Swedish Coastal Zone Management a System for Integration of Various Activities

· ,

In'fernational Council C.M. 19941F10, Ref. E. for the Exploration of the 5ea Mariculture Committee

SWEDISH COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT A SYSTEM FOR INTEGRATION OF VARIOUS ACTIVITIES

HANS ACKEFORS' AND KJELL GRlp2

5tockholm University 5wedish Environmental Department of Zoology Protection Agency 5-106 91 5TOCKHOLM Research Department 5weden 5-171 85 50LNA 5weden

1 Table of contents

O. Abstract

1. INTRODUCTION

2. MULTIPLE USES OF THE COASTAL ZONE 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Aquaculture 2.3 Leisure life 2.4 Fisheries 2.5 Shipping 2.6 Mineral and oil exploitation 2.7 Military establishment and activities 2.8 Industries 2.9 Coastal zone as a recipient 2.10 Cables and pipelines 2.11 Energy from the sea

3. SWEDISH INSTITUTIONAL INFRASTRUCTURE AND LAW SYSTEMS 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Legal framework 3.3 Monitoring 3.4 Research 3.5 Basic strategies for protecting the environment Eutrophication Persistent organic pollutants

4. EXAMPLES HOW SWEDISH LEGISLATION IS APPLIED 4.1 Aquaculture 4.2 Building of a bridge between Sweden and Denmark 5. THE PLANNING OF A COASTAL MUNICIPALITY e 5.1 Lysekil municipality . 5.2 The national interests of Lysekil municipality 5.3 Activities and interests and coherent conflicts and competition 5.4 The present status of the environment 5.5 The main characteristics of the comprehensive physical plan 5.5.1 Areas with provisions and special regulations which are under examination of the County Administrative Board 5.5.2 Recommendations for the use of water areas 5.5.3 Recommendations for discharges of water and new buildings 5.5.4 Measures to alleviate the impact on the sea environment 5.5.5 A plan for the use of water resources and treatment plants

2 6. INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Marine conventions 6.3 Organizations dealing with marine issues

7. REFERENCES

3 Table of figures

Fig 1 The drainage basin of the Baltie Sea, the Danish Sounds and Kattegat. SMHIIRH, Nr 7, 1993.

Fig 2 Coastal and Marine areas of the system of Baltie Sea Proteeted Areas (BSPA). HELCOM, EC-Nature, 1994.

Fig 3 Examination of an application of a permit to start a fishfarm - an overview of the Aquaeulture permitting proeess.

Fig 4 An overview of the direetion of the Öresund bridge between Sweden and Denmark. SMHI, Oeeanography, Ni" 15,1987.

Fig 5 An overview of the examination of a big eonstruetion aeeording to the Natural Resourees Aet.

Fig 6 Boundaries of Lysekil munieipality on the Swedish west-eoast at N 58° and. 11°, 120 km north of Gothenburg (the Skagerrak area). The eomprehensive physieal plan of Lysekil municipality, 1990.

Fig 7 Planning divisions of Lysekil munieipality. The eomprehensive physieal plan of Lysekil munieipality, 1990.

Fig 8 The use of the reeipient of Lysekil munieipality: The comprehensive physical plan of Lysekil munieipality, 1990.

Fig 9 Reereation and toursim. The comprehensive physical plan of Lysekil munieipality, 1990.

Fig 10 The comprehensive plan of Lysekil munieipality. The eomprehensive physical plan of Lysekil municipality, 1990.

Fig 11 The importanee of international co-operation in the marine field is increasing. Swedish Marine Resourees Aetivities, DSH 1989:2. e

4 o. ABSTRACT

The stress on the coastal zone arid its resoufces is coritinuouslyincreasing. During the last deeades the exploitationof the coastal ione has become mOfe intensive. With related conflicts arid competition in that zone it is necessary to develop (a) methods for management strategies to solve problems and (b) programmes for a more balanced use of the ~and and water resources in the coastal zone. Physical planning processes must involve authorities on both loeal, regional and national levels. The coastal zone is attrac tive tor urban settlement, industries, tourism and weekend-houses, fishing, aquaculture, mineral exploitation, pipe Iines, wind-power, shippingand military establishments, nature conservation arid marine archeology. In addition the coastal zone is used as a recipient tor raw and treated sewage wider trom urban areas, industries, agriculh..ire, t6restrY, ete.

The mutiple uses of the coastal zone items imply competitiori arid conflicts among human uses. Conflicts mayaiso arise between human activities.and animals Iiving iri the area. Hence fishing arid aquacullure operations are threalened by eider-ducks, cormoranls, seals and other animals. Anolher side of that conflict is the competion between commer cial uses and the interest cf nature conserVation.

The BalÜc Sea as weil as other sea areas surrolmding Sweden are shared with other countries. Envifonmenlal problems as pollution and the allöcätion of human activities must be solved byagreements between various countries. Marine ccmventions suCh as Helcom, Osparcom and the Gdansk Conventiori regulale such malters. On national basis in Sweden tt1ere is a comprehensive framework ofacts and ordninances, whicll regulate tlla use of land arid water areas in the Swedish coastal zone out to the territorial boundary, 12 nautical milss trom tlla baseline. Examples of Swedish laws are: the , Plarining and BUilding Act, tlle Wate.. Act, the Natural Resources Act, the Environmental Protection Act, the Nature Conservancy Act and the Water Pollution Act.

The National monitoring programme is supervised by Swedish EnvironmentalProtection Agency. Two präctical examples aregiven forhow the Swedish legislation system is. .. applied, one on aquaculture and one on the building of a bridge between Sweden and Denmark.

The Regionäimoniloring programmes Col1sists of individual monitoring programmes, whiCh are co-Ordinäted by the various Swedish County Councils. According to the Swedish Planning arid Building Act, every municipality shall have a comprehensive physical plan both tor land and waterareas. This plan shall also include aspeets of national interest a6cordirig to the Natural Resources Act. The lalter states that the requiremenls tor ecological, social and socio-economic considerations are met. In order to elueidate this eoncept, a muriieipälity, Lysekil, on the Swedist1 west-coast is used as an example of such a physieal plan tor a municipality. The plan covers the national interests in Lysekil municipality from nature conservation to military defence. The various activities and interests; water as a recipient, clean coastal water, the establishment of industi"ies, urban settlements, soeietel tect1nical support systems, energy production, shipping, aquaculture arid conservation, versus conflicts and competition are iIIustraled as weil as the main charactedsties of the plan.

5 1. INTRODUCTION

Planning the uses of land has been an area of cancern since lang time aga, while planning the uses of coastal areas is a rather new activity. Historically however coastal zones throughout the world have been intensively used because of their rich resources and good oportunities for various activities.

Already in the 16th century attempts were made to regulate the fishing rights of the sess. And quite recently the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Seal UNCLOS, . attained the sixtieth ratification and it will thus entry into force on the 16 November 1994. This convention establishes a comprehensive framework for the regulation of all open ocean space and its resources.

Another important milestone in the management of coastal zones is the United Nations Conference on Environment and Oevelopmerit, UNCEO, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in , 1992. In chapter 17 of Agenda 21 "Programme of action for sustainable development", the urgent need for coastal states to develop capabilities for integrated coastal zone • management and to implement"ational programmes were adressed. The World Coast Conference in the Netherlands 1993 generated materials arid stimulated discussions on integrated coastal zone management. Coastal and marine management issues will also come up on the UNCEO follow up conference, which will be held in Washington OC in 1995.

The stress on the coastal zone and its resources is continously increasing. It is printed out (UNCEO) that six out of ten people will live within 60 km from the coastline the year 2000. To meet this challenge national capacity-building has to be stimulated and inter national co-operation and co-ordination has to be strengthened.

