Cypermethrin

JOURNAL OF PESTICIDE REFORM/ SUMMER 1996 • VOL.16, NO. 2

● INSECTICIDE FACTSHEET CYPERMETHRIN

Cypermethrin is a synthetic pyrethroid insecticide used to kill insects on cotton and lettuce, and to kill cockroaches, fleas, and termites in houses and other buildings.

Cypermethrin is toxic to the nervous system. Symptoms of exposure include dizziness, nausea, headaches, and seizures. It also suppresses the immune system, inhibiting the formation of antibodies to disease-producing microbes.

If exposed to cypermethrin during pregnancy, rats give birth to offspring with developmental delays. In male rats exposed to cypermethrin, the proportion of abnormal sperm increases. It causes genetic damage: chromosome abnormalities increased in bone marrow and spleen cells when mice were exposed to cypermethrin. Cypermethrin is classified as a possible human carcinogen becaue it causes an increase in the frequency of lung tumors in female mice.

Among structural pest control operators in California, cypermethrin is the fourth most common cause of pesticide-related illness.

After household treatments, it persists in the air and on walls and furniture for about three months.

Cypermethrin is toxic to bees, other beneficial insects, earthworms. fish, and shrimp. Birds in cypermethrin-treated areas are less successful at raising nestlings because their insect food sources are killed.

BY CAROLINE COX insects on cotton.1 In the U.S., use on cot- where pesticide use reporting is more com- ton is important in 5 states.3 (See Figure prehensive than other states, use of 2.) cypermethrin in homes and other buildings Cypermethrin is an insecticide in It is also used on lettuce and pecans, to is the predominant use.4 (See Figure 3.) the synthetic pyrethroid family. It was first kill cockroaches (and other indoor pests) in marketed in 1977.1 The primary manufac- buildings, and to kill termites. In California, Mode of Action turers in the U.S. are Zeneca Inc., FMC Corp., and American Cyanamid Co. Com- mon brand names are Demon, Cymbush, 2 Figure 1 Ammo, and Cynoff. Cypermethrin and Related Naturally-Occurring Insecticidal Chemicals All of the insecticides in this family have chemical structures that are loosely based

on pyrethrins, insecticidal compounds O found in chrysanthemum flowers. (See Fig- Cl O ure 1.) Most synthetic pyrethroids are com- Cl O CN plex molecules; cypermethrin is no excep- cypermethrin tion. Because of its complexity, there are (+/-) alpha-cyano-(3-phenoxyphenyl) methyl (+)-cis, eight different ways that the atoms that trans-3-(2,2-dichloroethenyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropanecarboxylate make up the cypermethrin molecule can arrange themselves in three dimensions. These are called isomers. Cypermethrin is a O O CH O C mixture of all eight isomers.1 3 2 Over ninety percent of the cypermethrin O O manufactured worldwide is used to kill O O

pyrethrin I pyrethrin II Caroline Cox is JPR’s editor.

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that kills 50 percent of a population of test Figure 2 Figure 3 animals; LD50) is variable. In rats the LD50 Agricultural Uses of Use of Cypermethrin can vary from 250 to over 4,000 milligrams Cypermethrin in the U.S. in California (1993) per kilogram (mg/kg) of body weight. This sugar beets other (1,521 pounds) (946 pounds) variability is partly due to the solvents used cotton in the test, and partly due to variability in (1,652 pounds) the proportions of cypermethrin’s isomers. In mice, it can vary from 80 to almost 800 mg/kg.12 The U.S. Environmental Protec- lettuce tion Agency (EPA) uses LD s of 250-300 (18,795 50 pounds) mg/kg.14 This puts cypermethrin in toxic- Cotton (total annual use 46,000 pounds) ity category II (“Warning”).2 Juvenile rats are almost twenty times more susceptible to cypermethrin than

