Beetles in Stone: the Egyptian Scarab Author(S): William A

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Beetles in Stone: The Egyptian Scarab Author(s): William A. Ward Source: The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 57, No. 4 (Dec., 1994), pp. 186-202 Published by: The American Schools of Oriental Research Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210428 . Accessed: 10/09/2011 22:54

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http://www.jstor.org ile a biologist may appreci- Scarab Origins, Beetles in ate the beauty of the beetle's Manufacture, and Use physical structure and the wonder and precision of its life cycle, Origins Stone: The to most of us the beetle is simply a pest, Around 2500 BCE,a class of small stone certainly not a creature to be endowed design amulets began to appear in Egyptian with awe and respect. The Egyptian Egypt, found primarily with women attitude toward the beetle was quite and children buried in cemeteries of the the opposite of the attitudes of most ordinary people of Egypt. The earliest Scarab people today.1The beetle is an extraor- examples are shaped like a tiny pyra- dinarily common motif in Egyptian art, mid and have geometric and animal By William A. Ward it was honored in religious thought, designs engraved on the bottom sur- and the name of the beetle and its pic- face. As time went by, the shape of these ture portrayed the idea "to come into objects changed into circularbases with existence" in the Egyptian language a pierced knob on the back, the form and script. The Egyptians honored the which caused early archaeologiststo call beetle because it represented some- these objects"button seals." Shortly after The male beetle makes a ball of dung to thing that was deeply meaningful this, design amulets began evolving into be buriedjust under the surface and used within the framework of their beliefs objects that retained the circularor oval later as a food supply.To rollthis food sup- about the universe. It spoke about the base, but were now carved with backs ply to where it will be buried, the beetle powers they believed controlled that in the form of animal or human heads, balances on its rearlegs, using the front and universe, and reflected thoughts about or whole animal or human figures.2 middle pairto push the ball. Photographby the Egyptians themselves and their One of these animals was the beetle. S. 1. Bishara.From Ward 1978:1071. eternal existence. Within a very short time, the beetle be-

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"scarab.3"From about 2200 BCEto late 44 in Egyptian history,scarabs remained one of the most common objectsmanu- factured in Egypt. Hundreds of thou- II sands are known in museums around Pi 'L? the world. They are found in every ex- C 44 " cavation in Egypt and across the ancient world from Syria to Spain. By the end of 16iIQ ~ ~ 'st its long history,the scarab had become a universal objectin the Mediterranean countries and was manufactured in many places outside Egypt. What was -? ~i~ lb created as a small amulet for women and children of the poorer classes of Egypt became an internationalobject for all classes of people everywhere in the ancient world.

Life Cycle of the Dung Beetle But the immediate question is: why the beetle? Or more specifically,why one species of this insect, the dung beetle? The female beetle makes an oval ball underground.The egg is placed in a pouch on this Nothing can be less inspiring to us than ball which becomes the food supply for the larvaonce the egg is hatched. Casualobservers an army of beetles crawling around a never notice the female's activityand can easily attributethe birth-cycleto the male alone. Bishara.From dung-heap. But the Egyptians saw Photographby S. I. Ward1978: 101. something vitally significantin that very situation. They saw a vision of rebirth into paradise, the resurrectionof the 12 3 soul; they saw the daily rebirthof their most powerful symbol, the sun, as it appears each morning over the eastern horizon. They saw, of course, what they thought was the beginning and the end of the birth cycle of the dung beetle. Time after time, they witnessed the ma- 4 ture beetle rolling a ball of dung, bury- ing this ball under the earth,and some fifteen to eighteen weeks later,a new beetle emerging from the ground. But the Egyptians misunderstood the life cycle of the dung beetle. 7 The dung beetle actually makes two balls of dung, one round and one pear- shaped.4The round ball is simply a food supply tucked away somewhere in the sand for storage in a kind of kitchen pantry.The pear-shaped ball is in the one which the egg is actually laid. Design-amulets and earlyscarabs. Scarabsare one form of an earlytype of object, the de- But this pear-shaped maternal ball was sign-amulet, the earliest (1) having a pyramidshaped back. These soon developed into exam- made underground. Casual observers ples with shanks (2) and knobs (3) as well as animal and human figures (4-5). The beetle form, never see it; they see only the round ball or scarab, was one of the latter,from the first small ones (6) to the largermore elaborate style made on the surface.This led to the (7). The objects shown here date ca. 2300 to 2100 BCE.Drawings after Brunton(1927; 1948).

BiblicalArchlaeologist 57:4 (1994) 187 -y I ,/ \r

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The god Khepri seated in his barkas the personificationof the morning sun; after a vignette Important Egyptian officials were grant- to Chapter17 of the Book of the Dead written during the New Kingdom.Khepri is identified ed the use of a royalsignet ring with which by the symbol of a beetle on his head. The dung beetle (ScarabaeusSacer L),the model for they could seal documents in the king's the scarabamulet, was associated with Kheprialready in the PyramidTexts of the Old Kingdom. name. Here, an unnamed treasuryofficial of He is frequentlymentioned in the Book of the Dead as being a self-engendered deity who KingTutankhamon (ca. 1336-1327 BCE)pre- each night creates the morning sun that emerges the next morning. The name Kheprimeans sents such a seal to the Viceroyof Nubia, "Hewho comes into existence (by himself);"that of the dung beetle/scarabwas kheprer,"that Amenhotep, who is identified in this scene which continuouslycomes into existence (by itself)."Drawing from E. Navillel971:pl. 30. by his nickname-Huy.In the book of Genesis, Joseph is said to have received such a seal when he became the EgyptianMinister of misconceptionthat it is the largeround up. Whenthe larva breaks out of theegg, Agriculture.From the tomb of Amenhotep, ballin whichthe egg is placedand from it feedson thematernal ball. When ready no. 40 in the Theban necropolis. Drawing whichthe new beetleis born.In reality, to changeinto the pupal stage, it burrows from Newberry, 1906: pl. II. the malebeetle works on thesurface to deeperinto the earth. Here it carvesout createthe familyfood supply,while the anotherchamber in whichit changes supremesymbol of birth,of life,and femaleis undergroundpreparing the intoa pupa,feeding on plantroots. After especiallythe secondbirth into eternal nursery. two to threeweeks, it emergeson the existence.The little stone scarab had In makingthe roundfeeding-ball, surfaceas a youngbeetle. becomea powerfulamulet to help as- the dung beetleuses its powerfulfore- sureeternal life in paradise,a meaning legs and a spade-likeprojection in front Symbolic Associations whichwas maintainedthroughout its calledthe clypeus. These are the tools and other Uses long history.The scarab signified the with whichit worksby scoopingand Observationsof the dung beetlemade regenerativepowers of Atumthe cre- moldingthe raw materialuntil it forms by the Egyptiansare what made this ator,and Re,the providerof life.As a ballof dung aboutfour to five times insectso importantto them(Ward 1978: such,it was a potenttalisman indeed. its own size.This is the taskof the male 43-46; de Meulenaere1972; Giveon Butscarabs also had otheruses. We beetlewho laboriouslycollects the raw 1974).Here was a creaturethat emerged now know thatthe early design amulets material;then pushing, patting, shap- out of theearth, an immediatesymbol of weresometimes used as seals,for ex- ing,builds up a near-perfectsphere that theresurrection of thedead. Because they ample,on theclay stoppers of pottery is easilyrolled to whereit will be buried misunderstoodthe actualbirth-cycle, jars(Giddy and Grimal1979:38-39; in the sand. theyapparently thought of thebeetle as 1980:267-68).By around 2000 BCE,the Meanwhile,the femalelabors under- beingof a singlesex, male,who planted impressionof a scarabbecame a com- groundmaking the pear-shapedmater- his seed in the roundball out of which mon methodfor sealing many kinds of nalball in whichthe egg is to be laid. camehis offspring.They very early asso- objects.Their designs were impressed Workingalone, she burrowsfour to ciatedthis mistaken view withthe divine into theclay stoppersof potteryvessels, eightinches into the ground, digs out a powerthey called Khepri, who was a or the mud sealingson storagechests or chamberabout four inches square, formof thesun-god Re, the morning rolled-uppapyrus documents. Scarabs bringsthe rawmaterial into this cham- sun rebornby self-generationeach day.5 usedas sealsfound extensive use in gov- ber,and createsthe pear-shapedball. At Thebeetle was also associatedwith ernmentadministration at all levels.7 theball's narrow end, she carefullycon- Atum,to whom the creationof the uni- Withthe adventof theTwelfth Dynasty, structsan oval hollowin whichthe egg versewas ascribed,and who was also thereappeared a new classof scarabsen- is laid.The little chamber and the tun- self-engendered.6 gravedwith the names and titles of kings nel by whichit is reachedis thenclosed Thedung beetlethus became the and governmentofficials from prime