As coastal populations have increased and, as technology has developed substantially, the exploitation of the coastal zone has becomemore.intense. The implications of the present trends of utilization are considerable. There are now many conflictirig uses competing for coastal space and resources. For this reason the demands on a more methodological or planned use of eoastal resources has become necessary and it has induced new claims on responsible authorities to develop management strategies for a • more balanced use of coastal land and water and its resources. It also means that central, as weil as regional and local authorities must be integrated in the management work.

In the physiCal planning process different demands are treated Le. from urban settle ments, construction of harbours, coastal fisheries and aquaculture to nature conser vancy. The impacts of these activities must be analysed and considered in relation to environmental objectives. The physical planning process gives a general view and context over demands and problems. It makes a preventive environmental proteetion possible and it can be an important tool to create an environmentally sound infrastructure and use of the coastal zone. The comprehensive physical plans interact in different ways with other sectorplans and hereby they have a co-ordinating role focLising on the use of

6 . . . •..• ... .,..:.....", I'" ~ r . ..o '. • ),..' t..

land and water resources.

In this respect it is important to realize that the management and planning strategies must be developed within the tramework of the cultural, legal arid administrative systems of each country. In developing these strategies different countries can lear;, of experien ces.trom each other. In Sweden special studies have shown how such a strategy may be implemented in the physical planning process including authorities on local, regional and ~ationall~vels. The~e studies were initiated in the 1980's ~s a,result of conflicting inte rests be~een the recent development of aquaculture and other activities as i.e. shipping and navigation, environmental protection and recreation (Ackefors et al, 1982).

The purpose ofthis paper is to elucidate the Increasing .. demands of coastal zone space and tiow this problem is handled by Swedish authorities.

2. MULTIPLE USES OF THE COASTAL ZONE • 2.1 INTRODUCTION In many areas ofthe world the coastal strip is attractive for many activities and there is a great need tor planning the uses of its valuable resources. This issue has recently got a great attention and various organisations, conferences, reseärchers, planners, '.' administrators and politicians are now busy with this question. In later years books have been published on coastal zone mariagement,e.g. DSH(1985), DSH(1989), Barg (1992), Clark (1992), Thia-Eng and Scura (1992), Boverket(1992), Pullin et al. (1993)

The coastal zone is attractive tor many purposes, e.g. urban settlement, industries, tourism and vacation-höuses, various other recreational activities, fishing, aquaculture, mineral exploitation, pipe Iines, windpower establishments, shipping and military establishments, nature conservation, and markie archeology. In addition to that the eoastal zone is used as ä recipient tor waste water trom sewage treatment plants, discharge cf cooling water trom electric power plarits and industries.

In many Cases raw sewage ls discharged intö the coastal zone as weil. Bearing in mind the large drainage areas which surrcund s8a areas and the coastal zone, the impact of various land based operations many hundreds ot kilometres inside the shore-line will also be of great importance, (Fig. 1). The deforestation e.g. leading to erosion and sediment~tion above all in tropical and subtropical areas, is orie of many examples.

. 7 In the Baltic Sea 62 marine areas are proposed for a system of the Baltic Sea Protected Areas. In Swedish coastal areas there are 13 such areas ( Fig. 2). Within the framework cf the project .. Nordic marine reserves" nine areas are Iisted. According to the present legal system each Municipality has to have a comprehensiv physical plan over land and water use within its boundaries. From such plans you can see that there are many conflicts and competition among those who have g6t interest in establishing e.g. aquaculture operations, industries etc.

Below these problems are elucidated by going through each activity and its competitors or potential conflicts.

2.2 AQUACULTURE

In Sweden the modern aquaculture started to develop in the end of 1970·s. A large part of the coastal zone was already occupied by other uses ( Ackefors et al., 1982). A working group studied the conflict and competition with other users of that zone (Anon., . 1982). That group also studied the legal i~plication of establishing aquaculture along • the Swedish coast.

Many conflicts have arisen when farmers want to establish aquaculture operations in areas which is important from conservation point of view. Rare botanical or zoological species, may be one obstacle as weil as special areas with unique habitats on land or in water. Application for establishment of aquaculture must theri be examinated according to the Nature Conservancy Act. The conservation of reIies of ancieiit culture is another reason to prevent aquaculture establishment.

Musselfarming was established at the Swedish west-coast from the end of 1970's (Haamer, 1977; Rosenberg et al., 1983; Ackefors and Grip, 1985; Ackefors and Haamer, 1987). Birds protected according to the Nature Conservancy Act is a problem for musseI farmers in many areas of Sweden. MusseI operations have got problems with f10cks of eider-ducks (Somateria mollissima). The daily consumption of an adult duck has been calculated to 2.5 kg blue musseI.

A f10ck of ducks can easily consume the yield from a mussei operation if the f10ck remains around it for a month, without being chased away. Various fright methods have • been used without any real success. The most sensitive period for the mussei unit is the first autumn and winter after settlement of the of the larvae, when the musseis still are relative small.

In many areas there have been conflicts with people who have built vacation-cottages. This type of establishment is very common in the coastal zones of Sweden c10se to urban areas. Licenses given in such areas by the County Administration Board have often been appealed against by owners of such cottages. In the very end it is the Government which makes the decision.

Leisure Iife and tourism in general are also due to conflicts with aquaculture industry.

8 , . ':'.,' ' .,' &. ".' .' ...... ,"

Leisure boats and water-skiing are in many cases a nuisance for aquaculturists. The disturbance fr~m such activities may be devasting for cage farming and in addition to that the aquaculture operation may suffer from discharges of wastes from boat traffic and from urban settlements.

On the other hand great concern is expressed by bathing people on beaches ciose to aquacuclture operatiC?ns. Many people are afraid of bathing in the yicinity of farming units. In some areas with mussei cultivations agreements have been made belween owners of such operations and recreational fishermen to permit fishing in the area. , . 2.3 LEISURE L1FE

In Scandinavian countries people are used to spend a lot of their free time in nature and carry out various activities. The right to spend leisure time in nature arid to walk in forests and other habitat to pick mushrooms, berrie,s and f10wers is ealled "public access to nature" in Sweden. The leisure life along the shores is prescribed in the " Nature Conservation Act". People are allowed to bathe everYwhere except in the vicinity of private sites. In manyareas people are free to carry out sp6rtfisheries. ,In Sweden2 million people exert sportfishinga few times a xear (Anon., 19928). While most fishing • with "handgears" is allowed, hunting is much more regulated. Most leisure acÜvities require clean water, free space, harbours for leisure boatsetc. The exploitation of land versus non exploitation means a careful planning of the coastal zone to create areas suitable for all types ofleisure activities. Conflicts rriay arise with interests who want to establish urban settlements, vacation-cotlages, exert professional fisheries, establish of aquaculture operations ete.

2.4 FISHERIES

The professional fisheries are suffering from pollution from various sourees. The competition from other activities as harbours for leisure beats in important nursery areas for wild populations is a long~ term problem pointed out by the scientific society (Rosenberg (ed.), 1985) Breeding and nurserY areas as weil as areas for catching fish are for natural reason not suitable places for e.g. aquaculture operations.

• Serlous conflicts have arisen in many places abroad. ane cf the most weli-known is the one in the Philippines in Laguna the Bay, where milkfish farmers now oecupy one third of the area in that lake (Ackefors et al., 1984). In Sweden Iicenses are not given if there is a potential risk that the professional fisheries are hindered. From the biological point of view it is quite natural that aquaculture mayaiso influence the natural ecosystem in various ways. Protected wild stocks of salmen or other valuable fish species may ba damaged. (Ackefors et al., 1991.) Contagious diseases may be spread from aquaculture operations to the natural fish populations and vice versa.

There is a continuous eonfliet betwasn wild animals as bird and mammals and the fishing industrY. An increasing problem is the cormorants (EIFAC, 1994). The cormorant (Phala crocorax carbo sim3nsis), which occurs mainly on the European continent including Scandinavia has got a proteetion status in the EEC Bird direetive. In addition ws have

9 another subspeeies (Ph. carbo carbo) whieh have not got that status, and has a world wide distribution.The total population of both species has increased from about 20 000 birds in 1978 to 160000 birds in 1992 in the northern European countries (EIFAC, 1994). Including also birds living in more eastern countries gives a number of at least 300 000.