structural pest control adults. This is probably due to incomplete (38,541 pounds) development of detoxification enzymes.15 California Environmental Protection Agency. Synergy: Pyrethroid insecticides, includ- Dept. of Pesticide Regulation. Information Services Branch. 1995. Pesticide use report. ing cypermethrin, are broken down by en- Annual 1993. Indexed by chemical. Sacramento, zymes called esterases. The same enzymes CA. (June.) are inhibited by organophosphate insecti- Lettuce (total annual use 21,600 pounds) cides. If the two kinds of insecticides are In California, cypermethrin’s predominant use is for structural pest control: killing termites, used together, cypermethrin will not be bro- cockroaches, and fleas in homes and other ken down as fast as it normally is . The buildings. result is that the two kinds of insecticides are synergistic: the toxicity of cypermethrin lease the neurotransmitter acetylcholine and in combination with an organophosphate stimulate other nerves.6 insecticide is greater than the toxicity of Cypermethrin has other effects on the either insecticide alone.16 nervous system. It inhibits the γ- Skin and Eye Irritation: Cypermethrin Onions (total annual use 7,500 pounds) aminobutyric acid receptor, causing excit- and some cypermethrin-containing prod- ability and convulsions.7 In addition, it in- ucts are skin sensitizers. This means that Sources: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. National Agricultural hibits calcium uptake by nerves8 and inhib- when cypermethrin is applied to skin sev- Statistics Service. Economics Research 9 Service.1996. Agricultural chemical usage: its monoamine oxidase, an enzyme that eral times, later applications will have a 1995 field crops summary. Washington, D.C. (March.) breaks down neurotransmitters. more serious response than the first U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. National Agricultural Cypermethrin also affects an enzyme not application.17 Statistics Service. Economics Research Service.1995. Agricultural chemical usage. directly involved with the nervous system, Cypermethrin has caused the cornea of Vegetables: 1994 summary. Washington, D.C. 17 (July.) adenosine triphosphatase. It is involved in laboratory animals to become opaque. cellular energy production, transport of Effects on the Immune metal atoms, and muscle contractions.10 Cypermethrin’s most important agricultural System uses are on cotton, lettuce, and onions. Acute Toxicity In both rabbits and rats, cypermethrin Cypermethrin, like all synthetic pyre- Humans: Symptoms of cypermethrin has been shown to suppress immune sys- throids, kills insects by disrupting normal poisoning in humans include facial burn- tem function. Rabbits fed cypermethrin pro- functioning of the nervous system. In in- ing and tingling (called paraesthesia1), diz- duced fewer antibodies to a Salmonella bac- sects, as well as all other animals including ziness, headaches, nausea, anorexia, fatigue,11 teria than did unexposed animals. They also humans, nerve impulses travel along nerves and loss of bladder control.12 With greater produced a smaller reaction to a tuberculin when the nerves become momentarily per- exposure, symptoms include muscle twitch- skin test. Some effects were significant at 11 18 meable to sodium atoms, allowing sodium ing, drowsiness, coma, and seizures. doses of 1/40 of the LD50. (See Figure to flow into the nerve. Pyrethroids delay Laboratory Animals: Symptoms of 4.) the closing of the “gate” that allows the cypermethrin toxicity in laboratory animals Rats fed cypermethrin produced fewer sodium flow.5 This results in multiple nerve include pawing, burrowing, salivation, trem- antibodies to foreign blood cells and for- impulses instead of the usual single one. In ors, writhing, and seizures.13 eign proteins. Effects were significant at 18 turn, these impulses cause the nerve to re- The median oral lethal dose (the dose doses of 1/10 of the LD50.