188 BiblicalArchaeologist 57:4 (1994) ministers down to humble caretakersof storehouses. Some officials of the central government were granted the privi- lege of using a scarab-sealengraved with the king's name. Since they acted in the king's name, they could thus use the king's name to sign documents. This does not mean that all scarabs engraved with names and titles were used as seals. The scarabbecame an even more potent amulet for achieving the afterlifewhen it was engraved with a personal name. This identified the I Of specific individual on an object which was intended to help the person gain im- mortality.This practicewas carriedeven furtherwith royal names. A king's personal name in itself had important magical propertiessince the king, while not a god during his lifetime as popularly believed,8 did hold an office which had been created at the beginning of time and which was endowed with divine power. Scarabsnaming especially ven- erated kings were made in bulk, often for centuries after their lifetimes. Such scarabswere obtained through visits to royal funerarytemples as a souvenir of the prayers offered there by an individual on behalf of the royal soul. While the scarab was most commonly used as a talisman to achieve eternal life, it had One group of scarabsnaming Sesos- other uses as well, for example, sealing papyrusdocuments or as in this case, a Middle King- tris I was made five centuries after his dom wooden wig box found at Lisht. death (Ward1971:134-36). Many Egypt- ian rulers were so honored long after their lifetimes. Scarabsnaming Thut- mosis IIIof the Eighteenth Dynasty, for example, were still being made a thousand years after he died (Jaeger1982). A similar practicehas continued down to the presentday in Nubia. A scarabfound by a local inhabitant often becomes a family heirloom, a kind of a magical '' good-luck piece, passed down from generation to generation.9 The scarab was also used as a piece of jewelry.Stone scarabs in gold or silver ring-mounts are quite common, and scarabswere often used as elements in pectorals,bracelets, and necklaces (Al- dred 1971;Wilkinson 1971;Andrews Commoners as well as kings inscribedtheir names and titles on scarabs that were some- 1990).While scarabs were thus used for times used as seals. Tothe left is a scarab naming "TheSteward Khnumhotep"of the Middle decorative purposes, in Egypt they no Kingdomand, to its right,one naming KingAmenhotep IIIand Queen Tiyof the Eighteenth doubt maintained their basic amuletic Dynasty.Note the V-shapedmarkings called the humeralcallosity on the wing cases of the Eigh- character.The horse shoe in America teenth Dynastyscarab, a typographicalfeature that was not used before that time. It does not and blue bead in Near Easterncountries appear, of course, on the Middle scarab. of The Kingdom Photographscourtesy DaphnaBen-Tor, are used in the same manner today. IsraelMuseum, Jerusalem. Dr.

BiblicalArchaeologist 57:4 (1994) 189 glb~~4

Scarab of the Phoenician tradition, ca. decorated representationof the beetle itself. ite cloak, the winged sun-disc is taken from 800-700 BCE.Phoenician craftsmen, always In this example, the decoration on the back Assyrianart, and the four-winged scarab is a influenced by Egyptianart, produced a new is far more elaborate than on Egyptian Canaaniteadaptation of a common Egypt- type of scarab combining Egyptianmotifs scarabs and the design on the base is a mix- ian motif, probably influenced by Hurrian with those of other traditions.The result was ture of many traditions.The central figure prototypes. Photos and drawing from Ward often a complicated design and a highly wears an Egyptianheaddress and a Canaan- 1967:pi. 12:1and p. 69.

Manufacture Scarabswere made of almost any kind of stone, often of glazed composition, or, more rarely of gold, silver, or bronze. The most common material used is universally known as steatite, though it is really a kind of talc (Lucas 1962:155- 56; Richards1992:5-8). In its natural state, this soft stone is easily carved and engraved, which accounts for its very common use in the manufactureof scarabsand other small objects.Once the scarab was fashioned, it was plunged into a hot liquid glaze. This accomplished two things: the glaze coating gave a O~ O smooth shiny surface to the object,and the intense heat of the glaze altered the chemical composition of the stone

ee e through dehydration so that it became very hard. This hardened form is prop- WOE) erly called steatite. The glaze is actually an early form of glass that could be col- ored by the addition of coloring agents. Scarabs were most often given a deep blue or green glaze, imitating the color of the live insect. The second most common material is glazed composition, 4)e often termed faience, frit, or paste; again, this is a form of glass using the same ingredients but in different pro- portions (Lucas 1962:160;Ward 1993:95; Clerc, et al. 1976:24-28). Scarabs engraved with royal names were the center of the design and two examples most often amulets, not seals, and were con- add the name of Amenhotep II(ca. 1427-1401 Scarabs, Scarabs, tinuouslyre-issued long after a king had died. BCE)at the top. Thesescarabs were therefore Everywhere Inthis group,an incorrectspelling of the name made five centuriesafter the reign of the king One of the intriguing things about of SesostrisI (ca. 1943-1898 BCE)runs down they honor. Drawingsafter Ward 1971:fig. 29. scarabs was their popularity outside

190 Biblical 57:4 Archa'olo•'ist (1994) Canaanite include Egyptian hieroglyphs and sym- artists adapted bols. Two of these are Keel's jasper- the Egyptian group and the well-known robed Ca- scarabto local naanite figure. The jasper group (Keel beliefs and en- 1989b)is characterizedby stick-figures graving tech- and carelessengraving, and all examples niques as earlyas are manufactured from hard stones. the Middle While the standing figures find ready BronzeAge. One comparisons with Asiatic cylinder seals, such adaptation the jaspergroup scarabs make consis- is the use of sym- tent use of Egyptian symbolism as well. bolism in the The other design-the standing or en- "Omega-group" throned male figure with Canaanite as on nos. 1-4, costume (Schroer1985)-is obviously representingthe not Egyptian but again includes Egypt- Canaanitegod- ian symbols as part of the design. dess Astarte. Exampleslike 5 nos. 5-6 are included in this group as they are engraved in raised reliefand show the same crude scarab style. A second group, the "nakedgoddess" of nos. 7-9, por- K4W trays Astarte 7 8 9 herself in a typi- callyCanaanite, but not Egyptian, stance. Drawings after Keel 1989a and Schroer 1989.