Both species are considered as a nuisance by fishermen and in many areas they may have an impact on fishpopulations and aquaculture farms. In 1993 fishermen and others attacked a colony of cormorants in the southern Sweden and destroyed a lot of breeding nests and 1994 this was also the case in another area. During the breeding period they cut nesting trees iIIegally. It could never be proved which people had done it. EIFAC now supports the attempts to elaborate an international management plan for cormorants within the framework of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn Convention) (EIFAC, 1994).

Seals are another problem for fishermen but also tor fish farmers. In Scandinavia three different species of seal occur, viz. Ringed seal (Pusa hispida), Grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) and Harbours Seals (Phoca vitulina). From1960's and onwards the populations in the Baltic were hit by toxic substances (PCB; a mixture of several different chlorinated biphenyls).The highest eoncentrations in their bodies occurred in the beginning of the ..• 1970's (Olsson et a\. 1992, 1994). The capacity to reproduce reduced sUbstantially. The populations deereased very much. later in 1986 it became forbidden for fishermen to hunt seals in areas where seals destroyed their fishing gears: Today all hunting of seal is torbidden.

At present it estimated that there are 5 000 grey seals (in the Baltic) 4000 ringed seals(in the Gulf of Sothnia) and 370 harbour seals (in the Saltie area). In the beginning of the eentury there were 100 000 grey seals in the Saltie area. The population is now increasing in the northern Saltic while the southern population remain very smal\. The population of harbour seal is in the southern Saltie proper is very small although it is now increasing as weil as the population on the Swedish west-coast. The population of ringed seals seem to be stable although dead speeimens have reeently been found in the Gulf of Finland. (Olsson et al. 1994.)

There is now arequest from the fishermen that the hunting should be reintrodueed. However, the authorities 'attitude, based on facts trom the seientists, is that it is too earl~ to meet that demand trom the fishermen. In 1993 the authorities in Sweden paid 6.3 .. million SEK in compensation to those fishermen, who were hit by damages on their gears due to attacks by seals. At present there is research going on to find out how to avoid that seals drown, when entangled in fishing gears.

2.5 SHIPPI~G

The eoastal zone has in many areas a heavy traffic of all kinds of vessels for transport of goods, oil, ehemicals, passengers etc. Shipping may be a threat to water and the shores, specially in skerry areas. Erosion along the shores, sewage discharges, oil spills etc. influenee other aetivities in the zone as fishing, leisure Iife, aquaculture ete. A special report on the effect of the environmental impact from shipping has been issued by the Swedish National Maritime Administration in 1990 (Anon., 1990a). International

10 ------~~- "~ • ,.... ': .•' t",.:~ .._..- :', ...... • ~'. ,.

regulations in this area t1ave been issued by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and the Helsinki Commission (HELCOM). The Swedish report deals witt1 emission of pollutants to air by various vessels, discharge of oil pollutants to water, ballast water, chemical used in deep freezing technique, chemical used in various fire extinguishers, antifouling paints, detergimts used on board ships etc.

2.6 MINERAL AND OlL EXPLOITATION

In some areas sand, mineral, gas, oil ete. are exploited. This will influence the water quality, bottomstructures, benthic and pelagic fauna and various activities as fishery, aquaculture, imd leisure Iife. Prospect for eres have occurred on tllä Swedish continental shelf (FRP, 1978). Iron-manganese eoncretions are fourid in the Baltie with trace elements (nickel, cobalt, eopper, zinc, lead, chromium, vanadium, arid molybdenum). However, this resource is not of economical.interest. The excavation of sand, gravel and stone is. a problem in some places. Fishermen have complained of this fact and biological investigations have been performed (Ackefors and Fonselius, 1968).

Persson (1983) has summarized the eXtraction methods arid the effect of sand exploi tation on bottem topography, benthie fauna, bottom environment aild the fishery in the • Sound. Licenses givenon the Swedish side cf the Sound .amounted to 1.7 Mm3 from 1978 to 1983. Based on available investigations in the area the author considered that the most serious environmental effects on the environment are destruetion ef spawning plaees for fish, destruction of overWintering areas forfish, erosion of the coastal zone, . ehanges of the boUom topography in fishing areas and remaining caverns with stagnant water.

"'", ~ . , ~ 2.7 MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT AND ACTIVITIES

Miiitaryroutes and establishment in the eoastal zone might be a hirider tor eivil traffie, fishing and aquaculture. The.National Defence, Naval Forces requkes to utilize tl1e. whole Swedish territorial waters in peace time and war(FRP, 1978). Que to the rapid development within the sea teChnology, many installations have t6 be put on the sea bottern. Along the Swedish coasts there are special restricled areas where foreigners are not allowed to visit. There are military routes in thearchipelago where e.g; no mussel operations Can be estabJished. In addition to that there are special secret routes tor civil • traffie t6 be used in war by mefcharit riävy. A special problem is the existence of dumped chemical weapons on the Swedish Part oi the Continental Shelf(Anon. 1992b). In the erid cf the World War 11 Germanydumped chemical warfarE~ weapons. The Allied Forces and USSR did that as weil after the war. In addition to thatthere are lots of ship wrecks. This a hinder for fishermen both in the coastal :Zone and waters off-share. Great amounts of chemical warfare ammunition, e.g. nerve gas and mustard gas hav~ been dumped. The commercial fishermen are exposed t() the danger of bringirig corroded Chemieal ammunition to the surface with their eatch cf fistl.

11 2.8 INDUSTRIES

Many industries are located in the eoastal zone, where they can easily get aecess to harbours and a recipient for sewage waters. It is a wellknown fact that water quality, fauna and flora are inOuenced outside factories in the eoastal zone. Introduced laws arid regulation have improved the situation in some western countries, but still the industries are a large souree of pollutants for coastal zones. It is natural that this will cause problems for many other users of the coastal zone.

The selection of sites in the eoastal zone is favourable for many industries. The position is positive for transport of raw material as weil as shipping of fabricated products. The availability of ground, process water, eooling water and recipient for discharge of various kinds of wastewater is necessary for many industries. In general there are good transpor tation opportunities in the coastal zone with harbours, railways and good supply.of eleetric energy. For this reasons and the advantage of being located in the vicinity of other industries a eoastal site is preferred. Below we will identify the diseharges fram industries to air, water and land. But in this seetion we will look at the demarid of • resources in the coastal zone for various industries (SOU, 1971).

Power plants have enormous demand of cooling water, usually braekish water or marine water, but even fresh water. A power plant of 3 000 MW needs 150 m3 sea waterlsecond. Nuclear power plants with a capacity of 6000 MW, with rooling towers using water, need 9 m3 fresh water per second. This corresponds to the need of a 2 million people in an urban area (SOU, 1971).

Oil refineries use air cooling. This type of industry needs a harbour with a depth of at least 27 m arid the demand for ground area is in the order of 1 km2 per unit.

Petrochemical and ehemical industries have great need offreshwater, cooling water and harbours. The pulp and paper industry have usually large demands of ground area and water. Metal industries have great demand of cooUng waters usually brackish and marine waters, harbours'and roads.

2.9 THE COASTAL ZONE AS A RECIPIENT.

The industries in the coastal zone discharge large amount of polluted air, polluted water and in many cases noise can be considered as apollution as weil. There is a huge demand of good transportation system with shipping, railways and good roads. The effect on the environment varies with discharged substances, the concentration of pollutants, the quantity and the eharacter of the surrounding environment. This means that the composition of the ground, the soil, the water, the flora and fauna are essential to bear in mind when discussing the effects. The use of coastal water as a recipient is of very great economic value for an industry. The use of a water area as a recipient put demands on responsibility and considerations to other water use interests. A number of important principles underly the Swedish approach to the regulation of polluting activities. Table 1 describes the type of compounds which are discharged to the air (SOU 1971).

