the meteorological observation days in Finland were getting shorter and shorter, and network; winter was approaching.In Khartoum,the sun was shin- • Advancement of the use of meteorological infor- ing all day long,but the hottest period was over.I arrived mation by agricultural authorities in order to late in the evening with my eight-year old daughter, and create an early warning weather system; an au pair, who had lived in Africa and whose family • Establishment of a data-management system for I knew well. Warm, dusty wind welcomed us when we climatological data; stepped down from the airplane, smelling of sand. • Improvement of the telecommunications for I worked as a WMO expert in Sudan for two years, meteorological data; from 1989 to 1991, for the project entitled “Rehabilita- • Provision of professional training; tion and Improvement of the Sudan Meteorological • Improved maintenance of the meteorological Department (SMD)”. The main objective of the project and operational equipment. was to strengthen the SMD so that it could provide In the space of two weeks, I had found us a nice good meteorological services, especially to increase apartment with two bedrooms, had settled down to agricultural production and reduce losses, as well as to my office at the SMD and had met my Sudanese coun- provide the local authorities with meteorological advice terparts. I also established good working relations to be applied in the planning and decision-making with the local UNDP office. The UNDP staff took care process. of all administrative matters related to my life and To fulfil its objectives, the project had six com- work, such as my residence permit and driving ponents: license, as well as communication with WMO and cus- toms clearance for all the goods of the Project. At work, the days often started with discussions * Senior Adviser, Finnish Meteorological Institute with the Director General, Mr Abdalla. These mostly CLICOM operators entering data into the database in Sudan Weather station at El-Obeid, Sudan

concerned the project, but sometimes we also had long part of the country by a UNDP flight, but then a Red talks on other matters, such as family news, and news Cross plane had difficulties in landing there, and the from around the world. The Deputy Director, Mr mission was cancelled. Sayem, and other staff members often participated. On The Early Warning Unit was located at the Min- Thursday afternoons, we had a session with the istry of Agriculture. One of the SMD meteorologists weather maps from the past week fixed on the wall. worked there on a half-time basis in close cooperation The weather was discussed thoroughly and a forecast with the other staff and he took care of the exchange 32 for the weekend was made. The discussions were of meteorological information with the Unit. kindly carried out in English when I was participating! For the training component, an expert from My main task was to establish a climatological Nigeria arrived just before the end of my term to database system for the SMD, based on CLICOM. organize meteorological training courses at Khar- Khartoum had experienced heavy rains one year ear- toum University. Luckily, I had two weeks to introduce lier (more than 200 mm fell in 24 hours), causing him to the project. severe floods and even the main computer was dam- Working in a strange country with a culture so aged. My first task was to convince the project leaders different from one’s own is an exciting experience. that a new PC server was needed and it arrived within The SMD Directors, as well as my counterparts and a few months. I installed CLICOM and trained my other staff took very good care of me. I was made wel- counterpart and operators in its use and we started to come and enjoyed the kindness and cooperation of build up the database with old monthly data. the SMD staff. At that time, the Internet was not avail- Later, real-time daily observations were entered able and matters proceeded slowly sometimes, but into the database and the first Monthly Weather Bul- I got used to it.While working in the field, the support letin was produced. It was delivered to several poten- of the WMO Secretariat is essential. When working tial users and also to the local FAO office, where the alone in a faraway foreign country, connections to the Permanent Representative was happy to receive it and “home office” are more value than one could guess. promised to introduce it in the next meeting of Later I worked in the United Republic of Tanza- organizations and ambassadors. nia as a regional expert on data management and The observation network was rehabilitated by renewing old equipment. My task, in cooperation with the Director General and other SMD staff, was to draft the list of the required equipment and prioritize it. The list was sent to the Technical Cooperation Department in WMO, which took care of the orders. My task again was to follow the delivery of equipment through UNDP and advise WMO when it was received. Due to the war in the south, a travel permit was needed for travelling outside Khartoum. Still, with the support of the SMD, I had the opportunity to visit observation stations in Kosti, El-Obeid and Port Sudan. I even arranged a visit to Wau in the southern Data management group in Trinidad and Tobago travelled in countries of the South African Develop- and Hydrology in Barbados. The work involves visits ment Community, assisting in CLICOM operations. to participating countries and again I have enjoyed I also organized a CLICOM Workshop in Botswana. the hospitality, the motivation and interest of local During these missions, I made many new friends and staff. it is always a great pleasure to meet them in WMO My motivation has been to give colleagues in meetings and workshops. developing countries the same possibilities for Lately, I have been involved in the Small Islands doing their work as we have in Finland, with the Developing States (SIDS)-Caribbean Meteorology appropriate equipment. I also consider it important Project, which includes mainly the same components to rescue old observational data that are available in as the project in the Sudan. My responsibilities Africa and in the Caribbean from the 19th century. It include the Data Rescue component and upgrading is important to have these data digitized, so that of the climatological database systems. The Project they can be used for research into climate variability office is at the Caribbean Institute for Meteorology and change.