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Effects on Reproduction male mice.25 rabbits, it caused pathological changes in the 12 Exposure of pregnant laboratory animals Two recent studies have demonstrated thymus, liver, adrenal glands, lungs, and skin. molecular mechanisms by which cypermethrin to cypermethrin can affect their offspring. Feed- Occupational Exposure ing pregnant rabbits cypermethrin resulted in might be involved in causing cancer. One study looked at “gap junctional intercellular com- In the U.S., most occupational exposure to a small increase in the number of organ and 26 skeletal abnormalities in their offspring.1 Rats munication.” This process plays “important cypermethrin comes from its uses to kill home exposed prenatally showed developmental de- roles in maintenance, growth, and differentia- and building pests. Structural pest control op- lays: events such as the emergence of a tooth, tion of cells” and is inhibited by many carci- erators are exposed to cypermethrin; in Cali- opening of eyes, and development of particu- nogenic agents. The study showed that fornia, where reporting of pesticide-related ill- lar reflexes occurred up to three days later in cypermethrin, four other synthetic pyrethroid nesses is more complete than in other states, exposed rats than in unexposed rats.19 insecticides, and the organochlorine insecticide cypermethrin was the fourth most common DDT all were inhibitory.26 A second study cause of pesticide-related illnesses among this Male reproduction is also affected by 28 cypermethrin. In mice, the proportion of ab- showed that, in addition to inhibiting inter- group. Employees can also be exposed if the normal sperm increased with increasing dose cellular communication, cypermethrin also in- building in which they work is treated with of cypermethrin.20 creased the number of “altered foci” in rat cypermethrin. For example, nine employees Other research has shown that a receptor at a California business where cypermethrin was applied as a termiticide were exposed when protein found in high concentration in the Figure 4 testes is inhibited by cypermethrin. This indi- Effects of Cypermethrin on the they entered the building two days after treat- cates that cypermethrin could disrupt the nor- Immune System of Rabbits ment. Employees immediately experienced diz- mal functioning of sex hormones.21 100 ziness, headaches, and nausea. Six days after 90 treatment, employees noticed a return of their Mutagenicity 80 symptoms when they reentered the building. 29 Tests on mice have shown that 70 Some symptoms persisted seven months. cypermethrin damages genetic material. Injec- 60 In countries where agriculture is labor in- tion of cypermethrin caused an increase in the 50 tensive, agricultural workers are exposed to cypermethrin.30,31 For example, over 25 per- number of cells with abnormal chromosomes 40 cent of the workers in Chinese cotton fields in both bone marrow and spleen.22 Similar 30 exhibited symptoms of pyrethroid (including results were also found in bone marrow cells Activity Immune System 20 cypermethrin) poisoning.30 following ingestion, and when exposure oc- (percent of unexposed animals) 10 Concerns about occupational exposure are curred over a five day period rather than all at 0 once.20 1/40 LD50 1/10 LD50 increased because laundering is not completely Unexposed 1/20 LD The first study22 also found an increase in 50 successful in removing cypermethrin from sister chromatid exchanges in bone marrow Antibodies formed in response to a clothing. Experiments found that up to 19 cells. (Sister chromatid exchanges are exchanges Salmonella bacteria percent of residues remained after hand wash- Size of the red area produced ing, and up to 27 percent remained after ma- of genetic material during cell division between by a tuberculin skin test 32,33 members of a chromosome pair. They result chine washing. from point mutations.) Similar results were Source: Dési, I., I. Dobronyi, and L. Varga. 1986. Immuno-, neuro-, and general toxicologic studies Exposure from Household found with both cypermethrin and a on a synthetic pyrethroid: Cypermethrin. Pest Control Uses cypermethrin-containing product in a third Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety 12:220-232. study.1 Cypermethrin is commonly used to kill Cypermethrin inhibits the prodution of antibod- household insect pests. In California, it is the Ingestion of, or dermal exposure to, ies that fight disease-causing microbes. cypermethrin caused an increase in the num- fourth most commonly-used insecticide: only livers.27 Both are characteristics of tumor pro- chlorpyrifos, pyrethrins, and diazinon have ber of micronuclei in bone marrow cells in 26,27 4 mice.23 Micronuclei are chromosomes (or frag- moters. more reported applications. Potential exposure to cypermethrin follow- ments) that get left behind during cell divi- Other Chronic Effects sion.24 A similar increase in micronuclei was ing household treatments has been studied by found in human blood cells.24 Long-term feeding studies with laboratory making applications that simulate commercial animals have shown that cypermethrin causes “crack and crevice” cockroach treatments in Carcinogenicity adverse effects. In rats, it caused reduced growth vacant dormitory rooms.34 This study showed EPA has classified cypermethrin as a pos- rate and increased liver weight. In mice, it that residues persisted for 84 days (the end sible human carcinogen (a chemical that causes caused reduced weight gain, mild anemia, and of the study) in the air, and on the walls, cancer) because it causes lung tumors in fe- increased liver weight. In dogs, it caused loss floor, and furniture. Cypermethrin moved of appetite, incoordination, and tremors.1 In to rooms adjacent to those treated by the