Egypt. This raises the question of what engraved in raised relief,which is not the scarabsignified in foreign places an Egyptian practiceon scarabs,and and how much this peculiarly Egyptian seems to derive from copying cylinder class of object might be adapted to for- seal impressions. eign ideas and beliefs. Such adaptations We have here, then, a local engraving 5 / 8 are already evident in Middle Bronze technique with a mixed design reper- Age Canaan as shown by Othmar Keel toire of both Asiatic and Egyptian ori- and his colleagues in Freiburg.Two of gin. The nude goddess shown frontally these adaptations are the Omega-group (Schroer1989:93-121) is clearly a west and the nude goddess motif. The Asiatic motif with prototypes on cylin- Other Canaanite adaptations of the Omega-group (Keel 1989a)takes its der seals and the common Astarte Egyptian scarab include a series done in a name from the prominent symbol in the plaques. Showing human or divine fig- local engraving technique, the "Jasper- design resembling the Greek letter.Both ures frontallyruns contraryto the Egypt- group," nos. 1-4. Nos. 3-4, however, while this symbol and the symbol that usually ian practiceo0so that, in this case, both carved in this Canaanitestyle are local copies accompanies it are said to representa the subjectmatter and the method of of purelyEgyptian designs. Nos. 5-8 repre- Canaanite fertilitygoddess, possibly representationare Canaanite rather sent the "toga-wearer"group, a royalfigure Astarte.The symbols find their proto- than Egyptian. in Canaanitecostume, based on prototypes types in the cylinder seal traditionsof The sources of other motifs are not as in Canaaniteand Syrianart. Drawingsafter Mesopotamiaand Syria.The designs are clear as these since they almost always Keel 1989b and Tufnell1984

BiblicalArchaeologist 57:4 (1994) 191 The lattertwo scarabgroups present a problem encountered with many scarabsand other objects del found outside Egypt:what is the purpose of the use of Egyptian symbolism in a clearly foreign context? In other words, these Egyptian symbols have a particular significance within an Egyptian context. Was that significance the same in a foreign context, or was the meaning al- Egyptian artistic influence, includingthe piece as it portraysthe scarab with four tered to suit the beliefs of that foreign scarab, is found on jewelry made locally wings, a common foreign adaptation of the context?Or are we here dealing with around the Mediterranean.This gold bracelet two-winged flying scarab typical of Egyptian nothing more than symbols which are from Sardinia, dating ca. 700-600 BCE,iS art. The four-winged variantprobably origi- used merely as decoration in an attempt embossed with Egyptianpalmettes, lotus nated in Syriaunder the influence of Hurrian to copy admired Egyptian originals? flowers, and the "flyingscarab" motif. The art which used such four-winged figures Keel and his colleagues support the latter proves the non-Egyptianorigin of the extensively. idea that Egyptian symbolism was altered to suit Canaanitebeliefs. Their scarabsof the so-called Phoenician style ed by hard stones, chiefly jasper and arguments are not convincing, and in MediterraneanEurope, for example carnelian,and shows a strong Egyptian these scarabsmay be merely bad copies at Ibiza,Spain and Tharros,Italy (Fer- influence in the repertoireof motifs (cf. with no local religious significance. nandez and Padr6 1982;Acquaro, Culican 1968:50-56).11A large portion The same problem of interpretation Moscati, and Umberti 1975).Hundreds of such scarabs were manufactured lo- is found in other foreign scarab tradi- were found at Carthage on the North cally and, by indirect evidence, we can tions. In the early first millennium BCE, African coast (Vercoutter1945). This point to Carthage,Phoenicia, Rhodes, we begin to find large collections of Phoenician scarab tradition is dominat- Greece, Sardinia,and Italy as having workshops where these scarabs were produced on the spot. The Phoenician scarabstyle was bor- rowed by Greek gem engravers in the sixth century BCE,who perhaps learned the art of cutting hard stones from Phoe- 2 3 nician craftsmen. By the end of the fifth century,the scarab form became much less used as this archaicGreek style gradually changed into classical Greek gems (Boardman 1968;Boardman and Vol- lenweider 1978).The Greek scarab style was soon brought to Etruriaby Greek immigrants where a new and distinctly Etruscantradition appears from the sixth to third centuries. This is charac- terized by its widespread use of a deep red carnelian,decoration on the edge of the plinth and wing cases, and local engraving techniques (Boardman 1975; Zazoff 1968). Both the Greek and Etrus- can traditions early introduced a design 8 9 10 repertoireof their own, and the Egyp- tianizing motifs gradually disappeared. Concurrentwith these Phoenician, Phoenician (nos. 1-7) and Egyptian (nos. Mediterraneanworld. The scarab evidence Greek, and Etruscanhard-stone styles, 8-10) scarabs portrayinga scene from the indicates that the popularityof Isisin foreign countless other scarabs of steatite and Isis-Osirismyth. Thisand many other scenes cultures may have arisen somewhat earlier glazed composition were being manu- from the myth are known from hundredsof than now supposed. Drawingsafter Ward factured at, among other places, Carth- Phoenicianscarabs found throughout the 1970b. age, Perachorain south-eastern Greece,

192 BiblicalArchaeologist 57:4 (1994) and Lindos on Rhodes (Vercoutter1945; James 1962;Blinkenberg 1931). The sum total is quite remarkable;scarabs are found in quantity throughout the Medi- terraneanfrom the early firstmillennium BCEinto Hellenistic times.

Scarab popularity It is franklydifficult to account for this. The facts of which we can be certain are these. Egyptian scarabs were very popular abroad among local populations. At least as early as 800 BCE,scarabs in the Phoenicianstyle were manufactured abroad. While these foreign scarabsre- tained much of the design repertoireof the Egyptian tradition,foreign techniques, motifs, and designs were intro- I, duced which altered the characterof the Egyptian originals. Just why the Egyptian scarabbecame so popular abroad is hard to say. Cer- tainly,the meaning of the scarabas an When the scarab was adopted by cultures amulet to help attain a cheerful afterlife hand and grasping a club in the other. He is in the west, there were appropriatechanges, accompanied by Atlas pluckingapples from did not really apply in other societies. especiallyin the design repertoire.The green a tree around which twines a serpent with The afterlifeas conceived most reli- by jasper scarab (top) was engraved in the three heads. The Egyptianscarab in the of western Asia was a ratherdis- west gions Greco-Phoenicianstyle with a purelyGreek was thus transformed into a Greco-Roman mal existence in a cave beneath the motif, Heraklesholding a club and a bow object, an ancestor of the engraved gem earth where everyone went after death, and arrows.The sardonyxscarab (bottom) is traditionof the ClassicalPeriod. Photographs irrespectiveof how they had lived in of Etruscanorigin, the motif again from the by Pia Ward.Courtesy of the Departmentof Classi- this life. The Greeks looked forward to classicalrepertoire. Here, Heraklesstands on cal Art, TheMuseum of FineArts, Boston. their own gloomy Hades. It does not the left, holding up the heavens with one seem logical that such societies would care much for the amuletic characterof tries, illustratingthe popularity of this bowls for which the Phoenicians are so the scarab. in Egyptian Still, the firstmil- myth in foreign places. Indeed, there are well known, and on other objects such lennium ideas about the BCE, next life more scarabsportraying a largervariety as the bracelet from Tharros (see photo were changing. The Asiaticreligions and of scenes from the Osiris myth found on page 192). It seems likely that, in the new cults that sprang up everywhere abroad than thereare from Egypt itself,12 these contexts, scarabs were seen more now that divine and taught reward conforming to the general spread in the as exotica than as symbols of thought punishment were reserved for eternity first millennium of Isis as a universal and belief. and good or evil actions in this life mother-goddess. This was an attribute would determine whether that eternity which was not part of her original char- The Troublewith Scarabs was spent in bliss or misery. In this con- acter in Egypt, though it did eventually text, the scarabmay have held more emerge there because of her immense Multiplicity and Variabilty significance. popularity. '"Thetrouble with scarabs"is an apt title There is scarabevidence that the With the possible exception of such for the remainder of this article.The EgyptianOsiris myth, which was inti- scenes which can be relatedto the spread trouble with scarabs is that there are so mately associated with resurrection,be- of Egyptian religious beliefs, it seems many and, with the exception of those came popular beyond Egypt. One can- probable that the most extensive use of made of glazed composition in molds, not say how early this myth became scarabsin foreign places was simply for no two are alike. The pure bulk of attractiveoutside Egypt, but by the early jewelry and decorative design. Scarabs scarabs is well known to anyone inter- first millennium BCE,episodes from this mounted as finger-rings,ear-rings, and ested in archaeology.The enormous myth are portrayed on scarabs made pendants are found in all the traditions number of scarabs made in Egypt is abroad. Practicallyall the majorepi- noted here-Phoenician, Greek,and due to their basic characteras amulets, sodes in the Osiris myth are found on Etruscan.As decorative motifs, the including those engraved with royal scarabsmade in Mediterraneancoun- scarabwas used on the ivories and metal names. The religious beliefs of ancient

BiblicalArchaeologist 57:4 (1994) 193 Egypt demanded an extraordinary range of amulets of all kinds-the scarab was merely one of an almost endless variety (see, e.g., Petrie 1914; Miiller-Winkler1987). Because of its Clypeus initial association with the gods Atum and Re, and then with all deities, and kings, and the thousand other forces Antenna that brought protection from evil, the scarabbecame one of the most popular amulets, equaled only by the sacred eye Tibia of Horus. Their sheer bulk, then, is due to a popular demand for yet another amulet that offered from evil. protection Pronotum It is perhaps not as well known that no two scarabsare the same, with the of those made in molds. For exception Humeral in the Middle Bronze III example, Age, Callosity the so-called Hyksos period (ca. 1650- 1550 BCE),the numerous varieties of heads, backs, sides, and designs used at Suture that time permit over one hundred thousand typological combinations. Adding the category of scarabsize- Elytra and only those most commonly used- the possible combinations become about one million. The endless variety of scarabs is thus due to these two pri- mary factors:they were desired as amulets to obtain the good will of the supramundane world, and the engravers who made them had available a The Egyptian Dung beetle ScarabaeusSacer L. The beetle's strong forelegs and shovel-like very wide range of typological features clypeusenables it to formballs of dungfour times its size.The humeral callosity is one of the from which to choose. typological features that helps to distinguish scarab style. AfterWard 1978, Frontispiece.