12 Table 1. The discharge of variouscompound to air from industries along the coastal zone 1. Oil power plant; 2. Nuclear power plant; 3. Oil refiriery; 4. petrochemical industry; 5. Pulp industry. The compounds are A sulphurdioxid, B ;'itrogenoxid. C Dust, 0 Hydrocarbon, E Coaloxids.F noble gases, G Tritium, H Otlier compounds, I metals.

~'" Indu A BC 0 E F G H st,y - 1 xxx xxx xxx xx 2 xx xx 3 xxx xxx xxx x xx x 4 xxx xxx xxx xxx xx 5 xxx xxx x xx

Large amounts of substances are discharged into waters as weil (Table 2).

Table 2. The discharge of various compounds to water from industries along the eOelstal zone (SOU. 1971). A cooling water, B sewage,C oilsewage, 0 Sodium chlodd or sUlphate E fibres and lignin, F heavy metals, G chemical, H radioactive.substances, I organic conipounds, K nitrogen compounds. L phosphate compounds, M suspended • salids, N BSs load, 0 acids. Industries 1. Cil power plants 2. Nuclear power plants, 3. Oil refineries, 4. Petrochemical industries. 5. Pulp industries, 6. Aluminum factory, 7. Ferroalloy industry, 8. Ste81 factodes.

., In A 8 C 0 E FG H I. K L M N 0

1. x x x x x 2 x x x x x 3 x x x x x x 4 x x x x x x x x x 5 x x x x x x x 6 x x x x 7 x x x x x ... • 8 x x x x

The coastal zone and tlie sea areas are continuously eutrophicated due to large amour"lts of water froAl rivers, forestry i11dustry, agriculture, municipal sewage. The eutrophication of. the sea basins and coastal araas, tha supply of nutrients from Swedish sources, the total supply cf nutrients to the basins arid measures to be taken are discussedby Lindahl etal., (1993). There isan excess of phosphorous in the. Baltic proper, which prornotes the development of nitrogen fixation algae during summer. Measurements in 5-year inteiväl from 1971 and onwards indieate that the nitrate concentration increases in all parts of the Baltic, while the increase of phosphorous seems to decline. The t~tCiI . nitrogen content is about 1.5 times higher in the archipelagos compared to sea areas.

13 The chlorophyll content is about twice as high as those occurring in off-shore areas.

The areas of "dead" bottoms along the coast for the period 1973-1988 were rather large. They amounted to 13 km2 in the Bothnian Bay, 37 km2 in the Bothnian Sea, 88 km2 on the eastcoast of the Baltic proper and 12 km2 on the west coast of Sweden. (Oxygen con centration less than 3 mgll is a border line, where the animals have problems to survive). The Swedish share of water borne supply of nitrogen to the whole Baltic in 1990 was 12% and for phosphorous 7%.

Ackefors and Enell (1990) calculated that the amount of nutrients discharged from Swedish aquaculture in 1986 to adjacent sea areas. It amounted to 35 tonnes of phosphorous and 260 tonnes of nitrogen. These loads carrespond to 0.6% and 0.2% of the total Swedish phosphorous and nitrogen load on the surrounding sea areas. Including atmospheric deposition and the discharges from other cauntries the share of , the Swedish fish-farming activities to adjacent seas is 0.05% for phosphorous and 0.02% for nitrogen. In Sweden the overall cantribution of nutrients from aquaculture to sea areas is thus comparatively little. However, the impact of aquacultlJre in local areas may be substantial. 2.10 CABLES AND PIPELINES • Cable and pipelines for different purposes - telephone, electricity, water, oil and gas - put demands on space on the bottorn. Often cables and pipelines are digged or ploughed in the sediments to avoid conflicts or damages. Pipelines, depending on the substances transported, as weil as electric cables, depending on the method used for transmission, can cause discharges of environmental hazardous substances. They mayaiso interfere with fishery, shipping and navigation, environmental and nature conservancy interests.

2.11 ENERGY FROM THE SEA

Up till now the use of the caastal zone for energy production has been of very little importance. In the future increasing energy demands and new technic for energy production from the sea may bedeveloped. If so, it will probably be a matter of big constructions with cansiderable impacts on the caastal zone, its activities and environ ment. In Sweden the Government Wind Energy Survey has investigated extensive coastal water areas and proposed offshore sites for wind power farms with large-scale • wind energy plants. The Government has not yet decided whether wind energy will be further developed in Sweden, (SOU 1988).

14 ,.;. ;..",..•. ",.' " 3. SWEDISH INSTITUTIONAL INFRASTRUCTURE AND LAW SYSTEMS

.. , 3.1 INTRODUCTION

A riumber of activities involve the utilization of natural resources in c6astal and ses areas. Such utilization in Sweden is sUbject to the planning, granting af permits and other control measures, exercised by several ceritral and regional Gcivernmental AgeriCies as weil as local municipalities.

In Sweden the pubii6 involvment in the physieal plarli,ing process is decentralized as much as possible to regional and locallevels, while the national level mostly deal with national interests, guidelines arid policy making.

The Swe~ish terrltory out to the territorial bounda;y is dlvided into municipalities. These muniCipalities are responsible for planning the use of larid and water within their ·~ '"", boundaries. They tiave their own administration with different management departments for different activities Le. a Physical planning and building departrrient, Ei Health and • environment departrrient and a Department for recreation. Each municipality is obliged to have a comprehensive physical plan for the uses of its territory.. It means that the plan must c6mpi"ise land as weil as water areas out to the territorial boundary (12 nautical miles from the baseline). The management.of the coastal zone must therefore include the interactions betWeen coastalland arid water areas e.g. coricerning environmental pollution tö coastal waters from the drainage area of i-ivers/water ways, has to be incorporated in the management process.

Responslbilities tor inter-mimicipallty issues with regard to health, environment, .security and issues concerning riational interests, are taken into consideration by the County Cöuncils, which are regional Governmental Agencies. The County Councils have essential management resources and different experts on environmental protection, fisne;y, aquaculture, physical planning and regional eeoricirriy in their different depart ments. On riationallevel many sectors, Le. the fishery, shipping and navigation and mineral sectors, are managed by their oWn Governmental Agency.. These agencies are responsible tor their own sectorplanning. They work with advise ahd guidelines and acts in an advisory capacity to the government. Some cf the Central agencies have regional and local administratiof1s.

Coastal arid maririe management is ci multiseCtorial issue., It means that effective managemect must embody integration and co-ordination. However, existing political and administrative realities make integrated arid cO-ordinated implementation difficult. Realistic management will have to be implemented by.various sectorial agencies. Different seetor plans are howevernöt seldom competing torthe same space and without due c6nsideration to the envkonmemtal demands in the cOastal zone. A co-ordimition of different sectorplans is öften necessary. In Sweden the physical planning system is used as an instrument or method tor co-ordination in that cantext. When severallocal muni cipalities are concerned, the County Council responsible is involved in the process. In the physical plan a municipality can pronounce its priorities among different activities

15 concerning the use of the coastal zone. Thafs why the physical planning process forces scientists and technologists, socio-economic experts and policy-makers to work closer together. Another feature of tne Swedish planning process is that all documentation, including the Environmental Impact Assessment, (EIA) statement, is open for scrutiny and comment by the general public. People can have a say in how the authorities are doing their work. Sweden has a long-standing tradition referred to as the "public Review Principal". This means that all documents, either stored, received or produced by an authority, are accessible to the public. Comprehensive plans are exhibited for aperiod of at least two months, so that the public may submit coinmerits. Information about a detailed development plan is serit to all neighbouring landowners as weil as others who may be affected by the proposed development.