NORTHWEST COALITION FOR ALTERNATIVES TO PESTICIDES/NCAP P.O. BOX 1393, EUGENE, OREGON 97440 / (541)344-5044 17 JOURNAL OF PESTICIDE REFORM/ SUMMER 1996 • VOL.16, NO. 2 seventh day after treatment and persisted for tional Organization for Biological Control sur- Fish: Fish are particularly susceptible to 84 days. veyed cypermethrin’s impact on representa- cypermethrin.1 The median lethal concentra- Termiticide cypermethrin treatments are tive parasitoid and predator species, it caused tion (the concentration that kills 50 percent of typically made to soil around or under houses. over 80 percent mortality of all parasitoid and a population of test animals; LC50) for most Persistence is longer than for other household most predator species tested.42 fish is less than 5 ppb.1 This is partly because applications, at least three years.35 Examples of cypermethrin’s impact on para- fish are unable to break down pyrethroids as sitoids and predators include the following: efficiently as mammals and birds and partly Exposure through Food predatory mites in apple orchards were killed because fish nervous systems are particularly Cypermethrin residues have been found in for up to six weeks after treatment;43 a buildup sensitive to pyrethroids.52 lettuce,36 and in the milk from cows wearing of a cotton pest, red spider mite, when preda- Cypermethrin also causes sublethal effects cypermethrin-impregnated ear tags (as a horn tors were killed;44 a decrease in the population in fish. These include an increase in choles- 37 45 53 fly control measure). of predatory beetles in fava beans; and high terol at 1/5 of the LC50 and abnormal levels mortality of of two predators and a parasitoid of blood sugars54 at concentrations as low as Effects on Beneficial Insects, 46 55 important in the control of the pecan aphid. 1/10 of the LC50. Spiders, and Mites Aquatic insects: While not usually consid- Cypermethrin bioconcentrates in fish. Cypermethrin is a broad-spectrum insecti- ered beneficial insects in an economic sense, Bioconcentration factors (the ratio between the cide. In addition to killing the insects that are many aquatic insects are important compo- concentration in fish tissue and the concentra- the target of a particular treatment, it can also nents of aquatic ecosystems. Cypermethrin is tion in the water in which the fish is living) in reduce populations of insects and other toxic to caddisflies, mayflies, damselflies, and rainbow trout range from 180 to 438 depend- arthropods that are economically desirable be- diving beetles.47 Sublethal effects (abnormal ing on water type.56 Values up to 1200 have cause they prey on unwanted insects or are swimming, etc.) have also been documented. been reported.14 useful pollinators. Effects occur at low concentrations, much less Other aquatic animals: Cypermethrin kills Bees: Cypermethrin kills honey bees as well than one part per billion (ppb) in some spe- shrimp,58,59 crabs,60 crayfish,61 and lobsters61 as leaf cutter bees (used to pollinate seed alfalfa cies.48 at concentrations between 5 and 70 parts per crops). Residues on leaf surfaces are toxic (kill- Effects of cypermethrin on aquatic insects trillion; water fleas are killed by concentrations ing at least 25 percent of bees tested) for more can be persistent and impact other species. of 5 ppb;59 and oysters are killed by 2.3 parts than 3 days following treatment.38 In addi- Following spraying of a tree plantation in Aus- per million.59 tion, bees exposed to cypermethrin learned tralia, several streams were contaminated by more slowly and less successfully than unex- cypermethrin, despite precautions taken to Effects on Plants posed bees.39 minimize drift. “Catastrophic” deaths of aquatic Since cypermethrin is an insecticide, it is Spiders: Spiders are desirable predators in insects occurred. Recovery of some popula- surprising that it also negatively impacts plants. many agricultural systems because of their ap- tions took six months, and an algae bloom The growth of a green algae (Scenedesmus petite for insects that would otherwise be agri- was caused by the death of the normal herbi- bijugatus) is inhibited by concentrations as low cultural pests. For example, treatment of rice vores. Brown trout ate the poisoned insects as 5 parts per million.62 In addition, nitrogen- with cypermethrin caused a decrease in the and showed pathological symptoms: lethargy, fixation (the conversion of atmospheric nitro- number of spiders and an increase in the num- change in coloration, hardening of muscle tis- gen into a form that can be used by plants) is ber of whitebacked planthoppers, a pest in- sue, and anemic appearance of blood and gills.49 decreased for 6 weeks in soybean root nodules sect. Because of the “resurgence” of the pest by cypermethrin.63 For nitrogen-fixing soil planthopper, yields in the cypermethrin-treated Effects on Other Animals microbes, the cypermethrin product Ripcord rice were the same as yields in untreated rice.40 Earthworms: Cypermethrin is “very toxic” was inhibitory.64 Cypermethrin can also have sublethal ef- to the earthworm, Eisenia foetida.50 Cypermethrin also affects plant cells. In fects on spiders. Video-recording of Birds: Cypermethrin can impact bird popu- both onion and chili roots, cypermethrin in- cypermethrin-exposed spiders showed that lations by killing insect larvae normally used hibited cell division and increased the number cypermethrin caused paralysis of the hind legs for food. A study of nesting success of blue tits of chromosome abnormalities.65,66 and incoordination. Spiders required 9 - 12 following an aerial application of cypermethrin days to return to normal.41 in an oak forest found a nearly 100 percent Persistence in Soil Parasitoids and Predators: Parasitoids lay mortality of the caterpillars used as food by The half-life (the amount of time re- their eggs in immature stages of other insects, the blue tits. When cypermethrin spraying co- quired for half of what was originally ap- which are then killed as the juvenile parasitoid incided with tit egg hatch and the early nest- plied to break down or move away from develops. Predators prey on other species. Both ling stage, the result was an increase in nestling the test site) for cypermethrin in soil is be- are valuable in agriculture because they reduce deaths, a decrease in the proportion of suc- tween 4 and 12 days.14 However, it can be populations of pest insects, but both are often cessful nests, and a decrease in weight of the significantly more persistent. In agricultural killed by cypermethrin. When the Interna- surviving nestlings.51 soil in Ontario, Canada, cypermethrin per-