Scarabs and Dating. Now the funda- ed a chronological skeleton and set up a It is like studying coins only from the mental question we have all asked for a rough sequence of typological changes obverse side, or Attic vases only from long time is this: If there are so many which could then be applied to the vast the paintings, or Canaanite pottery only scarabs,and if they are found in archae- numbers of scarabsinscribed with other from the rims. One cannot ignore the ological contexts everywhere in the designs, which are by far the most nu- reverse side of coins, or the shapes and ancient world, would they not be useful merous. Having done this, one then fabricof Attic vases, or the necks and in dating archaeologicallevels at this or compared scarabs from new excava- sides and bases of Canaanite pottery. that site? Could scarabs,like pottery or tions with the established typological One must considerthe whole object.This coins, become another tool by which sequence and assigned a date to this or is axiomatic in archaeology and has culturalsequences and archaeological that archaeologicallevel, to this or that always been recognized as the proper periods can be defined? This problem tomb. It ought to have worked, but it way to study and organize any class of was first addressed by Flinders Petrie in didn't. The basic idea is all right-link a object. But scarabs have too often been 1889 and has been studied ever since by stylistic history of scarabs to the chro- treated as if they consist only of the de- scholars who have devoted much time nology of Egyptian kings-but it is real- signs engraved on their base; the scarab and energy to find acceptable answers ly not as simple as it sounds. itself was relatively unimportant. Even (surveyed in Wardand Dever 1994). Difficulties abound. First,the prima- when scarabbacks and sides were con- ry emphasis has been on the endless sidered, they took second place to the Methodology. The method employed multitude of designs engraved on the designs. in this task was always first to create a base of scarabs.The study of scarab A second difficulty is that there are stylistichistory of scarabsbased on those history has thus been primarilya history several classes of scarabs:those engraved inscribed with royal names. This yield- of the designs, not the scarabas a whole. with designs, those with royal names,

194 BiblicalArchaeologist 57:4 (1994) thosewith privatenames, and scarabs but the referenceworks of the timedid begana happycollaboration that lasted of any of thesegroups made in hard not supplythe answers she wanted over 20 years. stones.While in any given period,these fromall thismaterial. It was the Lachish Tufnelldecided that a differentap- classesshare some typologicalfeatures, publicationthat set heron a courseof proachwas needed.All the accepted eachhas its own peculiaritiesof styleso study thatwas to continueuntil she conclusionsabout scarab history had to thatwe mustdeal with severallines of died in 1985.In 1%2,when Tufnellwas be discarded.Most of the datingcriteria stylisticdevelopment that are the same in Beirutworking on the MontetJar whichhad becomearchaeological law at some points,but quitedifferent at treasure,I joinedher project and we had to be ignored.The emphasis on others. Third,it hasbecome increasingly evidentthat many royal name scarabs weremade long afterthe lifetimesof hUfl ~*l~~~ *1 S 65" a chaactrisic eatres i-m te o the commemorate,some- ypoogial S0 bgmmg kingsthey .63 *~~~1~ '4RW. I 1..*g,1 ggjj. timescenturies later. A stylistichistory of royalname scarabs must therefore definewhich ones arecontemporary and whichwere made later. Otherwise, 1,1 1,2 1,3 II IIA III IV V VI view of the one gets a veryincorrect Side a X X typologicalhistory of royalname Side bl X X - scarabswhich then skews the historyof thedesign scarab tradition.13 Head Al X X X X X Finally,even contemporaryroyal Design 1 X X X X namescarabs are not a reliable always Side b2 - X - guide.A paradeexample is the large Head A3 - X X groupof scarabsnaming the so-called X Sebekhotepkings of theThirteenth Dy- Side c3- X X nasty.No one questionsthat most are Design 2 - X X X to contemporaryproducts; they belong Side e5 X - - - - - the secondhalf of the seventeenthcen- Side e6 X X X - X X turyBCE. For that reason, this scarab group,numbering well overa hundred Head B2 X X X X X (Tufnell1984:pls. 54-56), is stillconsid- Side e9 X X X X a in the of ered key point chronology Side d5 X X X X X scarabstyle. In reality,however, this 3B1 - - particularscarab group has its own Design X uniquetypology. It stands alone and in Design 3C - X X - no way reflectswhat the restof scarab Design 7B - - X X lookedlike in theThirteenth production Side d6 - - X X X Dynasty.This group really represents whatscarab manufacture was not like Design 6 -- - X X in thelater seventeenth century BCE Design 10 - - X X X (Ward1987: 512). Head D9 - X Head B3 X Thfnell's Contribution These are a few of the difficulties.There Side ella - X are many more, but these are enough to Design 11A -- X illustratethat there must have been Design 11D X with the traditional something wrong Eachchronological period has its own uniquegroup of characteristicfeatures. These are usual- approach to scarab history.In spite of ly not the majortypological categories, but the sub-typesof these categories.Some features the enormous effort put into their study are characteristiconly in one chronologicalphase, others are characteristicover several; the latter are of littleuse in for more than a the use of dating.The typological sequence shown hereis exactlylike that of any pot- century, teryseriation. The features most commonlyused in Period1,1 (earlyFirst Intermediate Period) scarabsas a chronological tool has re- are verydifferent from those in PeriodV (FifteenthDynasty). The stages in between show the mained very limited. Olga Tufnellfelt normalprogression of changeone also findswith pottery,old featuresdropping out, new ones and a few used this in the 1950'sas she her being added, frequentlyover long stretchesof time. InPeriod VI (earlier Eigh- put together teenth Dynasty),for as yet unexplainedreasons, several early typological features that had gone volumes on Lachish(Tufnell 1958). There out of use suddenlyreappear. were hundreds of scarabs from that site,

BiblicalArchaeologist 57:4 (1994) 195 80

50 Legend 1 40- I A1 30 LN

.7q.