3.2 LEGAL FRAMEWORK

In Sweden allmost all activities are regulated in some way or another. There are a lot of laws and ordinances that regulate these activities. The water out to 300m from the shore line is private owned. Outside 300 mthe water belongs to the public and it is represented by a special Governmental Agency. Before you send in an application for starting an activity you need apermission töuse tne land or water for th~t purpos~. It d~~sn't maüe whether the water is private owned or it belongs to the Government - an agreement from the owner about tne water use is rieeded. Besides different sector laws regulating details about an activity the most important or relevant laws in the permitting process are:

The Planning and Building Act regulates the physical planning procedure arid claims a local planning permit for most activities on land. Such permits are expressed in the form of a statutory planning doeurrient whieh ineludes details about the localisation cif proposed facilities within the selected site, building volume, safeguarding zones, infrastrueture service ete. Examination according to the aet is managed by the munieipality.

Aeeording to the Water Act, a Water Court permit is required for all kinds of industrial development that involves construetions and/or other works in water. A water court permit will include detailed conditions for other uses and the environmental protecticiri, of such development and is often a prec6ndition for the establishment of polluting industries. Examination according to the aet is managed by the Water Court, while the supervision !i.. handled by the County Council. •

The Natural Resources Act eomprise overall rules about the use of land and water and the physical environment in connection with the work on the comprehensive physical plan in a munieipality. The aet is an umbrella aet and is coordinating the examinations according to different laws. When large new industrial facilities are proposed a central government siting permit is required in accordanee with the Natural Resources Act coneerning the siting and scale of such faeilities and related emissions from the industrial processes. Examination according to the act is managed by the Government. If an application is approved the industry/construetion also needs examinations and permits aeeording to other laws eoneerned.

16 . ,'.'

The Environmental Protectiori Act regulates all kinds of hazardous activities and apermit in accordance with the act is alwaysrelated to mandatory guidelines arid standards on all emissions and diseharges tram a fixed construction as weil as monitoring and control activities needed. There is a co-ordination between the Watee- Act and the Environmental protection Act. Sometimes permits are needed from both acts to avoid dubble-examina tion. ,Examin,ä!ion according to the act is managed by the County Council er concerning same industries by a special National Licensing Board for Environment Protection, (NLBEP). The inspection is handled by the County Council or the municipality.

The Fishery Act regulates the management afthe fisherY arid the risk tor intro-duction ot fish diseases within the Swedish territorY and the Swedish economic zone. Examiriation according to tbe act is managed by the County Council. Fishery surveillance is carried out by the Coast Guard. '

The Nature Conservancy ACt regulates nature conservancy and share protection. The general share protection is 100 m from the shoreline up on lalld and out in the water. It can be extended up to 300 m. The aim of the shoreproteCtion is,to protect the public accessibility to the shore. Buildings as wellas constructions that prevent the public access to the shore needs apermit in accordance to the law. Examination according t6 • the act is mal1aged by the County Council.

The Water Pollution Act regulates all kinds of discharges from ships, hovercrafts,flxed and mobil platforms and other floating constructions. Examination according to the aet is managed by the the National Administration for Shipping arid Navigation. .

Appiications to moslofthese aelS,must be preceded by an Enviranmerital impact Assessment, EIA and the applicant is nisponsible for the work needed to do the as sessment. The requirements encompass even relatively small projects, but on the ether hand the extent of the EI~ is not regulated. Instead, the special circumstances 6f each project determine how the EIA is to be carried out. Most laws are managed by the County Council or the municipality. Some sector laws are handled by the the sector authorities.

In differentexaminat;on processes a comprehenslve physical plan of good,qualitY,is of great importance for the outcomeof theexamination. Monitödng and control programmes related to an activity are run by the applicant and resporisible tor environmental super • visionand surveillance is theCounty Council or the municipallity, in marine areas supported by the Coast Quard. Environmental research is rE3quired and managed by the National Environmental Protection Agemcy, sometimes supported by the County Councils.

3.3 MONITORING

The PLJrP0se of environmental monitaring is to foliow f1uctuations in the state of the environment ~md to identify changes resulting trom human activities. Monitoring is to provide the data required in order töidentify and demonstrate environmental problems, both on local and on global seale. The results are used for setting targets for the , env;r·onmentally sound development of society, both in Sweden and in other countries to , 17 set priorities and decide on measures, as weil as to follow up effects of such measures.

The goal of monitoring is also to measure the abundance of a species, concentration of a cöntaminant, or the prevalence of an effect. By using appropriate methods the back ground level can be distinguished from effect levels. An important aspect of all monitoring is the quality control and assessment of data to meet the aims of the monitoring programme.

Monitoring can be conducted for a variety of purposes, depending on the needs of the customer. The following issues can be Iisted depending on various purposes for designing the monitoring programmes:

To detect and/or follow environmental changes or specific problems at the request of decision-makers;

To describe and follow patterns and trends;

To obtain basic information for the preparation of regional assessments; To understand processes, for research purposes; • To judge the efficiency of regulatory measures or political decisions concerning the environment; and

To check compliance to specific regulations.

The current Swedish programmes of environmental monitoring covers air quality, the land environment, fresh water, sea water and environmental toxins. In the opinion of the government, the programme should be augmented to include the impact of land use and effects on health. Physical planning and continued environmental protection work will increasingly be based on targets for different geographical regions, species, biotops and ecosystems. The natural environment is under serious pressure and the situation must be followed up through methodical monitoring.

In Sweden there are three types of monitoring related to the environment - the National Monitoring Programme, Regional Monit6fing programmes and the control of discharges.•

The National Swedish Monitoring Programme aims at detecting and/or following environmental changes. The programme should provide data for regular sUrVeys of the state of the environment. This means that different sectors of society will be responsible for monitoring environmental developments.

The programme on the marine side consists of several subprogrammes Le. hydrographi cal, biological and toxicological programme. These subprogrammes are delivering a large amount of data from many monitoring stations. The data are quality controlled, assessed and reported to special regional marine centres for research responsible for their presentation. Responsible for the overall management of this programme is the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, (EPA).

18 Another type of monitoring is related to environmental quality control in a recipient. This kind of con!rol consi"sts of individual monitoring programmes, where the parameters monitored are connected to the industries/municipalities using the recipient. In coastal areas such control programmes within a County are coordinated t6 a coastal recipient control programme managed by a water association, in which authorities and industries are represented. The inspection of the management of these control programmes lays within the responsibilities of the County Council and the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, {EPA}.

All regional environmental monitoring programmes build up.the Regional Monitoring Programme which must provide the necessary data concerning regional conditions and constitute the basis for municipal and regional planning and environmental impact assessments. The regional programmes should be coordinated with the nationcil1 programme insofar as is possible.

Tlle third type of monitoring is the control of the percentage of some substances in e.g. sewage water before it is discharged. This control is managed by the polluter but the County Council or the municipality is responsible for the inspection. • Most large environmental problems cannot be solved by a specific country alone on individual basis. There is a demand for international co-operation. Monitoring therefore is an important field of international co-operation. In several air and marine conventions different nationäl monitoring programmes are co-ordinated in international monitoring programmes such as the Helcom Baltic monitoring programme and corresponding Osparcom moniloring programme for the North Sea.

Environmental monitoring is by character a lang-term activity. All kinds of monitoring must be allocated adequate resources in order to guarantee continuity and stability.

3.4 RESEARCH

Nature resources comprise a very broad field - all the values, material or emotional which man may usa today or in the future. By using natural resources man has an impact . on its environment. At the same time environmental changes have an influence on man itself. Ta make this interaction clear is a centräl task for the environmental research. It means e.g. to assess methods and achieve results, that makes it possible to maintain • and create a sustainable environment andlor to give.guidelines about methods which guarantee the use or multiple use of natural resources in a most rational way. The lowest common denominator for all environmental research is the focus on biological problems.

Environmental research should be characterized by co-ordination, overview and . competence and should effectively earn its receiver. Results ofresearch is the basis for forming a judgernent arid for measures t6 be taken. The main tasks of the eiwiionmental research are, (Arion., 1992c):

to survey, analyse and follow up environmental changes which occur in the surrounding environment

19 to elucidate the effects these of changes

to support the development of measurements, which counteract and prevent unfavourable environmental changes

to find ways tor using natural resources in a sustainable manner and

to inform continuosly about research results and their meaning.