NORTHWEST COALITION FOR ALTERNATIVES TO PESTICIDES/NCAP 18 P.O. BOX 1393, EUGENE, OREGON 97440 / (541)344-5044 JOURNAL OF PESTICIDE REFORM/ SUMMER 1996 • VOL.16, NO. 2 sisted for between 4 and 12 months. Persis- caused fetal resorption, retardation of fetal skel- vousness, tension, bronchitis, disruptions of tence was less in sandy soil than in a “muck” etal development, and extra ribs in fetuses. It blood clotting, headaches, fatigue, dizziness, soil. In surface layers of the soil, persistence has also blocked or delayed the estrus cycle in and loss of consciousness.79 was somewhat less (4 to 6 months).67 female rats and damaged testes in a small study of monkeys. Exposure to ethylbenzene in- References Water Contamination creased the number of malignant tumors in 1. World Health Organization (WHO). 1989. Cyper- methrin. Environmental Health Criteria 82. Geneva, Cypermethrin has been found in ground- female rats.77 Switzerland: United Nations Environment water in France68 and in river water and sedi- Xylenes are solvents. They cause nose, Programme, International Labor Organization, and WHO. 69 ment in the United Kingdom. throat, and eye irritation, labored breathing, 2. Farm Chemicals Handbook ‘95. 1995. lung inflammation, nausea, vomiting, mild liver Willoughby, OH: Meister Publishing Co Resistance 3. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. National Agricultural toxicity, impaired short-term memory, and Statistics Service. Economics Research Ser- Resistance to cypermethrin has developed hearing loss in exposed humans and/or labo- vice.1996. Agricultural chemical usage: 1995 field crops summary. Washington, D.C. (March.) quickly in insects exposed frequently. Both ratory animals. In laboratory tests, xylene ex- 4. California Environmental Protection Agency. agricultural and household pest species have posure has also caused reduced fertility, in- Dept. of Pesticide Regulation. Information Ser- vices Branch. 1995. Pesticide use report. An- developed resistance. The degree of resistance creased number of fetal resorptions, increased nual 1993. Indexed by chemical. Sacramento, is usually measured with a resistance ratio, the CA. (June.) 5. Vijverberg, H.P.M. and J. van den Bercken. ratio between the amount of a pesticide re- 1990. Neurotoxicological effects and the mode quired to kill a resistant insect and the amount Figure 5 of action of pyrethroid insecticides. Crit. Rev. Some of the “Inert” Toxicol. 21:105-126. required to kill average (non-resistant) insects. 6. Eells, J.T. et al. 1992. Pyrethroid insecticide- Resistance ratios from 6 to 32 have been mea- Ingredients Used in induced alterations in mammalian synaptic mem- Cypermethrin-containing brane potential. J. Pharmacol. Exper. Ther. 70-72 sured in agricultural pests. Among house- Products 262:1173-1181. hold pests, resistance ratios have ranged from 7. Ramadan, A.A. et al. 1988. Action of pyrethroids CH CH CH on GABA receptor function. Pest. Biochem. 73,74 3 3 3 A 5 to100. (The resistance ratio of 5 was Physiol. 32:97-105. enough to render synthetic pyrethroids inef- -CH3 8. Ramadan, A.A. 1988. Action of pyrethroids on K+-simulated calcium uptake by, and fective.) [3H]nimodipine binding to, rat brain synapto- -CH3 somes. Pest. Biochem. Physiol. 32:114-122. 9. Rao, G.V. and K.S.J. Rao. 1993. Inhibition of Secret “Inert” Ingredients CH3 xylenes monoamine oxidase-A of rat brain by pyrethroids Virtually all cypermethrin-containing insec- - an in vitro kinetic study. Molec. Cell. Biochem. 