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Glitch Game Testers: the Design and Study of A GLITCH GAME TESTERS: THE DESIGN AND STUDY OF A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT FOR COMPUTATIONAL PRODUCTION WITH YOUNG AFRICAN AMERICAN MALES A Dissertation Presented to The Academic Faculty by Elizabeth (Betsy) DiSalvo In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in Human-Centered Computing in the School of Interactive Computing, College of Computing Georgia Institute of Technology May, 2012 COPYRIGHT 2012 BY ELIZABETH DISALVO GLITCH GAME TESTERS: THE DESIGN AND STUDY OF A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT FOR COMPUTATIONAL PRODUCTION WITH YOUNG AFRICAN AMERICAN MALES Approved by: Dr. Amy Bruckman, Advisor Dr. Janet Kolodner School of Interactive Computing School of Interactive Computing Georgia Institute of Technology Georgia Institute of Technology Dr. Kevin Crowley Dr. Lisa Nakamura School of Education & Learning Research Asian American Studies & and Development Center Institute of Communications University of Pittsburgh University of Illinois, Urbana Champaign Dr. Mark Guzdial Dr. Willie Pearson Jr. School of Interactive Computing School of History, Technology & Georgia Institute of Technology Society Georgia Institute of Technology Date Approved: Feb. 22, 2012 To the Glitch Guys: Atari, BallBoy, Beast, BigDawg, bkaVontenn, Book2010, burnout, capoCRUSHNem, Collque, Crybaby, Dr. Who, Grim610, Hero, JayDragon, Joker, KillRoy, King1, lo349, Montana, Primetime, Ringleader, Sandman, Shortstuff, Superman, and ThatDude iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I want to acknowledge the generosity of game testers who were a part of the program described in this document, the Glitch Guys. Thank you for sharing with me and teaching me about being a young black man. There were also other Glitch Guys, African American men who believe in giving back, and gave generously of their time to make Glitch happen. A special thank you to Terris Johnson and Corey Steward who were with me from the beginning. You amaze me with your patience and maturity while I fumbled, learning to think and talking about race and gender. Thanks to Marcus Austin and Dr. Ken Perry for being kind and generous teachers. Thank you Dr. Charles Meadows for not laughing me out of your office when I just showed up at Morehouse one day – your belief in this idea is one reason I pursued it. I must acknowledge Cedric Stallworth, for making Glitch the first squatters on the 3rd floor of the CCB, securing surplus computers, and making sure the administration let us do our thing. Thank you Asante Bradford, for getting us clients and helping us sell this idea in the real world. I also want to thank my committee members. Dr Kevin Crowley for giving me the freedom and resources to learn so much at Pitt. Without your encouragement I would have never pursued a PhD. To Dr. Willie Pearson and Dr. Lisa Nakamura, our talks and your work have shaped my understanding of race, media, science and technology and given me the opportunity to reflect on my own whiteness, gaining a better understanding of myself. To Dr. Janet Kolodner and Dr. Mark Guzdial, you have taught me the fundamentals of learning sciences and computer science education. Thank you for the iv frameworks to build my research career. Finally, I would like to thank my advisor Dr. Amy Bruckman. There are many things I can thank Amy for, but particularly I would like to acknowledge her for both encouraging me to work outside of established paradigms and expecting excellence from me. I hope that I have learned from you how to bring out the best in students. To the members of the Electronic Learning Communities Lab, Jill Dimond, Sarita Yardi, Kurt Luther, Jose Zagal, Casey Fiesler, and Andrea Forte, I am sure that I owe you a beer or two. To the other PhD students who helped me in many ways (but mostly to pass HCC2), thank you all and particularly Ben, Brian and Brian, Carrie, Chris, Christina, Evan, Ja-Young, Kim, Lana, Mike, Tammy, TJ, and Yan. I would like to acknowledge all of the amazing work of Dr. Tom Mcklin and the Findings Group, Ltd as outside evaluators on the Glitch project. I would also like to acknowledge Dr. Karen Head, who went far beyond a writing coach and became my writing therapist. This work was primarily supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF) Broadening Participation in Computing initiative grant 0837733. Support and gifts also came from the Blank Family Foundation, EA Tiburon, Yahoo! and Microsoft Xbox. Finally, I would like to thank Carl, Evy and Josie, for their sacrifices and their love during these years. There is little I can say to acknowledge how much you mean to me, but know that nothing else I have done is equal to being a part of your lives. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv LIST OF TABLES ix LIST OF FIGURES x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xi SUMMARY xiii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 Motivation 3 Research Context 10 Research Framing 12 2 RELATED WORK 19 African American Males in Computer Science 20 Leveraging Games for Computer Science Learning 23 Understanding the Non-learner 31 Navigating Around Non-learning 37 Moving Non-learners to Learning 41 3 FORMATIVE AND DESIGN RESEARCH 44 Formative Methods: Location and Context 45 Formative Methods: Data Collection 49 Design Research Methods 51 Formative Findings 55 Design Research Process and Outcomes 62 vi Principles for Design 73 Summary 74 4 DESIGN PRODUCT AND RESEARCH 76 Game Testing Designed as Learning Environment 76 The Context of Glitch 77 5 METHODS: EVALUATION AND FACE SAVING STUDIES 90 Surveys 90 Interviews 95 Face Saving Focus Groups 96 Observations 99 Follow Up with Graduates 99 6 FINDINGS ON COMPUTING AND FACE SAVING 101 Interest, Confidence and Intent with Computing 101 Response to CS Workshop 113 Face Saving 122 Summary 139 7 DISCUSSION 140 RQ1: Cultural Values, Play Practices and Learning 140 RQ2: Design Principles for Motivating Non-learners 143 RQ3: Saving Face While Geeking Out 145 Summary 149 8 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK 151 Implications of Cultural Values on Computational Production 152 Implications for African American Male Learning 154 Implications for Learning Motivation 156 vii Future Work 158 APPENDIX A: Prototype Workshop Survey 162 APPENDIX B: Formative Study Semi-Structured Interview Questions 163 APPENDIX C: Interest in Computing Survey 164 APPENDIX D: Intent to Persist in Computing Survey 172 APPENDIX E: Semi-Structured Pre- and Post-Glitch Interview Questions 177 APPENDIX F: Codebook for Pre- and Post-Glitch Interviews 178 REFERENCES 180 VITA 194 viii LIST OF TABLES Page Table 1.1: Five of the 30 fastest growing occupations in U.S. 2006 – 2016 9 Table 1.2: Outline of Research, Goals, Methods and Questions 18 Table 2.1: Doctorates awarded in CS, 2001-2011 21 Table 3.1: Codebook for Game Practices Study 51 Table 4.1: Glitch Program Activities from 2009-2011 81 Table 4.2: Course Offerings in Schools with Glitch Participants 83 Table 5.1: Codebook for Face Saving Study 98 Table 6.1: Glitch Participants’ Confidence in Computing 103 Table 6.2: Glitch Participants’ Intention to Persist in Computer Science 107 Table 6.3: Glitch Participants’ Interest in Pursuing a Computing Career 108 Table 6.4: Glitch Participants’ Educational Status One Year After Leaving Program 111 Table 6.5: Participants’ Self-Reported Confidence in Performing Task in Alice 114 Table 6.6: Participants’ Self-Reported Knowledge of Computer Science 115 ix LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1.1: Computational Participation Spectrum 2 Figure 3.1: Sample CD Covers for the Make-A-Game Activity 64 Figure 3.2: Final Advertisement for the Media Literacy Activity 66 Figure 3.3: Logo Ideas from Participants 67 Figure 3.4: The Glitch Handbook 68 Figure 3.5: Mad Lib Programming GUI 69 Figure 3.6: Participant Testing Cartoon Network’s Game Fusion Fall 71 Figure 4.1: Sample of Weekly Activities in Glitch 79 Figure 5.1: Sample Question from Face Saving Survey 94 Figure 6.1: Programming Language Preferred 116 Figure 6.2: Interest in CS Career in Relation to Preferred Programming Language 120 Figure 6.3: Face Saving Survey Responses to Computer Science Justifications 124 Figure 6.4: Face Saving Survey Responses to Higher Education Justifications 128 Figure 6.5: Face Saving Survey Responses to Game Industry Work Justifications 132 Figure 6.6: Face Saving Survey Responses to Full-Time Work Justifications 135 x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AA African American AP Advanced Placement BPC Broadening Participation in Computing CAQ Computer Attitude Questionnaire CCB College of Computing Building CMU Carnegie Mellon University CPATH CISE Pathways to Revitalized Undergraduate Computing Education CS Computer Science DiGRA Digital Games Research Association Georgia Tech Georgia Institute of Technology GUI Graphical User Interface HBCU Historically Black Colleges and Universities HCC Human-Centered Computing IT Information Technology JES Jython Environment for Students MBI Microcomputer Beliefs Inventory MMO(RPG) Massively Multiplayer Online (Role Playing Game) NBA National Basketball Association NFL National Football League NSF National Science Foundation QA Quality Assurance xi RQ Research Question S&E Science and engineering STEM Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics US United States of America xii SUMMARY The implementation of a learning environment for young African American males, called the Glitch Game Testers, was launched in 2009. The development of this program was based on formative work that looked at the contrasting use of digital games between young African American males and individuals who chose to become computer science majors. Through analysis of cultural values and digital game play practices, the program was designed to intertwine authentic game development practices and computer science learning. The resulting program employed 25 African American male high school students to test pre-release digital games full-time in the summer and part-time in the school year, with an hour of each day dedicated to learning introductory computer science. Outcomes for persisting in computer science education are remarkable; of the 16 participants who had graduated from high school as of 2012, 12 have gone on to school in computing-related majors.
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