Environmental problems will change over time. Simplified you ean say that the picture will change trom intensive, loeal and reversible impacts to diffuse, regional and irreversible impacts. This is valid tor the impact ot chemieal as weil as physical parameters. From the Swedish point of view, you can say that discharges trom pointsources have decreased, while discharges from diffuse sources still give big problems. In addition to this comes discharges trom other countries. Delayed discharges trom products is another increasing problem.

The main threats to the marine environment in Sweden come trom gases affecting the earth c1imate, the depletion of the ozone layer, nutrients from agriculture and traffie, longe range transport of air pollution over Europe, transboundary trade ot chemicals and hazardous wastes, pollution trom international shipping, exploitation ot land and water tor housing, industrial purposes and intrastructure and water borne pollutions trom land based sourees, point sourees as weil as diffuse sourees.

Marine science is the basis for the appropriate use of coastal and marine resourees. The science shall also find out what means are required to attain optimal balance between exploitation and proteetion in the marine environments.

The marine scienee present new knowledge perpetually. New teehnies are developed to make research more effective Le. remote sensing from satellites, airborne magnetie measurements, side seanning zonar, hydroacoustie and laser teehnie, robotics, communications, imaging analysis.

The problems eoneerning the environment and the natural resources whieh we ean foresee are in several respeets more severe than earlier. It is important that we ean protect our Iiving environment for future generations. The environmental research helps. us to take the right deeisions about measures to be taken and which management instruments to be used.

It is neeess~ry that each country build up a sufficient competence of research. This also implies a readiness to make positive contributions to international research work. It is important to develop the international co-operation concerning environmental research in the marine field from nature scientific and socio-economic point of view.

20 . '''' '-"', 3.5 BASIC STRATEGIES FOR PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT

The Swedish Environrrientai Protectian Agency, the Swedish EPA has idenlified 13 areas of fundamental importance for protecting the environment - including human health, bio· logieal diversity, natural resources, natural and culturallandscapes. Measures and environmental research and development managed by the agency are focused on these threats with the lang-term aim to attain an environmentally sound society. (Anon., 1992c.)

1. Gases affecting the Earth's climate

2. Depletion of the ozone layer

3. Acidification of soil and water

4. Phatochemical oxidants and ground level ozone •• 5. Urban air pollution and neise 6. Eutrophicatian of seas, lakes and inland water\Vays

7. Metal pollution

8. Organic environmental poisons

9. Gemeration and dissemination of new "synthetic" organisms

10 Natural resources and nature conservation

11. Utilization of bedrock, gravel, peat and minerals

12. ExploitaÜon of land and water for housing, industrial plants and infrastructure

13 Waste and hazardous residues

Of these threats c:omments are önly made to the eutroficaÜon and persistant organlc polIu tants in this context, which from Swedish point of view at the moment are the most severe threats.

Eutrophication

Eutrophication means a change tawards a more r1Utrient-rlch condition. Eutrophicationef sea areas accompanied byintense mass growth cf alga8, has been recorded in the past few decades in many coastal waters around the world. Some of tliese algal species pro duce toxins. Toxic algal blooms as such are nothing.new. However, tha problem has grown considerably and is now giving rise to serious c6ncern.

21 Water born antropogenic discharges of nutrients from Swedish landbased sources to the surrounding sea areas come trom different sectors ot the community. For nitrogen 42,2% comes trom agriculture, 9,8% trom torestry, 23,4% trom industry and 37,5 trom the sewage sector. For phosphorous 21 % comes from agriculture, 2,0% trom forestry, 28,4% trom industry and 48,7% from the sewage sector. (Lindahl et.al., 1993.)

Input of antropogenic nitrogen to the Baltic and the seas west of Sweden need to be re duced by at least 50% in relation to levels from the mid-1980s, while phosphorous shall not be allowed to increase according to the Helcom and Osparcom conventions. The reductions needed to meet the long time environmental objectives, are related to measure measures in sewage plants, housing, vehicles etc. combined with changes in sectors such as energy, transport and agriculture.

Although the primary reason tor having waste water treatment plants is to protect the receiving waters, there are many other aspects that has to be taken into consideration when assessing the environmental aspects of industrial and municipal effluents. Gradually, it has become increasingly clear that it as necessary to assess the effects of waste water emis sions and waste water treatment more comprehensively. There is in Sweden a rather good control of the nutrient load trom point sources. However the input of nutrients from non ~.lt sources are more difficult to take measures against.

Like other intensive farming operations, large scale aquaculture entails discharges of . nutrients and organic material. Nutrients from aquaculture facilities - mostly nitrogen but even phosphorous are of great concern in Sweden. All our municipalities and industries have in accordance to the Environmental Protection Act been forced to pay billions of SEK to reduce phosphorous and nitrogen in sewage treatment facilities. That have led to essen tial reduction of the nutrient load to coastal waters. The nutrient space created is aimed to a beUer environment, not to be filled by outlets from a new activity. This kind of view has of cource implications on the Swedish approach to mariculture in the Baltic, where the reduc tion of the nutrient is one of the main objectives in the frame of the Helsinki Convention.

Persistent organic pol/utants

It has emerged that some highly stable organic compounds- mainly halogenated hydrocar bons- can have serious environmental effeets in the sea. Use and emissions of a numb~ of persistant organie compounds have decreased dramatically in Sweden. For instanee poorly documented pesticides have been banned and a number of compounds in industrial use have been Iimited. The goal is t6 continue to prevent these poisons from affecting the environment and human health. Emissions of persistent organie substanees shall ultimately cease, the use of chlorinated solvents shall be discontinued by 1995 and the use of pestieides shall be cut by half by 1996. (Anon., 1990e.)

However, we are far from achieving the long-term objective of no input to the environment of man-made toxie organie pollutants. A strategy to reduce the load of persistent organie compounds must be based on the precautionary prineiple.lt is neeessary to prevent these compounds from being discharged into the environment. As is the case with metals, the problems assoeiated with old products, waste and contaminated sites will probably aUract inereasing attention.

22 . '

. , " .. ~'. ,•. " 'i .... 4. EXAMPLES HOW SWEDISH LEGISLATION IS APPLIED

4.1 AQUACULTURE

The Environmental Protection Act is delt with by the CourityCounciL All kinds,of large fish aquaculture operations need apermit according to ttie act Production units of more than 10 tonnes need such apermit, while plants less Ulan 10 tonnes only need a notifieation t6 the County CounciL A basic principle for the siting of fish aquaculture in a lake er in a coastal area is that the plant must not use more than 1/3 of the nutrient space, (Anon. 1993). '

Apermit is always connected to conditions, that may encompass:

Nutrient load per year

Maximum amount of fish to be held in the culture ,...... ' Feed consumption per year Feed coefficient

Claims on the feed conceming phosphorous arid nitrogen coritent and energy tumover

According t6 the act ths conditions for the permitted aquaculture are mandatory and controlled through a control programme. A proposal for such a programme should always be accompanied with the application. The contral is delt with by the County Council or the municipality. '

The Nature Concervancy Act involves ameng other things examination according to shore protectiori. For production units less than 10 tonnes and within the shoreprotection area a permit according to the Act is needed.

The Physical Plannlng and BUilding Aet is delt with by the local munl6ipality. According to the act a local planning pennit is needed for alliandbased facilities, i.e ahouse, aparking • place or a bridge. Aquaculture also needs apermit accordirig t6 the Fishery Act, thatregulate the risk for introduction.,of fish diseases arid transfers of fish and shellfish. The sct is delt with by the County Council. A permit is often combined with special conditions conceming:

Species that are allowed to raise in the culture

Membership to fish health control

Sanitation and slaughter procedures at the outbrake of diseases

23 Instructions to avoid introduction of fish diseases and transfers of organisms.

Landbased aquaculture facilities where fresh water is taken from a lake, river or ground water also need apermit for derivation of water according to the Water Act. Cage operations are excempted for examination according to the Water Act.