BBrriinnggiinngg cclliimmaattee iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn ttoo rruurraall wwoommeenn iinn AAffrriiccaa**

33 Statistics indicate that 50 per cent of rural house- 70 per cent of the farm work leading to food produc- holds in Africa live below the poverty line, and lack tion and yet they own only 1 per cent of all house- the most basic needs, including adequate clean water. hold resources. Their level of education is low and Invariably,the rural population relies wholly on agri- resources such as electricity are non-existent. Com- culture and livestock farming for survival. Unfortu- munities in these areas depend heavily on wood and nately, the most able menfolk migrate to urban cen- tres in search of paid jobs. The women perform WORLD RURAL WOMEN'S DAY

The idea of a World Rural Women’s Day was launched at the UN Conference for Women in Beijing, China, in September 1995. It was con- sidered a practical way of obtaining recognition and support for the multiple roles of rural women who are mostly farmers and small entrepreneurs. Rural women constitute more than 25 per cent of the world population. They contribute to the wellbeing of their families and the develop- ment of rural economies. Because of their key role in food production and food security, it was decided that the World Rural Women's Day would be 15 October—the day before World Food Day. Rural women produce more than three-quarters of the world’s food. In rural areas of The purpose of the day was to provide rural the developing world where food production is the principle activity, women provide women and their organizations with a focal point up to 80 per cent of the food consumed in their homes. (Photo: UNDP/Ruth to: raise the profile of rural women; sensitize both Massey) governments and the public to their crucial, yet largely unrecognized roles, and promote action * This article has been prepared by a group of African in their support. experts in collaboration with the Drought Monitoring Centre in Nairobi: PO Box 10304, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya. Website: http://www.dmcn.org kerosene as their main source of energy. It is the women who col- lect the firewood, which, in wet conditions, becomes an extremely difficult task. During drought, they have to trek long distances in search of water and food. Food crops grown by women are often taken to be a free con- tribution to the community (a fact not reflected by economic statistics). Women labour long hours in the sun and in the cold with crude hand implements, which make their agricultural efforts extremely labour-inten- sive and time consuming. In times of climate extremes, chil- dren are also badly affected, resulting in mothers spending more and more time caring for 34 their sick children. They have to trek long distances to the nearest Wind-up radios are a cheap and effective way to bring climate information to rural women in Africa. (Photo: dispensary, late at night and in ACMAD) hostile weather. In times of drought or floods, random observations in rural and limited access to agricultural extension work- hospitals and dispensaries reveal long queues of ers are obstacles to effectively communicating cli- women with their children on their backs, while mate information to women. And even those others sleep on hospital floors waiting for the treat- women who do receive climate information are ment of their children who are commonly malnour- hindered in acting upon it by lack of land title, ished or suffering from diseases , many of which ownership of oxen and other agricultural inputs, are associated with extreme climate events, such as and access to credit. malaria. In spite of the large number of non-govern- The rural women in Africa are therefore mental organizations addressing women’s issues, extremely vulnerable to all impacts of the climate the subjects of weather and climate and how they extremes, yet they have little or no access to climate impact rural women has not been addressed. A information. great deal of work on gender has been done in the Climate monitoring, prediction and timely related sectors of energy, food, water, agriculture, early warning of extreme climate events constitute livestock production and the marketing of pro- one of the best strategies for mitigating the nega- duce, that could be capitalized on to alleviate the tive impacts of climate-related disasters and also major burden of climate-related disasters on the for taking advantage of the good years. Timely rural women of Africa. Timely accessibility and access of downscaled, user-specific climate infor- application of weather/ climate information by the mation for the rural community remains, however, rural women is crucial to poverty reduction, envi- one of the major challenges for the Drought Moni- ronmental management, disaster management and toring Centres and the National Meteorological and sustainable development. It is time that the climate Hydrological Services of Africa. community addressed the problem of how climate Within the rural community, moreover, information and prediction products can be used women are difficult to reach. Low levels of literacy to reduce the risk and vulnerability of rural and education, limited mobility, time constraints, women in Africa.

❀ ❀ ❀ TThhee rroollee ooff FFiilliippiinnoo wwoommeenn iinn nnaattuurraall ddiissaasstteerr rreedduuccttiioonn

By Rosa T.PEREZ*

Inequality between men and women is a debatable Women and children are among the most vulnerable issue, simply because in reality it does not exist. Per- groups in disaster situations. Women are seen to be haps what is more important to note is that there are in a better position to address their special needs. differences between men and women and, if properly Over the years, the domestic image of women has acknowledged in plans and programmes, gender spe- slowly changed and the role of women has become cialization could lead to an effective and efficient more pro-active. Tayag et al.(1994) examined the partnership. involvement of Filipino women in activities during In order for women to excel both as individuals the different phases of a disaster. They found out that and as a group, their strengths and weaknesses have these activities were: to be recognized, enhanced and overcome, as appro- • Before the disaster—hazard and vulnerability priate. Disaster management is one field where analysis; mitigation and prevention; prepared- women could be particularly strong. The United ness; monitoring, prediction and warning;

35

A woman meteorologist at work: (left) educating children about tropical storm signal warnings and (right) listening to instructions from team leader in a field validation survey