0 1,1 1,2 1,3 II IIA III IV V VI

How the system works. The scarab illustratedhere is from a large there was the highest probabilitythat they would appear on the group found in a tomb of the mid-18th Dynasty,ca. 1450 BCE, same scarab. In this case, the date is Period1,3, the later 11th Dy- though its typological profile shows it was made almost five cen- nasty. Note that Head Al, BackLN, and side c3 were also common in turies earlier.Applying the typology discussed in this essay, this the 18th Dynastywhen severaltypological features long out of use scarab has the simplest lunate head with no markings(Al), a lined suddenly reappearedon scarabs of that time. However,this date is naturalisticback (LN),a high profilewith the legs cut h jour (c3), and ruled out by severalfactors: the high profilewas a dominate feature an animal figure as the only design (1D), in this case a beetle. The only in the earliest periods of scarab manufacture;the small size graph plots the percent of use of each of these features through nine (length 10 mm) and design 1D were characteristiconly then; there chronologicalphases from the earliest scarabs (PeriodI,1) to the mid- are excellent parallelsfrom FirstIntermediate Period burials (Ward 18th Dynasty(Period VI). 1978, pl. 6: 153-155). Scarabdrawing from Tufnell,1984:114, fig. 24:32. The date of manufactureis most likelyto be that chronological phase in which all four features were characteristic,hence when

royal name scarabswas faulty,so this, kings had been sifted thoroughly to times cumbersome, but that is the na- too, had to go. determine which were contemporary.14 ture of the material,not the system. It is Since the bulk of scarabsare design impossible to produce an easy-to-read scarabs,they would be a better starting Scarab Style dating chart which has all the facts illus- point. Once a typological history had The history of scarabstyle is very much trated on one quick-referencediagram. been gained from design scarabs found like that of pottery.When a new pottery We defined some thirty majorcategories in datable archaeologicalcontexts, then form is introduced, it appears first in of style--heads, backs, sides, and the royal name scarabscould be brought small numbers. As its popularity in- designs--broken down into over two into the equation, but not before. Tufnell creases, examples become more and hundred and fifty sub-types (Ward insisted that the whole scarabneeded to more numerous until it begins to go out 1978:20-33;Tufnell 1984:27-38).While be considered, not just the design on the of style. Examples then become fewer the majorcategories do show a general base. Every head, every side, every de- and ultimately disappear.An archaeo- chronological sequence, it is the sub- tail had to be examined. And the core logical phase is distinguished by a types which are often more important sample must be based on large groups group of pottery forms and details such because they come and go more quickly of excavated examples. These were to as rims, handles, and bases which have and are thus more reliableindicators of be found at stratifiedCanaanite sites, reached their apex of usage, though all chronological sequence. As with a pot- not in Egypt where large groups of may appear earlierand later than the tery sequence, each phase in the history scarabsand impressions are generally phase in which they dominate. This is of scarabstyle is distinguished by a found in contexts covering long periods also true of scarabs,though on a rather group of typological features which of time. Only after a stylistic history of more complicated level. were most commonly used during that design scarabshad been established I am the first to admit that the typo- phase. To show how important the de- should one turn to scarabswith royal logical system developed by Tufnell tails are, often minute ones, let me note - names, and then only after the trouble- and myself over the years is far from first the detail with the funny name some scarabsnaming Twelfth Dynasty simple. It is not easy to use and is some- the humeral callosity.This is a natural

196 BiblicalArchaeologist 57:4 (1994) 60

Legend 40 HAlA

SA3 _ 30

0 1,1 1,2 1,3 II IIA III IV V VI

Even the smallest details may be important in dating scarabs.The Dynasties(Periods II-V). All three appear rathersuddenly as character- graph plots the percent of use of three similarlunate head types istic heads in the 18th Dynasty(Period VI). While none of these head from the beginning of scarab historyto the mid-18th Dynasty.The types provides a specific date, they do limit the possibilities;for ex- typological differences between them are slight: Al is plain, A3 has ample, head A3 points to either the FirstIntermediate Period or the tiny single lines markingthe eyes, A5 has double lines. The chrono- 18th Dynasty.Other typological features used with A3 heads will logical differences, however, are significant.Prior to the New King- determine which date is the correct one: a side type c, cut a jour, dom, Al and A3 were very common up to the earlyyears of the 12th points to the earlierdate; the figure of a deity as the design indicates Dynasty(Period II), A5 was more likelyto be used in the 12th to 15th the 18th Dynasty.

marking on the live beetle, represented est details of scarabtypology can be can point to a specific archaeological on scarabsby the little V-shape marks chronologically significant,This means period. The larger the group, the easier on the wing-case. The humeral callosity that every aspect of scarabs has to be it is to assign a date. firstappears, but extremely rarely,on investigated-heads, backs, sides, de- scarabsat the very end of the Hyksos signs, and even the less significant fea- CanaaniteTomb Scarabs. Groups of period, just before the advent of the tures such as size and material.Typing scarabsact the sameway. A good exam- EighteenthDynasty. From then on, these individual scarabstakes time and can ple is a fairlylarge group of scarabs markings become standard on scarabs be frustrating,but the proper analysis of foundin Canaanitetomb deposits of the with lined backs, that is, where the their various components does allow later Middle Bronze I and transitional wing-cases are outlined by engraved most scarabsto be dated. Unfortunate- I/II periods (Wardand Dever 1994).This lines. This detail is thereforean excellent ly, there are many scarabs with typolog- group has some sixty different typologi- broad indicatorof date: scarabs with the ical features that were all used over cal features.Some are useless as dating humeral callosity belong to the Eigh- long periods of time. evidence since they appear rarelyon teenth Dynasty or later.That is of great This emphasizes an important point scarabs as a whole. But there are suffi- help for,among other things, isolating about using scarabs for dating. Individ- cient features used frequently enough the many later reissues of scarabsnam- ual scarabsare usually not helpful. But in this group to establish a typological ingTwelfth Dynasty kin Scarabsnaming groups of scarabsare a different matter. profile. We have here, then, a set of ty- Sesostris I, for example, were still being Again, pottery is a good analogy. A sin- pological features which can be used to manufacturedin the EighteenthDynasty gle pottery vessel is not a good dating give a broad definition of what scarabs and even later.Many can be judged as criterionunless it is known to have a of the later MB I and I/II transitionperi- late only by the appearance of the little very restrictedperiod of use. In general, ods should look like, i.e., in scarab Peri- V's on the wing-case. a single pot is not sufficient to date a od IIA,Twelfth Dynasty. These Period While the humeral callosity is an burial or house level. But a group of pot- IIA scarabs form a bridge between the easily recognized feature,even the tini- tery vessels of varying sizes and shapes preceding stages of scarab history (Peri-

BiblicalArchaeologist 57:4 (1994) 197 SI

Dynstes Periods'OS .'. *~~~ ~ 0 . 0 . . 00 1-@ . 0

. - .. 00

)I.

EndOld Kingdom 2185 FI.P IX/X 200 Dyn. (north) Early Bronze *150 Dyn.XI IV (south) 1, 1-3 Materialfrom Egyptiansites. FirstIntermediate Period, into earlyyears of 12th Dynasty.

2033 XI 2000 000 Dyn.

1963 1950 II MontetJar scarabs from Byblos.Typologically related to last phase of PeriodI. Early12th Dynasty.

Middle Dyn. Bronze I XII IIA Scarabsfrom Canaanitesites of MBI and VIItransition. 12th Dynasty.

1786 1775

Dyn. III Scarabsfrom Jericho and Megiddo.MB II. Later 12th, early 13th Dynasty. '46-:" XIII Middle Bronze IV II Scarabsfrom Jericho, Megiddo, and CAjjOl.MB II. 13th Dynasty. 1650 1650

Dyn.XV Middle (north) V Bronze Scarabsfrom Jericho,Megiddo, Fara, and CAjjQI.MB Ill. Dyn.XVII III 15th Dynasty. (south) 1550 Dyn.XVIII VI Late Scarabsfrom Lahun,Gurob, and Sedment. BronzeI LBI. Earlier18th Dynasty.

A dozenarchaeologically dated scarab groups from both Egyptand Canaanhave been testedagainst the basicdesign scarab series listedabove. All date to the typologicalphase to whichthey should belong, verifying the resultsgained from the mainseries. The ab- solutedates for Egypt,based on Kitchen'slatest assessment (1989), are approximate. Canaanite archaeological phases after Ward and Dever(1994). Changes in absoluteEgyptian chronology will cause similar changes in Canaanitearchaeological chronology.