Figure 3. Examination of an application of a permit to start a fishfarm - an overview of the Aquaculture permitting process.

JI The operator (I

With permission by the owner to use the land/water and with an Environmental Impact Assessment. Application / Cancern fishfarms more than 10 I I tannes. For fishfarms less than 10 tannes a notification to the municipa- Iity is enough. •

11 Municipality 11 The County ___ Control according to the Natural Administrative ---- Resources Act and examination Board according to the Environmental . Protection Act, the Fishery Act and the Nature Conservancy Act. Techni cal and advisory services can be provided by the EPA.

Exhibition Announcement A notice is inserted in local news I I papers stating that the iterri is avai lable for inspection/consultations with other b6dies, e.g. the municipality and shipping administration. Meeting I - Will be held in the community where• the aclivity is to be established. Decision I Decision I

Local planning Environmental Permit 11 permit

24 1 First the farmer needs apermission from the owrier of land arid water to use the larid arid water resources for aquaculture.

2. If the operation is more than 10 tonnes the farmer sands in anapplication to the County Council for the supervision according to the Natural ResOlirces Act and for examination according to the Fishery Act, the Environmental Protection Act arid the Nature Conservimcy Act. Apermit from the County CouncU will iriclude detaUed ccirlditions on the development. Adecision acc6rding to the Environmental ProteCtion Act must complywith existing physieal plans.The operator must pay a fee for the examination, at the moment 75 SEKItonne. If the operation is less than 10 tennes it's enough with a notificätion to the muniCipality.( Other aquaculture operations than fishfarms e.g. musselfarms follow the same examiriation procedure but the Environmental Proteetion Act is not included. For laridbased operations, which rieed withdrawal of water, the Water Act is included.)

3. The CountyCouncU inform the municipality about tlle application. According to the Physieal Planning and BuUding Act a loeal siting permit is needed, concerning facilities on land. The operation mayaiso need specific permits/regulatiöns according t6 other laws.

~ ,. . , ~. . 4.2 BUILDING OF A BRIDGE BETWEEN SWEDEN AND DENMARK

2S according to other laws.

2. The industries involved in the construction set up a special consortium to manage applications and the building activities in connection with the construction of the bridge. The consortium was responsible tor the application, including an Environ mental Impact Assessment, that was sent to the Government.

3. The Government sent the application to about 80 different bodies tor reviews. Among them to the Water Court tor examination if the bridge was acceptable according to the Water Acl. The answer trom the Water Court was yes.The National Licensing Board examined if there were any obstacles with regard to the Environ mental Protection Acl. The answer trom the Board was that the bridge was not acceptable. Among responsible but not permitting authorities the National Environ mental Protection Agency said yes, while the National Fishery Board said no.

4. After the review the government examined the item and its decision was a siting permit tor the bridge.

5. The item was now sent back to permitting authorities - the Water Court arid the • National Licensing Board tor Environmental Protection - tor detailed conditions tor the development, including binding conditions tor all emissions and discharges as weil as mandatory environmental statements and monitoring programmes. Loeal planning permits in accordance with the Building and Planning Act are needed and is approved by the municipality. Such permits are expressed in the torm ot a statutory planning document, which include details about the loeation of the proposed construction within the selected site, building volumes, safeguarding zones, infrastructure service etc. Several other permits according t6 different sector laws concerning specific detailed regulations are also needed.

After all permits needed have been obtained the Project operation phase starts. This phase involves construction, project operation and contro!. The controlling pr06ess is subdivided into two control operations. The first control operation concerns building and site inspections, while the second control operation concerns polluting activities involving monitoring programmes, the ealibration of monitoring equipment, the updating of as weil as information on monitoring results, monitoring journals and reporting. Some monitorin~ and control programmes continues after the construction have been finished. The Count~ Council and the Swedish EPA are responsible for the inspection of the regulations and monitoring activities, including co-ordination with corresponding Danish authorities.

26 Figure 4. An overvle•W of the direction of the Öresund bridge between Sweden and Denmark.

•

27 Figure 5. An overview of the Examination of a big construction according to the Natural Resources Act (NRA). (National Licensing Board for Environment Proteetion = NLBEP; Swedish EPA = Swedish Environmental Proteetion Agency.)

Application By the Consortium including an EIA

Govemment Review according to NRA

WaterCourt NLBEP Swedish EPA ------Fishery Agency ------Shipping Administration County Administrative Board Municipality Other bodies

I Decision/Pennit I ", ~ .....< ....-- -.... ,,1 ...... -- > -- • I 'I County Administrative Board.... 1- - --- " I .... ,/ ./ ,.....-----'------. -- NLBEP Municipality OtherActs

WaterCourt i Examination and Examination and detailed Examination according Detailed regu detailed regulation regulation according to the to the Planning and lations on: according to the Environmental Protection BuildingAct -shipping

Water Act Act # - road traffic - sand! gravel Review Review ] Review/Consultation exeavation ete Announcement Announcement Exhibition • Meeting Meeting .. Decision/Pennit Decision/Pennit Local siting Special with conditions with conditions pennits pennits

Inspection and Monitoring

28 5. THE PLANNING OF A COASTAL MUNICIPALITY

According ta the Swedish Planning and Buiiding Act every Municipality shall have a comprehensiv physical plan which comprises the whole municipality. The plan shall cover ground and water areas, their use and how potential activities will influence changes and the eonservation of valuable parts of the Munieipality. This plan shall also include areas of national interest according to the Natural Resources Act. .In the latter act it is stated that the ground water and the physieal environment shall be used in a way that the require-ments from ecologieal, social and socio-economic points of view are satisfied and good management is promoted.

5.1 LYSEKIL MUNICIPALITY

In this context we have chosen a caastal Municipality, Lysekil, on the Swedi~h west-coast as an example cif how such a plari was made, when taken into cansideration the national, regional and loeal interests.

• The Municipality is situated on the west-coast at N 580 and E 11° about 120 km north of Gottlenburg. In the north-west there is another coastal Municipality, Sotenäs, and in the south-east, Orust Municipality, (Fig. 6). At the border line to the north and west there is an inland Municipality,Munkedal and a caastal Municipality Uddevalla. The Lysekil Municipality runs out to the territorialborder, 12 nautical miles outside the baseline, to the west. . Management regulations according to the Natural Resouree Act run out to 3 nautieal miles from the baseline.

The Lysekil Municipality is divided into 7 areas for planning purposes (Fig. 7). Long fiords, Abyfjorden, Brofjorden and GUllmam, run in north-east directions and in addition to that there is an archipelago with lots of islands arid outside that the open sea.

The total land area is about 20 km by 12 km. The number cf people living in the Municipality is about 16 000. In summer time there are a lot of tourists amounting t6 2-3 times the normal population. There is one densely populated area in the south-west. The iridustries of Lysekil has earlier been domiriated by eanning industries, service industries for shipping fisheries, and steel manufacturing industries. The region is now dominated by the oil refinery, which • was built in 1971. The Municipality is well-know for its beautiful sceneries, nice nature canservaÜon areas arid the unique "marine reserve" of the Gullmarn fiord. Already in 1830 marine biologieal investigatioQs started in the fiord. The Kristineberg Marine Research Station was founded in the 1878 and is the oldest marine scientific station.in the world. Royal Academy of Scienees and University of Got~enburghare the heads of the station. Uppsala university has also got a research station in the fiord, Klubban researCh station. At the entrance of the fiord ttle Institute of Marine Research, National Board of Fisheries, is situated.

The Gullmar fiord is well-known by marine biologists from the whole woi-ld. Ths.fiord is unique for its flora and fauna arid the fiord itselfis theonlyreal fiord in Sweden with a sill at the entrance of 40 m depth. Toe deepest part cf the fiord is 120 m. The Gullmar fiord is iJivaluable

29 for scientists. The Gullmar fiord was the first protected marine area in Sweden although it is . not a marine reserve in the common sense of that word.