124:107-114. CH ticide products contain ingredients that are 3 10. El-Toukhy, M.A. and R.S. Girgis. 1993. In vivo called trade secrets by their manufacturers and and in vitro studies on the effect of larvin and -CH3 cypermethrin on adenosine triphosphatase activ- classified as “inert ” ingredients by EPA. How- ity of male rats. J. Environ. Sci. Health B28:599- ever, these ingredients are neither biologically, 619. 11. He, F. et al. 1989. Clinical manifestations and toxicologically, or chemically inert. The fol- CH3 diagnosis of acute pyrethroid poisoning. Arch. lowing “inert” ingredients have been identi- Toxicol. 63:54-58. trimethylbenzene 12. Extension Toxicology Network (EXTOXNET). fied on the material safety data sheets pro- 1993. Cypermethrin. Cooperative Extension of- fices of Cornell University, Michigan State Uni- duced for at least one cypermethrin-contain- CH CH 2 3 versity, Oregon State University, and University 75 ing product: (For molecular diagrams of some of California, Davis. (Sept.) of these ”inerts”, see Figure 5.) 13. Aldridge, A.N. 1990. An assessment of the toxicological properties of pyrethroids and their neu- Crystalline silica is a mineral dust . The rotoxicity. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 21:89-104. International Agency for Research on Cancer 14. U.S. EPA. Office of Pesticides and Toxic Sub- stances. Office of Pesticide Programs. 1989. has classified evidence about its ability to cause ethylbenzene Pesticide fact sheet. Cypermethrin. No. 199. cancer as sufficient in animals and limited in Washington, D.C. (Jan. 3.) 15. Cantalamessa, F. 1993. Acute toxicity of two pyre- humans. In laboratory animals, inhalation of throids, permethrin and cypermethrin, in neonatal crystalline silica induced significant increases incidence of cleft palate, and decreased fetal and adult rats. Arch. Toxicol. 67:510-513. 16. Gaughan, L.C., J.L. Engel, and J.E. Casida. in the incidence of lung cancer. Injections in- weight. Xylene inhalation has been associated 1980. Pesticide interactions: Effects of organo- duced lymphomas in the thorax and abdo- with an increased frequency of leukemia in phosphorus pesticides on the metabolism, toxicity, and persistence of selected pyrethroid in- men. In humans, a number of studies have solvent-exposed workers. It may be a secticides. Pest. Biochem. Physiol. 14:81-85. shown that lung cancer occurs more frequently cocarcinogen; exposure to xylenes enhanced 17. U. S. EPA. 1989. “Tox one-liners.” Cypermethrin. Washington, D.C. (Sept. 14.) in workers who are exposed to silica.76 the number of skin cancers caused by other 18. Dési, I., I. Dobronyi, and L. Varga. 1986. Ethylbenzene is a solvent. It causes throat carcinogens. It “has the potential for bio- Immuno-, neuro-, and general toxicologic studies on a synthetic pyrethroid: Cypermethrin. irritation, eye irritation, damage to liver and accumulation” in human fat tissue.78 Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety 12:220-232. kidneys, dizziness, and incoordination. In labo- Trimethylbenzenes are highly volatile sol- 19. Husain, R. et al. 1992. Differential responses of regional brain polyamines following in utero expo- ratory tests, exposure to ethylbenzene has vents that cause skin and eye irritation, ner- sure to synthetic pyrethroids: A preliminary report.