198 BiblicalArchaeologist 57:4 (1994) ods I-II)and the one that follows (Peri- in setting out the general limits of Ca- that the completely new look at scarab od III).As with a pottery sequence, the naanite archaeologicalphases. history that Tufnell and I worked on for scarabsequence shows a gradual change In the past decade, a series of studies so many years was bound to contain in the characteristicscarab features al- have appeared which challenge Park- some errors.No matter how well us to lowing define several succeeding er's conclusions and lower the dates for planned a projectmay be, mistakes are phases in scarabmanufacture. the Twelfth Dynasty by over half a cen- inevitable when such a vast amount of So a clear and progressive stylistic tury.This researchis based primarilyon material must be considered. A thor- chronology can be established. How exhaustive studies of the astronomical ough revision of the project(Ward and does this fit into a relative chronology evidence, some of which had never been Dever 1994) has hopefully removed the between historical Egyptian periods published previously. The new dates majordefects and given greater clarity and the archaeologicalphases of Ca- proposed for the Twelfth Dynasty are to both the typological system devel- naan?This is shown in the chronologi- 1937-1759 BCE.It is doubtful, however, oped by Tufnelland how it applies both cal chart.Period which breaks down I, that this lowering of Twelfth Dynasty to Egyptian and Canaanite history. into three distinct phases of scarab man- chronology is going to stand up since it is ufacture, dated by archaeological is built on certainassumptions that either Notes context from the early FirstIntermedi- are not true or cannot be substantiated.16 1Most the beetle ate Period to about the early years of the This is not to that Parker's notably dung (Scarabaeus say origi- SacerL.). A is Twelfth The Montet nal dates for the Twelfth generalmisconception that Dynasty. Jargroup, Dynasty are ScarabaeusSacer L. was the beetlehon- Scarab only Period II,is so closely associated carved in stone. Some adjustments have ored by the Egyptiansas thisspecies is the one with Period I that it must follow imme- had to be made in the matter of co- mostcommonly represented. Inreality, there diately thereafter.These two periods are regencies and the lengths of individual wereothers, for example, the long, thin beetle to the late Bronze It seems most that the knownto theEgyptians as theankh-beetle, contemporary Early reigns. likely foundas an amulet and Middle Bronze I Periods alreadyin Gerzean times early ages. Twelfth Dynasty ruled for 178 years, (Ward1978:43-44). Furthermore, scarabs do IIA and IIIare closely related to royal from 1963-1786 BCE(Kitchen 1989),and not always representScarabaeus Sacer L., but name scarabsof the later Twelfth Dy- these are the dates I am now using. It manyother species as well(Bishara 1978:88- nasty which fixes them somewhere in must be emphasized, however, that even 91).While the present essay is concernedpri- withthe beetleas thescarab that period. Since Period IIA falls ar- these absolute dates are marily dung par approximate excellence,the Egyptians did not make in the Canaanite Middle do I the chaeologically though they represent, think, the biologicaldistinctions of modernscience and Bronze I and the I/II transition,Period best we can do at present.17 seemto havepassed on toa wholeclass of IIIfalls in the earlierMiddle Bronze II In terms of an absolute chronology insectthe respect they gave to Scarabaeus.It Age. ScarabPeriod IV,which progress- for Canaanite the wasthe latter's life cycle, however, that influ- archaeologicalphases, encedthem the most. es neatly from IIIis thus roughly the scarabevidence indicatesthe dates given 2 ThirteenthDynasty, or the later Middle on the charts.Middle Bronze I began Whendesign amulets first began turning up in burials, Bronze II Age. Period V is archaeologi- some time before the Twelfth theywere considered foreign im- Dynasty, portsas theywere a new of in associated with the Fif- ca. 2000 Middle Bronze II type object cally Egyptian BCE, began to- Egyptianarchaeology. Early studies suggested teenth and Dynasty the Canaanite Mid- ward the end of that dynasty, ca. 1800/ diverse foreignorigins, especially the Aegean dle Bronze IIIAge. 1750 BCE,Middle Bronze IIIbegan ca. and Anatolia(e.g., Newberry 1906:59-61; Petrie 1650 BCE,the so-called Hyksos Age. 1925:1-3;Frankfort 1939:296-98). It is now quite Absolute Chronology. If a relative chro- To sum there are nine certainthat in both formand design this classof up very briefly, objectis purelyEgyptian (Ward 1970a). nology is fairly simple to establish, an well-defined phases in the history of Theclassic studiesof scarabsfor absolute chronology is not. I must note scarabmanufacture from their initial 3 general many ap- yearswere those of (1906)and Petrie here the chaos into which ab- at the end of the Old Newberry Egyptian pearance Kingdom (1917),though both arenow out-dated.More solute chronology has been thrown in into the earlierEighteenth Dynasty. recentworks of goodquality are those of de recentyears.15 In 1950,Richard A. Park- These phases representa continuous Meulenaere(1972), Hornung and Staehelin (1976:13-193),Boochs (1982), er concluded, after a detailed study of development in scarabtypology, each andBen-Tor (1989). Thespecialized on the is the astronomicaland other evidence, with its own characteristic literature subject quite phase typo- extensive;cf. Martin (1985) for a that the bibliography Twelfth Dynasty ruled for 206 logical profile. This typological history listingalmost seven hundreditems, exclusive years, from 1991 to 1786 BCE.These dates is based on excavated collections and of scoresof discussionsin individualexcava- became a kind of comfortablefriend to has been defined by a detailed study of tion reports. students of comparative history and all typological featuresof scarabs,the 4On the life cyde of thedung beetle, see Bishara archaeology who depend a great deal first attempt to do so. These nine stages (1978),an Egyptian biologist who hasmade a life-longstudy of thebeetles native to on the chronology of Egypt. Parker's in scarabhistory can be roughly equated Egypt. astronomicallyfixed absolute dates for with Egyptian dynasties and Canaanite 5For example, from Chapter 15 of theEgyptian Bookof the Dead: (= the the Twelfth Dynasty went unquestioned archaeologicalperiods and are helpful in "GreetingsHorakhty for over three decades. A sense of order sun),Khepri the self-engendered. How excel- providing absolute dates for the latter. lentwhen you appear in thehorizon and prevailed both in Egyptian history and As a final note, I should emphasize brightenthe two lands with your rays."