Nations Division of Women (DAW) Experts Group • During disaster—disaster response such as (2001) reported in its meeting that the Yokohama search and rescue, evacuation, provision of World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction in relief; 1994 had recognized such potential when it proposed • After the disaster—recovery and rehabilitation; to stimulate community involvement and empower- reconstruction; development. ment of women. This was in connection with its Several points are noted in their study, which emphasis on social science research, policy develop- involved key informants from government organiza- ment and implementation that would establish link- tions and non-government organizations: ages between disaster reduction and sustainable • The policy-making level development. This is a weak point, since the number of women In the Philippines, the role of Filipino women in in the political and decision-making areas are disaster reduction activities has been acclaimed still a minority. It is recommended that the Gov- because it is a natural extension of their age-old posi- ernment should provide more encouragement tion in caring for their children and the home. and support to women to participate in the political and policy-making process and ensure * Chief, Weather Services, Natural Disaster Reduction that women’s programmes and plans are inte- Branch, PAGASA/DOS grated into the overall development plans; • Technical/managerial/professional levels meteorologists and hydrologists are also active in the Women dominate activities during and after dis- dissemination of information packages on prepared- aster phases, except in the rescue and ness for natural hazards and training on disaster repair/reconstruction of infrastructures; management. Beneficiaries of these services are the • Women are active in the preparedness planning general public, particularly local communities and and action activities. schoolchildren. Not to be forgotten are the workers in Since the study was made, Filipino women have research and development, predominantly women, become more involved in monitoring, prediction and who provide the knowledge base for tropical cyclone warning activities. At the Philippine National Hydro- forecasting, thunderstorm activities, quantitative meteorological service—the Philippine Atmospheric, rainfall and flood forecasting and extreme climate Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administra- events, such as El Niño and La Niña, and accompany- tion (PAGASA), changes in the staffing pattern are a ing impacts in the Philippines. There is no doubt that reflection of the fading perception that weather fore- Filipino women have contributed to the economic casting is solely the domain of males. New opportuni- growth and sustainable development of their country ties in the fields of meteorology and hydrology through these natural disaster reduction activities. brought about by emerging technologies have posed challenges to both men and women. Filipino women References meteorologists and hydrologists have responded pos- TAYAG, J., M. C. RAMOS,S.I.INSAURIGA and R. B. QUIAMBAO, 1994: itively to these challenges and, together, with their Filipino Women in Disaster Management. Women in S&T and male counterparts, have contributed considerably to Disaster Management, edited by R.S. Punongbayan, PHIVOLCS Press, Quezon City, Philippines. the development and improvement of the PAGASA UN DAW, 2001: Environmental Management and the Mitigation 36 service delivery on weather, climate and hydrological of Natural Disasters: A Gender Perspective, Report of the forecasts, warnings and advisories. Filipino women Expert Group Meeting,Ankara, Turkey, 6-9 November 2001.

AA ppaassssiioonn ffoorr tthhee wweeaatthheerr:: FFeemmii OOkkee,, CCNNNN wweeaatthheerr pprreesseenntteerr,, ttaallkkss ttoo tthhee WWMMOO BBuulllleettiinn