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Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 49:402-409. planthopper and brown planthopper in Kedah, Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 13:1867-1872. 20. Bhunya, S.P. and Pati, P.C. 1988. Genotoxic Malaysia. Intern. Rice Res. Newsletter 10:19020. 59. Clark, J.R. et al. 1989. Toxicity of pyrethroids to effects of a synthetic pyrethroid insecticide, 41. Baatrup, E. and M. Bayley. 1993. Effects of the marine invertebrates and fish: A literature review cypermethrin, in mice in vivo. Toxicol. Lett. pyrethroid insecticide cypermethrin on the loco- and test results with sediment sorbed chemicals. 41:223-230. motor activity of the wolf spider Pardosa amentata: Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 8:393-401. 21. Ramadan, A.A. 1988. Action of pyrethroids on Quantitative analysis employing computer-auto- 60. Mian, L. and M.S. Mulla. 1992. Effects of pyre- the peripheral benzodiapine receptor. Pest. mated video tracking. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety throid insecticides on nontarget invertebrates in Biochem. 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Induction of micronuclei in Residues of four synthetic pyrethroids and cypermethrin and fenvalerate on a green algae mouse bone marrow by the insecticides azinphos-methyl on apple foliage and their toxicty and three cyanobacteria isolated from soil. cypermethrin and rotenone. Mut. Res. 155:135- to Amblyseius fallacis (Acari: Phytoseiidae). Can. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety 14:142-146. 142. Ent. 117:143-152. 63. Tu, C.M. 1983. Effects of pyrethroid insecticide 24. Surrallés, J. et al. 1995. Induction of micronu- 44. Sandhu, S.S. 1987. Effect of insecticidal sprays seed treatments on Rhizobium japonicum and clei by five pyrethroid insecticides in whole-blood on the plant and secondary pest inductions in its symbiotic relationship with, and growth of soy- and isolated human lymphocyte cultures. Mut. Hirsutum cotton in Punjab. Agric., Ecosys., bean. J. Environ. Sci. Health B18:369-378. Res. 341:169-184. Environ. 19:169-176. 64. Tu, C.M. 1991. Effect of some technical and 25. U.S. EPA. 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