BiblicalArchaeologist 57:4 (1994) 199 6 into where should in the name 1862-1843BCE (Kitchen 1989:153) and 1872-1854 Forexample, in a shorthymn to the sun from place they royal of BCE both the now 587of the Texts,Atum series the EighteenthDynasty (Ward 1984). (Luft1992:228), incorporating Spell EgyptianPyramid shorter of Sesostris is identifiedas both being formsof the 14 it with acknowledged reign III, Khepri, In pre-New Kingdomtimes, is only nineteenrather than It is to sun: "GreetingsAtum! Greetings Khepri the this thatlater must serious- thirty-six+years. dynasty re-issues be Parker'scredit that his date of 1878-1843BCE self engendered.... May you (i.e.,Atum) come considered. few were for ly Very produced (Parker1950:69) is aboutthe same that intoexistence in this your nameof Khepri." Thirteenth rulers,none forthose of the except Dynasty he allowed fora Itis ironic and theirvassals and none thirty-sixyear reign. 7Note especiallythe hundredsof administra- Hyksos probably thatwith detailedexamination of forthe Seventeenth The matterof con- Luft'svery tivesealings from the town of Lahun("Kahun") Dynasty. the evidence,much of it unknown to Parker, manufactureversus for and the Egyptianfortress at Uronartiin Nubia, temporary re-issues the debatehas full circleand thatmost Twelfth name scarabshas been a swung now convenientlycollected and studiedby Dynastyroyal of it has the startand is stilldebated in provenunnecessary. Tufnell On Egyptianseals and sealings problemfrom (196%1). Tufnell1984 versus in general,see Boochs(1982). currentliterature (e.g., O'Connor1985). Bibliography 8 could and oftendid become after Kings gods E.,Moscati, S. and Umberti,M. L. extentto whicha achieved 15Literature on this subjectgrows annually;I Acquaro, theirdeath. The king 1975 AnecdotaTharrhica. Collezione di attributesin his lifetimehas been have elsewheresummarized the debateas it divine long studi fenici5. Rome: debated;the difficulties involved are convenient- stood in 1990(Ward 1992). Other studies have Consiglio since of Nazionaledelle Ricerche. ly summarizedin Silverman1991. On occasion, appeared then,notably Luft's analysis a veneratedcommoner might also be elevated chronologicaldata in the lllahunpapyri (Luft Aldred,C. to divinity(Otto 1943). It must be emphasized, 1992). 1971 Jewelsof the Pharaohs.Egyptian Jewel- that termssuch as and of the Period. London: however, English "god" 16Thekey problemin the longdebate is whether ry Dynastic "divine" modem Thamesand Hudson. imply theologicalconcepts or not therewas a singlepoint in Egyptat which thatdo not necessarilyreflect those of antiquity. officialastronomical observations were made. Andrews,C. The whole debateon the supposed "god- Thischiefly concerns the helicalrising of the 1990. Ancient EgyptianJewelry. London: kings"of Egypthas been coloredby ignoring starSirius which heraldedthe adventof a new The BritishMuseum. this ratherimportant point. lunaryear. The argument centers around Mem- Ben-Tor,D. as a kind of na- 9Cf.Ward 1976 on a scarabin the possessionof phis and Elephantine having 1989 TheScarab. A Reflectionof Ancient tional wheresuch were a Nubianfamily for seven generations.By a observatory sightings Egypt.Jerusalem: The IsraelMuseum. coincidence,the son who will inherit made and thencommunicated to the restof the strange S. I. this bearsthe same name as the country.However, a heliacalrising or any other Bishara, object Egyptian 1978 and Identificationof Scarab officialwho once owned it, the child was astronomicalevent was observedon different Biology yet Beetles. A in namedbefore the knew what was days all along the Nile Valley;seven days earli- Appendix Pre-12th parents Scarab Edited writtenon the scarab. er at Elephantinethan at Memphis,for exam- Dynasty Amulets. by WilliamWard. Studies on ScarabSeals ple. Due to the obvious impossibilityof com- The rare to thisare the Bes, Aris and 1' exceptions god municatingan astronomicalsighting to the I. Warminster: Phillips. shown to his usually frontally emphasize phys- whole countryon the same day,it is evident Boardman,J. ical and the head of Hathor,icono- appearance, thatsuch importantevents as the beginningof 1968 ArchaicGreek Gems. Schools and associatedwith the (a graphically sistrum per- a new lunaryear occurred on differentdays in Artists in the Sixthand cussioninstrument) which was EarlyFifth normally differentregions of Egyptand thateach region CenturiesB.C. Evanston:Northwest- frontally. portrayed followedits own locallunar calendar. Since the ern UniversityPress. " While it is generallyfelt that this tradition purposeof the lunarcalendar was to organize 1975 Intagliosand Rings. Greek,Etruscan belongsto the IronAge, its originsmust cer- the complicatedsystem of religiousfestivals and Eastern.London: Thames and tainlybe earlier.Scarabs in this style arevery and rituals,it did not matterthat a given festi- Hudson. val at had taken a week numerousand can be seen throughoutthe Memphis already place and M.-L. earlierat Whatmattered was that Boardman,J. Vollenweider, literatureand in unpublishedmuseum and Elephantine. 1978 the Gemsand the festival on the of Catalogueof Engraved privatecollections. All this is currentlybeing took place designatedday in the Ashmolean the lunarcalendar at in the FingerRings Muse- assembledfor the CorpusGlyptica Phoenicia any place country. um I. Greekand Etruscan.Oxford: All this,of course,concerns the lunar Projectin Brussels. only ClarendonPress. The civil calendarwith its 12 calendar. Egyptian A very summarylist in Ward1970b:348-49. was the one used for Boochs,W In the numberwith Osiridescenes is regular365-day year reality, administrativepurposes at all levels from 1982 Siegelund Siegelnim Alten Agypten. extensive,and can be found in very examples recordingmilitary campaigns to datingperson- KolnerForschungen zu Kunstund of scarabsexcavated in most any collection al lettersand laundrylists. The two calendars Altertum4. SanktAugustin: Hans aroundthe Mediterranean. places servedtwo differentpurposes: one to organize Richarz. the otherto '3Themajor attempt to do createsuch a typolo- religiousfestivals and ceremonies, Clerc,G., et al. givcalhistory is thatof Jaeger(1982) who deals organizedaily life.Since the lunarcalendar was 1976 Fouillesde KitionII. Objetscgyptiens shorterthan the civil calendar,the two were primarilywith the scarabsof Thutmosism, but et dgyptisants.Nicosia: Department of includesother rulers of the New Kingdom. almostalways out of synchronism.This may be Antiquities. Jaeger'smethodology was subsequentlyfol- a problemfor modernscholarship but was not Fernandez,J. H. and Padr6,J. lowed by Weise(1990) who is concernedwith forthe ancientEgyptians. The Islamicand 1982 Escarabeosdel MuseoArqueolkgico de portrayalsof kingson scarabs.While Jaeger Jewishdual calendricalsystems still used today Ibiza.Tragajos del Museo studiedonly the designs on scarabplinths, it is areperfect modern counterparts. Arquel6gi- co 7. Madrid:Ministry of Culture. of interestthat when the othertypological cate- '7The key date for the TwelfthDynasty is the Frankfort,H. goriesare considered, those scarabsof Thutmo- reignof Sesostris I; the Illahunarchives record sis IIIthat he judgedto be contemporaryfall a heliacalrising of Siriusin his seventhregnal 1939 CylinderSeals. A DocumentaryEssay on Art and Ancient year.The currentestimates for this reignare tire Religionof thie