Femi Oke is a broadcaster who has always had a keen J.T. — Where were you born and where did you interest in the weather and has a profound under- grow up? standing of and respect for the science of meteorology. F.O .— I was born in London, England, and grew up in Since 1999 she has been a weather anchor and corre- Gillingham, Kent, in South-East England. spondent for CNN International’s World Weather Service at the network’s global headquarters in J.T. — Tell us something about your education. Atlanta, Georgia, USA, and before that Femi was a F.O. — I adored school, I don’t think I ever missed a day! weather presenter in England. She also hosted, pro- Nigerian parents are very strict about getting an educa- duced and reported for various news and current tion, so boyfriends and staying out late were banned affairs programmes, science, educational and enter- when I was a teenager. I didn’t really mind too much tainment shows in the United Kingdom, Europe, the because I was in love with school. I was involved in every Caribbean and the USA. Femi is British by birth and club, every school production and anything else I could Nigerian by parentage. She has an irresistible sense of dream up for our class to do. I enjoyed practical science, fun, which pervades her TV broadcasts. The mixture doing experiments and research in our science laborato- of spontaneous humour and science has proved ries. My favourite subject of all was English, as a child extremely popular and effective with viewers around I would read all night under the covers, and then stagger the world. Femi kindly agreed to talk to the Associate to school having had no sleep. At 14 years old I started Editor of the Bulletin. We would like to thank CNN working as a young reporter for a London radio station, for facilitating this interview. and so began my career in the media. I went on to study at the University of Birmingham and graduated with a features and stories. Our forecasters will concentrate on BA in English Language and Literature. forecasting global weather. I will also prepare specific forecasts for regions I’m particularly interested in, but J.T. — When did your interest in meteorology I’m never burdened with trying to forecast for six entire begin? continents! I have always had a great passion for F.O. — I have always been fasci- weather, and after three and a half nated by the weather and when years at the World Weather Centre, I started my career as a television I’m amazed at how much I now reporter, I checked the weather fore- know about global weather and cli- cast regularly to make sure my mate. I am in the wonderful posi- shoots weren’t washed out. In the tion of being able to forecast and 1980s, I worked for a television discuss every weather phenomenon production company that shared a in the world. It’s a terrific job. building with a meteorological bureau. During my breaks I would J.T. — Why do you think you chat to the forecasters, and watch have been so successful as a what they were doing. Eventually, weather presenter? my reporting contract ended, but F.O. — That’s a difficult question to I suggested to the boss of the mete- answer and maybe one that viewers orological bureau that he audition should answer instead of me. Per- me for a job. Fortunately, he did haps what I can share with you are and I was hired a few months later. some of the comments and feedback 37 I trained on the job to be a weather I get from our audience. They often presenter, and worked as a free- tell me that I make weather interest- lance while I continued to report ing and fun, and that my enthusi- and produce other television shows. asm for my work is infectious. I like Weather was my hobby and I to make my weather segments dif- would squeeze in presenting the ferent every time; they include live weather between my other televi- interviews, video and lots of stun- sion commitments. My hobby even- ning photography, as well as our tually took me to London where I basic weather charts and satellite worked for five years as a weekend images. When I watch television, weather presenter with the com- I like to learn new things, be stimu- mercial branch of the UK Met lated and entertained. I try really Office. In April 1999, I was invited hard to do that at CNN. I’m also to the CNN Centre in Atlanta for very lucky as I work with producers an interview. In August of the same who allow me the time to try new year I joined CNN’s brand new Femi Oke things on the air. Many years ago World Weather Centre. My part- I stopped worrying about how fickle time hobby was finally transformed into my full-time television can be when it comes to replacing “talent”. career. I worked out that nobody else could be Femi Oke, so I didn’t try to copy anybody else. I just concentrated on J.T. — How does CNN prepare its weather forecasts doing my best work and being myself, and then what and to what extent are you involved in the process? I had to offer would be unique. Nobody else can be F.O. — The World Weather Centre studio that viewers Femi Oke, better than I can! Many years later I still see on the air is also my office. A small team of forecast- believe that, and perhaps that really is the secret to ers prepare forecasts for the CNN weather anchors. As being a successful weather presenter. we do weather forecasts for most of the world, it would be impossible for the weather anchors to prepare the J.T. — You have a great deal of fan mail. Do you maps, stay on top of the news, make graphics, prepare perceive a difference in the reactions from men and special on-air segments and broadcast several times an women? hour. So we work as a team. I will prepare, research and F.O.— We all get lots of mail at the World Weather make all my own graphics and animations and special Centre,and it’s good to get the feedback.General com- ments about our weather service don’t really split down up and continued to ask me, until I was finally able to gender lines. However, when it comes to pen-pal be part of a Media Training Workshop in Buenos Aires, requests and marriage proposals, they’re always from Argentina, in December 2001. It was an excellent expe- men. My favourite letters are from youngsters and rience. I really enjoyed teaching meteorologists how to women; because I know when they give a compliment present the weather on TV and the radio. I’d spent a they really are praising your work, rather than the way few months earlier doing a crash course in Spanish, and you look. while I shared my knowledge of broadcast meteorology with the students, they taught me lots more Spanish. J.T. — What are the greatest rewards in your job? The WMO media training workshops give interna- F.O. — I am in the unique position of being able to tional meteorologists valuable training. In a few days, broadcast to millions around the world. I really enjoy I watched the students with no television experience talking to people on every continent, and being able to blossom into broadcasters. I could see the transforma- talk about every weather phenomenon in the world! tion and so could they, and I have no doubt that they I love to travel and meet people, and I’ve had lots of are all doing great work now. opportunity to do that at CNN. J.T. — Would you recommend that a weather pre- J.T. — What was your worst moment so far in your senter be a meteorologist with additional training professional life? in journalism, or a journalist with additional train- F.O. — My first week working as a weather presenter in ing in meteorology? London was rather dramatic. My weather shift was F.O. — This is an interesting and a controversial ques- quite long, so I would always record the late night tion! The debate has been going on for years. I am a 38 weather bulletin. One afternoon, I signed off my pre- reporter who has trained in meteorology. The advan- recorded weather forecast with these words “Red sky at tage of this is that I can tell an engaging story, and have night, shepherd’s delight, Red sky at morning, shepherd’s strong communication skills. I also know and admire house on fire”. It was a silly twist on an old weather many meteorologists who are walking weather encyclo- saying, and at the time it made the control room laugh. pedias, and have learnt their broadcast skills later. That evening a big domestic fire dominated the local I think there is enough room in the world of television news, and then came my pre-recorded weather bulletin, for both. Just think how boring it would be if every complete with a humorous reference to a fire. Needless newsreader and television reporter had exactly the to say, nobody was laughing this time, and the tele- same background. The most important qualification is phone lines lit up with viewers’ complaints. I was morti- a genuine interest in weather. fied and had a lot of explaining to do to my new boss. There was one silver lining to this rather dark day in my J.T. — With such a busy job, do you have any diffi- career, and that was a letter I received from a distin- culty balancing your professional and private lives? guished London police detective. He said my funny F.O. — I’m married and have two grown-up stepchil- comment had cheered him up, after all the terrible news dren. I’ve always been a workaholic, so my husband is that day. used to me spending a lot of time at work. Luckily for me, he’s also in the media business— he’s a radio talk J.T.— What are the greatest challenges in your show host, so he doesn’t grumble too much! work? F.O. — Getting weather information from distant J.T. — Is there anything in particular regarding regions quickly and making sure that what I forecast is your career which you wish you had done differ- as accurate as possible. ently? F.O. — Not at all, I think that bad decisions help to J.T. — You were a resource person for a WMO build up your experience, just as much as good ones. media-training workshop. How did this come about? Do you think this is a useful activity? J.T. — What advice would you give to someone F.O. — I was contacted by the Information and Public wanting to follow a similar career? Would your Affairs Officer in WMO, who had seen me on the TV advice be the same for a woman/girl or a man/boy? and thought I might make a good resource person for a F.O. — Everybody seems to have a different story WMO media training workshop. I loved the idea but about how he/she got into weather presenting. It is every time I was invited I just wasn’t able to fit in train- often regarded as being the easy way to get a start in ing around my on air commitments. WMO didn’t give television, which I find really depressing. My advice would be to have a real interest in the weather,to be ests too, so I’d definitely like the opportunity to explore prepared to work hard and not be disappointed by my full range as a broadcaster away from the world of rejection. I always used to keep my rejection letters to weather. Although times are changing, women are still keep track of which television company I had written scrutinized far more for their looks on television than to. When they piled up too high I’d throw them away men. There’s a lot of competition, but I’ve had a long and then start a new collection. I sent a resume to and interesting career so far. I’ve been in the media for CNN some five years ago enquiring about a job. I still over 20 years, and my ambition is a very simple one, to have the polite letter at home, explaining that CNN keep working and doing the job I love. I have never wasn’t currently recruiting international weather mentioned this in public before, but I think this is the anchors. I sent another letter to CNN in 1999, and perfect place to reveal that I have a secret ambition to I landed a job, so it really is worth persevering and work for an international organization, such as the never giving up. My advice is exactly the same for men UN, when I retire from television. Maybe somebody and women. will remember this interview in 20 years time and give me a job! J.T. — How do you view the future? F.O. — That is another interesting question! CNN J.T. — Thanks for an interesting and enjoyable broadcasts to more than 160 million households interview. You are obviously a “people person” and around the globe. So where do you go after broadcast- your enthusiasm for the weather and your job is ing to the biggest television audience of your life? most exhilarating. I am sure your example will Weather is my passion but I do have many other inter- inspire many young people.

39 AA ccaarreeeerr iinn cclliimmaattee rreesseeaarrcchh ffrroomm aaccaaddeemmiiaa ttoo tteelleevviissiioonn:: DDrr HHeeiiddii CCuulllleenn

Dr Heidi Cullen is currently a scientist at the and attempting to use these as a basis for extending National Centre for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) effective climate predictions. in Boulder, Colorado, USA, and Heidi agreed to respond to has done applications-driven some questions put to her by the research in the Middle East, the La WMO Bulletin. We wish her much Plata Basin of South America, and success and enjoyment in her new the south-west USA. Her work venture. focuses on the use of climate fore- I was born and raised on cast information in sectors such as Staten Island, New York. My father water-resource management and grew up in Brooklyn and was a drought mitigation. In July 2003, police officer in Manhattan, while she will move to The Weather my mother moved to New York Channel in Atlanta, Georgia, as from Germany when she was 19. Climate Programme Manager. An Neither had the opportunity to go authoritative source of weather to college and I’m the first person and weather-related information, in my family to receive a Ph.D. The Weather Channel will begin At secondary school, to devote more coverage to climate, Heidi Cullen I enjoyed science but found it its influences and impacts. In hard. In all honesty, my favourite addition, Dr Cullen has recently been selected to join subjects were outside the math and physics depart- the World Climate Research Programme’s (WCRP) ments. But more importantly, I loved learning and Climate Variability (CLIVAR) Scientific Steering have always felt fortunate to have had the opportunity Group, an international project aimed at identifying to study. I spent two months in a small village in the modes of variability of the coupled ocean-atmosphere Middle East during graduate school and saw how dif- system, understanding their underlying mechanisms, ficult it was for the village girls to attend school. It simply is not considered a priority to educate girls— know which regions had been hardest hit. I saw this yet the girls clearly loved the time they had in school. as exactly the kind of research I wanted to be doing— Concerning my undergraduate studies, I did helping relief organizations understand and plan for what was called a 3-2 Programme at Columbia Uni- natural hazards. With the advances made in forecast- versity (New York) and ing large-scale climate Juniata College (Hunt- phenomenon such as El ington, Pennsylvania). Niño, the hope is that we This programme takes can progress from post- five years, after which disaster aid to a more one receives a B.S. in forward-looking, long- Engineering and a B.A. term strategy. in Liberal Arts. After I have been asked if working for a year, I my career decisions were went on to get a Ph.D. in affected by the fact that Earth and Environmen- I am a woman and tal Sciences from the whether this made me Lamont-Doherty Earth A snapshot of the television screen with Heidi Cullen in action on The Weather more inclined to work Observatory of Colum- Channel on the applications/ bia University. My dis- social aspects of climate. sertation focused on the dynamics and impacts of the It is a difficult question to answer. I know that my per- North Atlantic Oscillation. sonality is such that I need to contribute to society in 40 My scientific career followed a pretty standard some way. I also know that “the road to hell is paved track—although people always saw me as pursuing with good intentions”, so it’s important to understand non-traditional paths! I’ve always been interested in how your work affects society. I try to conduct applied scientific research—perhaps because of my research that concentrates on long-term, large-scale engineering background—but I’m also very inter- issues. Most people are required to think on much ested in the process of applying scientific informa- shorter time-scales—weakly deadlines, annual per- tion. It is clear that there are moral issues, such as the formance reviews—and even government institutions equitable distribution of information, that need to be tend to work to a four-year plan. Scientists, especially incorporated into the decision-making process. climate scientists, think about the world 50, 100, and My interest in climatology began when I was fin- even 1 000 years from now. I think this is an important ishing my engineering coursework at Columbia. I had and difficult job. For example, communicating the always been interested in environment issues, such as importance of issues such as natural climate variabil- global warming, air quality and the state of the ocean. ity and global climate change is something I see as Understanding how our environment worked seemed critical. Global warming, for example, always seems far to be an important part of sustainable living. away on the horizon, especially in the world we live in After completing my degree, I received a NOAA- today. The challenge to scientists is to communicate UCAR Climate and Global Change Fellowship to the the importance of thinking long-term, and to demon- newly established International Research Institute for strate how our daily decisions do make a difference in Climate Prediction (IRI). The focus of my research the long run. during this time was on the application of climate I saw my move to the private sector as an oppor- forecast information in the La Plata Basin. I worked tunity to be on the front line, speaking directly to the with colleagues from South America learning how public about the importance of natural climate vari- best to incorporate climate forecast information, for ability and global climate change. In the USA, we’ve example, El Niño forecasts, at Itaipu (Brazil/ witnessed the impacts of a severe drought in the west Paraguay), one of the world’s largest hydroelectric and the potential for severe water shortages this sum- power generation facilities. mer. There needs to be a forum where this can be dis- During this time I also became interested in the cussed scientifically. Moving into the private sector is severe drought in Central Asia, including Afghanistan. a big jump for me. However, part of my job at The While I was at the IRI, we got a call from the State Weather Channel will be to continue my research on Department wanting to know why it had stopped the hydrology of Central Asia. I will continue to do raining in Central Asia. The State Department was research by working with postdoctorate candidates attempting to create an aid package and wanted to and students at the Georgia Institute of Technology. While I am a big fan of the scientific method, even point,whether you are male or female,you reach a point more rewarding for me is finding ways to bring my where you begin to question your abilities. If you have a research to an arena where it can be used. For example, strong network you can get through anything. And be we’re currently providing seasonal climate forecasts for sure to thank them all when you write up the acknowl- Central Asia in order to help guide relief efforts by edgements section of your dissertation! agencies like USAID develop their long-term drought My new job with The Weather Channel is a very mitigation strategies. special opportunity. The Weather Channel is moving My general advice to young people wishing to have into the climate and global change arena and represents a similar career is that it is important to balance family the climate community’s first occasion to present their and career. I don’t think it’s an easy thing to do, but the research to the public. I see this as an important chal- sooner you make it a priority to respect both aspects of lenge. The basic idea is to provide seasonal outlooks of your life, the better you’ll be able achieve a certain large-scale climate variations, such as El Niño and the degree of balance. If I could give advice to someone North Atlantic Oscillation, as well as providing the pub- pursuing an advanced science degree, it would be have lic with a clear, scientifically based picture of the global a strong network of friends and mentors. At some warming debate.