200 BiblicalArchaeologist 57:4 (1994) NearEast. New York:Macmillan Lucas,A. and Co. 1962 AncientEgyptian Materials and In- 4th ed. Edited R. Harris. Giddy,L. and Grimal,N.-C. duistries. by J. London:Arnold. 1979 Balat:rapport preliminaire des fouillesa 'Ain Aseel, 1978-1979.Biul- Martin,G. T. letin de I'InstitutFrarCiais d'Archdolio- 1985 Scarabs,Cylinde'rs and OtherEgypt- gie Orientale79:31-39. ian Seals.A Checklistof Publications. 1980 Balat:rapport preliminaire des Warminster:Aris and Phillips. fouilles Asil, 1979-1980.Bul- 'a'Ayn Meulenaere,H. de. letinde I'InstitutFranCais d'Archdolo- 1972 Scarabae'ussaccr. Brussels: Hoechst gie Orientale80:257-69. BelgiumS.A. R. Giveon, C. 1984 Skarabaus.Cols. 968-81 in Lexikon Miller-Winkler, 1987 Die der Edited W. iigyptischenObje'kt-amrulette. Agiyptologie. by Helck der and W.Westendorf. Vol. 5. Wiesbad- Mit Publikation Sanmnlungdtes BiblischenInstitfuts der en: Harrassowitz. Universitdt a: Fre'iburgSchwceiz, eIhe'mals Saninlung r and It : Hornung,E. Staehelin,E. FouadS. Matouk.Orbis Biblicus et 1976 Skarabdenund andere Siegelamuilette Orientalis,Ser. Arch. 5. Freiburg: .i ??: ?-,lf~ aus BaslerSammilungen. Mainz: von Universittitsverlag. Zabern. Newberry,P E. Jaeger,B. 1906 Scarabs.An Introductionto the 1982 de et datationdes Study Essai classification of EgyptianSeals and Signet Rings. scarabcesMeinkhiperre. Orbis Biblicus London:Constable. et Orientalis,Ser. Arch. 2. Fribourg: Professor William A. Ward devoted O'Connor,D. EditionsUniversitaires. a of 1985 The of Scarabsof the nearly quarter.-century(1963-1986) T G. H. Chronology James, Middle and the Second his professionallife to the American 1962 The 461- Kingdom Egyptian-TypeObjects. Pp. IntermediatePeriod. the Universityof Beirutin Lebanonwhere he 516 in Perachora.The Sanctuaries Journalof of Societyfor the Studyof EgyptianAn- taught and held numerous administra- HeraAkraia and LimneniaII. Editedby 15:1-41. tive that of Associate Oxford:Clarendon tiquities positions including T.J. Dunbabin. Dean. Professor at Press. Otto, E. Currently Visiting 1943 Gehaltund des Brown University,Dr. Ward received his Keel,O. Bedeutung igyptis- chen Ph.D. in SemiticLanguages at Brandeis 1989a Die Heroenglaubens.Zeitschrift fiir Q-Gruppe.Ein mittelbronze- und Altertum- Author of numerousbooks on mit er- AgyptischeSprache University. zeitlicherStempelsiegel-Typ skunde78:28-40. of and scores of schol- habenemRelief aus Anatolien- aspects Egyptology articles,his latestwork will as Nordsyrienund Palistina.Pp. 39-87 Parker,R. A. arly appear Scarab and Con- in Studicenzu deniStempelsiegeln aus 1950 TheCalendars of AncientEgypt. Stud- Typology Archaeological Paldstina/IsraelII. Editedby O. Keel. ies in AncientOriental Civilization 26. text: An Essay on Middle BronzeAge OrbisBiblicus et Orientalis88. Frei- of Press. (with W. on Chicago:University Chicago Chronology G. Dever;,Studies ScarabSeals 3. San Antonio: Van Siclen burg:Universittitsverlag. PetrieW. M. EF 1989b Die Eine Jaspis-Skarabiien-Gruppe. 1889 HistoricalScarabs: A Seriesof Draw- Press, 1994).Prof. Ward served as editor vorderasiatischeSkarab ienwerkstatt ings the PrincipleCollections of Berytus ArchaeologicalStudies from des 17. v. 213-42 froim Jahrhunderts Chr.Pp. ArrangedChronologically. London: 1%9 to 1985and continues as co-editor. in Studie'nzu deniSteimpelsiegeln awus Nutt. Paldstina/IsraelII. Editedby O. Keel. 1914 Amulets.London: Constable. OrbisBiblicus et Orientalis88. 1917 Scarabsand Cylinderswith Namnes. 51-115in Studienzu den Freiburg:Universititsverlag. Illustratedby the EgyptianCollection Stempel- aus I. Edited Kitchen,K. A. in UniversityCollege, London. Lon- siegelnl Paliistina/Israel by O. Keel.Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 1989 SupplementaryNotes on 'TheBasics don: BritishSchool of Archaeologyin 67. Freiburg:Universitcitsverlag. of Egyptian Pp. 152-59 Egypt. Chronology.' 1989 Die GCttinden Stempelsiegelnaus in High, Middleor Acts of an 1925 Buttonsand Design ScarabsIllustrat- Low? Pp. 89-207 in Studien Internathial Colloquium,on Absolute ed by tireEgyptian Collection in Uni- Palistin/Israel. zu den Stempelsiegeln Paldstina/ ChronologyHeld at Universityof vzersityCollege, London. London: auts tire IsraelII. Editedby O. Keel.Orbis Gotlhenburg20th-22nd August 1987. BritishSchool of Archaeologyin Biblicuset Orientalis88. Freiburg: Part3. Editedby P.Astrim. Studiesin Egypt. Universitlitsverlag. MediterraneanArchaeology and Richards,E D. P. Literature,Pocket-book 80. Gothen- 1992 ScarabSeals a Middle Late Silverman, from to, 1991 and 58-87 in burg:Astrims Firlag. BronzeAge Tombat Pellain Jordan. Kingship Divinity.Pp. in Ancient Edited Luft,U. OrbisBiblicus et Orientalis117. Religion Egypt. by B. E.Shafer. Ithaca: Cornell Freiburg: University 1992 Die chlronologisclheFixierung des Universititsverlag. Press. iigyptischenMittleren Reiches rnachi Schroer,S. demTemnpelarchiv votn lllahun. Vienna: 1985 Der Mannim Wulstsaummantel.Ein Tufnell,O. Akademieder 1958 LachishIV. The Bronze Age. London: Osterreichischen Motivder Mittelbrornze-ZeitIIB. Pp. Wissenschaften. OxfordUniversity Press. 1965 Seal

BiblicalArchaeologist 57:4 (1994) 201 Impressionsfrom Kah n Townand UronoartiFort. A Comparison. ,Jour- nal of EgyptianArchaeology 61:67-101. 1984 ScarabSeals and theirContribution to NORTH AMERICAN Historyin the EarlySecond Millenni- um B.C.Studies on ScarabSeals H. Warminster:Aris and Phillips. ARCHAEOLOGIST Vercoutter,J. 1945 Les et objetsigyptiens Jgyptisantsdui Editor AIMS& SCOPE nmobilierfundraire carthaginois. Paris: ROGERW. MOELLER Geuthner. RegionalAdvisory Editors North American Archaeologist is con- Ward,W A. JAMESE. AYRES cerned with all aspects of American VAUGHNBRYANT, Jr. 1%7 ThreePhoenician Seals of the Early Archaeology. it covers the FirstMillennium B.C. JOHNL. COTTER Geographically Journalof RICHARDD. DAUGHERTY continent north of high cultures in EgyptianArchaeology 53:69-74. MICHAELA. GLASSOW 1970a The Originof EgyptianDesign- ALBERTC. GOODYEAR Mesoamerica-the United States and amulets ("Button-seals").Journal (of ROBERTAS. GREENWOOD part of northern Mexico. Topically it JAMESB. GRIFFIN the entire of Archaeology,56:65-80. MARTHALAITA spans range cultural evolu- 1970b AEg.ylptian Phoenician Scarab with a Rare J. JEFFERSONREID tion in America from Paleo-Indian stud- RODERICKSPRAGUE Design:A WingedIsis and Mummi- ies to Industrial Theoret- formOsiris. Oriens 9:343-54. CARLYLES. SMITH Archaeology. Antiquuis RODERICKSPRAGUE ical and articles, 1971 Egyptand the EastMediterranean R. MICHAELSTEWART methodological provided World2200-1900 B.C. Beirut:Ameri- DAVIDH. THOMAS their data base is North America, are can Universityof Beirut. JAMES A. TUCK also accepted and research based on 1976 A New Chancellorof the Fifteenth CLAUDE N. WARREN WALDOR. WEDEL cultural resource management as well as OrientaliaLovaniensia Dynasty. Peri- work by state and local societies is odica6/7:589-94. State and Provincial 1978 Pre-12thDynasty ScarabAmulets. ArchaeologicalSocieties solicited along with the more traditional JOHN PFEIFFER Studieson ScarabSeals I. Warminster. academic-museum projects. The editor Aris and Phillips. Resource Management particularly encourages papers that cut 1984 Reviewof Jaeger1982. Bibliotheca and across regional or topical boundaries but Orientalis41:93-100. ContractArchaeology EDWARDS. RUTSCH more items are also welcomed. 1987 ScarabTypology and Archaeological specialized Context. Archae- AmericanJournal of General Historical Subscription Information: 91:507-32. ology Archaeology Price per volume - 4 issues yearly 1992 The PresentStatus of Egyptian ROBERTL SCHUYLER Institutional Rate: $118.00 Chronology.Bulletin of the American Individual Rate: $36.00 Schools OrientalResearch IndustrialArchaeology Postage & handling: $4.50 U.S. & Canada; $9.35 of ROBERTM. VOGEL elsewhere. 288"53-66. 1993 TheScarabs, Scaraboid and Amulet- Book Reviews ISSN 0197-6931 NA8(94 JAY CUSTER Plaquefrom Tyrian Cinerary Urns. BeryftusArchaeological Studies (for 1991)39:89-99. Ward,W. A. and Dever,W. G. offf0aIfwnkalywMPL nAUIima aaMw 1994 ScarabTyipology and Archaeological Context.An Essayon MiddleBronze Age Chronology.Studies on Scarab Baywood Publishing Company, Inc. Seals III.San Antonio:Van Siclen 26 AustinAvenue, P.O. 337, Amityville,NY 11701 Press. Phone(516) 691-1270 Fax (516) 691-1770 Weise,A. Orders only-call toll-free (800) 638-7819 1990 Zum Bilddes Kinigs auf igyiptischenl Siegelamrnuletten.Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis96. Freiburg: Universititsverlag. Wilkinson,A. 1971 AncientEgyptian Jewelry. London: Methuen. Zazoff,P. 1968 EtruskisclheSkarabdlien. Mainz am Rhein:von Zabern.

202 BiblicalArchaeolohnist 57:4 (1994)