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By Claire MARTIN*

From hairspray to high-pressure cells, the role of the Canadian broadcast meteorologist is finding itself undergoing a slow but steady metamorphosis. For years, Canadian TV viewers have been bombarded by US TV channels. As the USA has begun to “smarten up” its own weather presenters, Canadians have started demanding more from their own native on- air counterparts. The once superficial facade of our science is gradually becoming knowledgeable, edu- cated and truly passionate about the field of meteor- ology. But it has, and in fact continues to be, a rather stormy transition. Most Canadian television news directors still view the “weather presenter” job (within a newsroom) merely as an industry training position. In their eyes, delivering the weather was, and is, for ex-disc jockeys (both male and female) who already possess certain broadcaster qualities. These “ex-jocks”, working as TV station weather pre- senters, are expected to do little more than hone the following skills: Claire Martin • To ad-lib fast and to think and react quickly on their feet; • To go on air “timed” but unscripted (which • To develop the composure to go “live” in all can be likened to asking a circus performer to weathers and all situations; do a complicated trick without the aid of a • To fill time on an impromptu basis; and safety net!). These are all admirable qualities for someone * Chief Meteorologist, Global TV Edmonton, Canada with aspirations to be a career broadcaster. But show business then overshadows the science and, let’s face fied candidates—both male and female—are it, the science should really be the fundamental part encouraged to seek endorsement to bolster their on- of the weather presentation. air credibility. The irony of all this is the fact that science— CMOS guidelines for endorsing weather presen- contrary to popular belief—“sells”! Television con- ters state: sultants across Canada and the USA unconditionally Ideally, the Society would like to see the presenta- agree that “breaking news” and “weather” are the tion of weather information carried out by pro- single biggest audience draws on local TV news fessionally trained meteorologists with appropri- shows. Armed with that knowledge, those in charge ate communication skills or by professional of TV newscasts are beginning to understand how broadcasters with appropriate training in weather having an expert in house adds value to the news analysis and forecasting and in applications of and, furthermore, can be a significant potential meteorology and climatology. audience draw. There is a list of “endorsed” weather broadcast- So the tide is slowly turning. ers on the Canadian Meteorological and Oceano- And there has been great support for profes- graphic Society’s Website (http://www.meds-sdmm. sional meteorologists who have turned to the field of dfo-mpo.gc.ca/cmos/). The list is a compilation of on- broadcasting from within the ranks of the Canadian air presenters who have been judged by various Soci- scientific world. The Canadian Meteorological and ety panel members to have “increased scientific com- Oceanographic Society (CMOS), again following the petence as well as effective communication skills.” lead of their counterparts in the USA, have set about Once the candidate has been endorsed by the Society, to promote broadcasters with a solid science back- he/she is able to prominently display the CMOS logo 42 ground through an endorsement programme. Quali- on-air as a tangible sign to their audience that he/she

THANK GOODNESS, EINSTEIN WASN’T PRETTY!

Is it just me, or are other broadcast meteorologists out there tired of hearing “you gotta look good for the boob tube, baby”? Oh and “don’t forget to dumb it down”! How many of us with solid academic back- grounds, fluent in forecasting, and articulate in atmospherics have been told to leave our science at the door and do weather the old showbiz way. In fact why did the television stations come after the “meteorologist” in the first place? What was wrong with buxom “Barometric Barbie” and square-jawed “Cumulus Ken” delivering the weather to the masses? Once upon a time, in a faraway place, some since forgotten television news director, desperate to win a ratings war, decided to put the weather “expert” on air. The argument being that “if you build it (credibility), they will come”. Average-looking scientists were thus plucked from their poorly lit labs and thrust in front of floodlit, lime-green chroma-key screens. News directors however—driven by consultants of dubious cognition—were still told over and over again to “keep it simple, stupid”, that showing national satellite maps, regional radar loops and synoptic animations (with—horrors—isobars on them) was the self-serving practice of a scientifically starved weather expert. So what happens when every station has a fully endorsed, knowledgeable but slightly unattractive broadcast meteorologist on air? Now who has the competitive edge? News directors today are finding themselves pining after their old pretty presenters. After all, brains are nice, but is not beauty somehow better, more believable—or more importantly—more marketable? Thank goodness Albert Einstein wasn’t brought up in the TV age. Now I’m not suggesting that every weather presentation should be turned into a doctoral dissertation on the finer points of atmospheric meteorology, but if television stations insist on having well-educated, endorsed broadcast meteorologists on air, then at least let us teach the public some of what we know. Of course, if news directors really do just want brainy beauties, here’s some free advice. Go to your local college campus and tell all the deep-voiced jocks and beautiful blondes to switch their majors to meteor- ology with the promise that it is still the best way to become a local TV star. has achieved a high degree of credibility from his/her of weather products, providing high-quality weather scientific peers. and weather-related programming 24 hours a day, To date, women make up only 19 per cent of the seven days a week. Bianchi has also pledged support Canadian on-air meteorologists who have been for his own on-air staff (male and female) to endorsed. The fact remains, therefore, that, although achieve the academic requirements needed to apply there is absolutely nothing in this profession that for CMOS endorsement. (To date, all TWN’s “bureau women cannot do, we do not exactly thrive in mete- correspondents” are women, and TWN has seven orology in Canada. female weather presenters on national TV out of a The future looks bright, however. CMOS Presi- total of 16 presenters. Five of these hold a CMOS dent Ron Bianchi is also Vice President, Meteorol- endorsement.) ogy, of The Weather Network (TWN)/MeteoMedia, On a personal level, I would encourage every Canada’s national weather broadcast network. With female scientist who happens upon this article to do an estimated weekly audience of 10.5 million view- one thing: if you see a female student exhibiting an ers, and ranked as one of the top five specialty chan- interest or an aptitude in this wonderful field— nels in Canada, TWN has achieved a great deal of encourage her—mentor her—and maybe, gradually, success with the on-air delivery and dissemination one by one, we’ll see our numbers swell.

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India her spare time she went S. Stella on exploratory missions and discovered many First Indian woman meteorologist scenic spots. on expedition to the Antartic She says that she The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has will always cherish her been sending male scientists to the Antarctic since visit to the beautiful 1982. This male bastion was broken in the new mil- and pristine continent lennium when Miss S. Stella was selected by the IMD of Antarctica and its to be the first woman meteorologist to join an expe- unique wildlife. For this dition to the Antarctic. wonderful and unique Miss Stella is 28 years old and holds an M.Phil. experience, she is S. Stella degree in mathematics. After two and half years at thankful to Dr R.R. the Central Forensic Science Laboratory, she joined Kelkar, DGM, IMD New Delhi, and to Shri A.K. Bhatna- the IMD as a meteorologist in 1998. Her initial train- gar, DDGM, RMC, Chennai, for their confidence in her. ing programme led her to take up environmentally Her special thanks go to Dr N. Jayanthi, Director-in- related climate issues. From that time onwards, she charge and senior woman meteorologist of the IMD had a yearning to take up Antarctic climate research. for her continuous support and encouragement (see In the 20th Indian Antarctic expedition (2000-2001), Bulletin 50 (2) (Ed.)). she was specifically given the project “Antarctica At present, she works as an aviation forecaster Ozone Studies” and concentrated mainly on ozone at Chennai Airport. Apart from her shift duties, she observations during her stay. has undertaken some operational research on north- She took her role so seriously that her male col- east monsoon and aviation-related issues under the leagues were impressed by her enthusiasm and dedi- guidance of Dr N. Jayanthi. cation; every day at 0600 without fail, she was the Miss Stella wishes to mention the role played by first one to wake up and operate the Brewer spec- her parents in encouraging her in all she has done. trophotometer to find the total column of ozone. She hopes that her initiative will encourage other Once a week, also, she released ozone sondes for the women meteorologists, particularly the younger vertical profiles of ozone and temperature. During ones, to follow in her footsteps. Islamic Republic of Iran In the more than 27 years of her career, Mahnaz has participated in many domestic and international Mahnaz Esmaeli training courses, such as on CLICOM and numerical An example to her colleagues weather prediction, as well as various computer pro- Mahnaz was born on 14 February 1954 in Tehran. She gramming courses, a monsoon training course in was brought up in a kind and supportive family that China, short-term courses on METSAT, Metcom and appreciated education and training. For this reason, Metis in the Netherlands, Windows and English lan- throughout her career, she has continued with regu- guage courses, to name but a few. Furthermore, she is lar education and on-the-job training courses. She also actively involved in meteorological research activ- did her primary, junior ities such as wave modelling, urban air pollution in and high-school educa- major industrial cities and review of floods. She is cur- tion in Tehran and rently head of the forecast centre at the Islamic Repub- received her high school lic Iran Meteorological Organization. Mahnaz has two degree in mathematics children, one of whom is at school and the other is at in 1973. Mahnaz then university. She has successfully combined family and took two years of mili- professional life and is regarded with great affection by tary service and partici- her colleagues, for whom she is an example. pated in rural develop- ment programmes. South Africa She was admitted to Gaborekwe Esther Nkambula the College of Meteorol- Mahnaz Esmaeli The first black woman meteorologist 44 ogy and Atmospheric Sciences in 1975 to follow her higher national in South Africa diploma course in meteorology; Mahnaz had always Esther was born on 7 December 1960, the youngest of been eager to understand the physical processes in 12 children in a rural area of North West Province. the atmosphere. She graduated in 1977 and was She was brought up in a strict but caring and sup- immediately employed by the Iranian Meteorological portive family. In 1987, she married Sipho, a teacher, Organization to serve as a junior forecaster in the and together they have created their own happy fam- weather forecasting department. She later married ily with two sons aged 14 and 15. another young and enthusiastic forecaster, who is Her father was a miner and then a farmer. He now a weather presenter on TV, so meteorology and loved nature and encouraged his children to observe and weather-related issues are family matters! the clouds and the wind and to tell him if it was In view of her interest in education and acquir- going to rain or not. In Esther’s words: “He under- ing scientific knowledge, she continued her studies in stood science, although he was not educated”. He was meteorology and was accepted to follow a B.Sc. course a major influence in her choice of a career. in 1987. Mahnaz obtained excellent results and proved While studying geography at high school her that she was capable of achieving greater accomplish- interest in meteorology ments. She took a nationwide exam and was admitted was once again stimu- to follow an M.Sc. course in Marine Meteorology and lated. When she Physical Oceanography and completed her M.Sc. enquired about careers degree in 1993. in meteorology, how- Mahnaz served as a senior forecaster and was ever, she was told that designated head of the forecasting centre in 1998. She courses were reserved is proud of her role in natural disaster operations, for whites only. Esther especially in cases of flooding. She says “I am so dedi- nevertheless insisted cated to my job that, whenever I issue weather-related on being accepted as a warnings and disaster forecasts, I become so restless student of meteorology that I cannot sleep but observe the evolution of events at the Technikon North- and make sure that the preparations have been made ern Transvaal, where Gaborekwe Esther Nkambula to respond effectively to the disaster so that people are she completed her safe. But when the disaster occurs and I find that the Diploma in Meteorology in 1987. She is proud of the forecasts have saved many lives, I feel great joy, peace fact that she was the first black woman in South of mind and relief. That is why I love my job”. Africa to obtain this diploma. In 1989, she obtained a higher diploma in Meteorology at the Pretoria She has a clear Technikon. vision of what she wants Esther began her professional career as a fore- to achieve. Her strategic caster in the Central Forecasting office. In 1995, she goals are geared towards became Chief Meteorological Officer and, in 1998, the development of the Assistant Director of the Aviation Forecasting Centre. Meteorological Services She has served on the Agricultural and Hydrology in UAE to the highest Committees in North West Province and on the international standards. National Association of Clean Air. Sheikha Mowza Esther says that it was tough and uncomfortable has already achieved for her as a black woman when she joined the organi- the following: zation, but she was determined to survive and to prove • Restructuring of Sheikha Mowza to her colleagues that black people could succeed. the Department When asked what she would reply to a young with the creation of new sections and centres to person interested in a career in meteorology, Esther meet expanding activities; replies: • Introduction of the latest meteorological tech- If you love nature and meteorology, go for it ... but nology and know-how; weather knows no holidays, you must be prepared • Establishment of new automatic weather observ- to work shifts and holidays. ing stations throughout the country; Meteorology is a challenging scientific field and • Links with the UAE Meteorological Department cannot be taken lightly. One has to keep studying and the German Meteorological Service through to keep abreast with changes. Keep reading the Regional Meteorological Data Communica- 45 updated journals and magazines and keep pace tions Network ; with change. • Adapting new technology to improve the data- Enjoy studying and your passion for meteorology. base and establishing a databank, in addition to Esther made a career change in 2001 and is now a library with a large number of books, periodi- Deputy Director of Marketing: she wanted to try a cals and an Internet facility. new mix of science and business that would benefit Sheikha Mowza is aware that more facilities are the Weather Service. She says that she would be happy required to improve the quality of meteorological to attain bigger goals—and is currently studying for services in the UAE and her ambitions are boundless an MBA. in this respect. Those who know her are quite sure that United Arab Emirates she is capable of doing a lot more. Her plans include: • Unifying the bodies that provide similar services Sheikha Mowza Ali Hamad Al-Mualla in the country under one autonomous National Director of her Service and Permanent Meteorological Service; Working closely with sister bodies in the Gulf Representative of the United Arab Emirates • region; with WMO • Developing and training nationals to create a Sheikha Mowza obtained a degree in geography and base for native expertise in the field, which is sociology from the University of the United Arab Emi- now operated almost entirely by expatriates. rates (UAE) in 1983 and then worked as a secondary- Sheikha Mowza is concerned about environmen- school teacher of geography. To update her knowl- tal preservation issues. She has established a section edge, she attended many training courses in UAE and in the Department for environmental studies and is abroad and pursued her postgraduate studies, obtain- an active member of the Board of Directors of the ing a master’s degree in applied geography from the Federal Environment Agency as well as the National University of Alexandria (Egypt) in 1997. Committee to Combat Disasters. In 2000 Sheikha Mowza joined the Ministry of Despite her responsibilities and a long working Communications as Head of the Department of day, Sheikha Mowza misses no opportunity to attend Weather Forecasting in the Meteorological Directorate. conferences, symposiums and training courses to Later the same year, she was appointed Acting Director widen her scope of knowledge and experience. and was nominated Permanent Representative of the Her management style is one of support and car- United Arab Emirates with WMO.As of 2001 she was in ing for the welfare of her staff. She attempts to full charge of the Meteorological Directorate. increase employment benefits in the belief that only motivated and satisfied staff can assist her in achiev- of Finance, Administration and Telecommunications ing her targets. Affairs. This is, of course, in parallel with her job as In recognition of her capabilities, Sheikha Mowza Permanent Representative of UAE with WMO. has been recently promoted Assistant Under-Secretary [email protected]

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