5.2 THE NATIONAL INTERESTS OF LYSEKIL MUNICIPALITY

The national interests in the Lysekil Municipality and for which land- and coastal areas are allocated comprise of;

Nature conservation

Culture conservation

Leisure Iife

Professional fisheries

Industrial production Energy distribution • Roads

Railways

Shipping

Military defence

The plan was published in 1991 (Anon., 1991) and it covers the following sections; (1) Prerequisites for the plan with regard to relevant Swedish Acts. (2) Special working directions with regard to the characteristic prerequisites for the Municipality Lysekil. (3) The demands on coastal waters and the sea (4) Description of the environment (5) The Plan for the coastal area and the sea (6) Measures to be taken to decrease the impact of various substances in the sea areas outside the Municipality. (7) A list of further work and investigations. •

30 5.3 ACTIVITIES AND INTERESTS AND COHERENT CONFLICTS ÄND COMPETITION

The Plan reports on the demands from various activities and interests of värious users cf the coastal strip and the coherent conflicts competition with other users of the same areas. Below the activities and interest are reported in the form of a table for further discussions below. .

Activities and interests Conflicts and competition

Water as recipient Quality of Iife, fishing,tourism

Clean coastal water 1. Nitrogen sources agriculture, treatment plants, traffic,air pollution. 2. Innuence from municipalities, iridustries 3. Insufficient treatment plimts 4. Nutrient supply from rivers 5. Discharge of toxie substances • Industrh!s and various 1. Lefsure Iife, untouched beaches establishments 2. Run off water 3. Discharge of treated sewage water increases.

Urban setthiment 1. Leisure Iife, untouched beaches and landscape parioramalseascape , ,", " " 2. Run off water arid pollution are discharged into' the sea areas 3. Discharge of treated sewage water increases.

Technical support 1. Cable constructiön destroy plant arid animal life 2. Cables are problems for fisheiy, anchors etc.

Energy production 1~ Obstacles for shipping, fishe..y, military defence Wind, wave arid 2. Impact on the panorama view, noise impact on oil power plants leisure life . 3~ Discharge of cooiing water and treated sewage water

Shipping 1. Competition of space with fishery, aquaculture, lE!isure life etc. 2. Shipping can damage cables, fishing gears ete. 3. The environment is innuenced by taxic anlifou lants, discharge from vessals, noise elc. 4. Transporlation of environmentally dangered goods. 5. Military activities, under wider explosion.

31 Aquaculture 1. Navigable routes are restricted 2. The interest of leisure life for untouched nature 3. Discharges from cage cultivation 4. Competition with professional and recreational fisheries.

Conservation 1. All kinds of activities which cause pollution in the sea 2. Dredging, dumping, harbours, buoys which destroys animal and plant lifes. 3. Changing of the panorama view. 4. Establishments which prevent the access to leisure life areas. 5. Wear and tear of nature areas and the impact of fauna due to too intensive leisure life.

5.4 THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

Changes in the sea environment have been noted during this eentury. Low oxygen eoneentrations in the bottem water have been observed in the 1980's in the Gullmar fiord.• Changes in the bottomfauna and in the phytoplankton flora have been noted. In the Brofjorden, where the oil refinery is located, inereased amounts of zinc, cadmium, lead, vanadium and hydrocarbons have been found. Due to the influenee of the sea, nutrient load has increased in the eoastal area. In the beginning of 1980's a net supply of 550 tonnes of nitrogen and 220 tonnes of phosphorous per year were transported from the deep water in the Gullmar fiord through the discontinuity layer up to surface water.

5.5 THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COMPREHENSIVE PHYSICAl PLAN

The starting point for the planning was above all (1) the water renewal in the area, (2) the bottom eonditions, (3) the biological production and the water quality.

In the plan the confliet between various uses are discussed e.g. the industrial activities versus water quality. Various national interests eome also in conflict with each others e.g. valuable areas tor fish reproduction and industries, fishing areas versus routes tor 11 shipping ete.

The use of the water as recipient tor sewage treatment plants, urban settlements are discussed in detail and measures are proposed to alleviate the impact of discharged water (fig.8).

The conservation of the coastal area is anational interest for conservation of relies of ancient eulture and leisure Iife itself influence the area by building harbours for leisure boats. The beaches are sensible tor the impact of water quality (Fig. 9). . Sites far aquaculture, fishing, trading ports, dumping, shipping routes, marine platfarms and military activities are analysed.

• This comprehensive plan with its priorities will for a three years period become a basis for examination of items in the municipality according to laws managed by central or regional authorities (Fig. 10).

5.5.1.Areas with provisions and special regulations which are under examination of the County Adminstrative Board

Witri the starting points from all types of interests recommendations and provisions are made for various water and land areas according to Nature Conservancy Act.

1. Provisions are made for nature conservation reSeNeS and nature conservaiion areas.

2. There are special provisions for the Gullmar fiord. It is forbidden forlots of activities as dumping, introduction of new animal and plant species, competition for . motorboats, underwater blasting work etc. And it is forbidden without special permission from the County Council Board t6 establish aquaculture operations, collecting animals, dumping, build new ports etc. • 3. interinies protection is given to certain areas before special investigations have been made.

4. Provisions for bifd protection areas are made.

33 7. Rivers valuable for reproduction of sea trout.

8. Other water areas of importance for recreation, leisure life, shipping, fishing, nature conservation and military activities.

5.5.3.Recommendations for discharged water and new building

Detailed information for all important areas.

5.5.4. Measures to alleviate the impact on the sea environment

Under this heading special regulations are given for various treatment plants for the municipality and industries.

Lots of detailed plans for all kinds of activities related to the densely populated areas, industries, ship yards,ports, bathing places handling of dangerous goods, shipping routes within the municipality, proposals for agriculture establishments, forestry etc.

5.5.5. A plan for the use of water resources and treatment plants

Within this section of the plan measure to alleviate the impact on the recipient is • discussed. The development of future building activities is analysed. Special plans for water and discharges in local areas are discussed with regard to increasing demands.

6. INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The international aspects of the uses of the coastal zone is an issue of growing concern. It's in the frame of these conventions and organizations that the international implications should be delt with. Environmental research and monitoring issues are of great impor tance in that respect. Public interest in mariculture and coastal zone management have recently been recognized in many parts of the world which is expressed by the growing • number of international canferences.

At the sametime as management of different caastal and marine resources have to be delt with by the local level, where the activity exists, while environmental and economical impacts of tbat activity have a broader scape. It means that regional, sometimes national and international aspects also have to be taken into cansideration.

Serious environmental problems in one cauntry are sometimes caused directly or indirectly by operations in other countries. Pollution is transported by air and water across large areas. Goods and products are transported between different cciuntries as a result of international trade. Many problems must be solved by international actions. Internatio nal co-operation is therefore of increasing importance (Fig. 11).

34 From the first international UN Conference on the Human Environment in 1972 up to and beyond the Rio Conference 199.2, Sweden has given priority to international co-operation on environmental issues. Sweden is also a party to a number of international eonventions for the protection of the environment.

., ..... f'·'. 6.2 MARINE CONVENTIONS

The Helsinki Convention, Helcom (the Baltie Sea)

Tlie Paris and Oslo Conventions, Ospareom (the North Sea and the North Atlantic)

The Bonn Agreement (the North Sea)

The London Convention (global)

'The Marpol Convention (global).

The main aim of marine eonventions is to embody developments in international environ mental policy and law in order to extend and strengthen the legal regime for the protection of the marine environment in an area. Fundamental principals of environmental protec tion adopted of the Swedish government are:

THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPAL, which means that in case of uncertainty, authödties can aet to prevent, for exampl, the usa of aehemicals without eonclusive evidence of its detrimental effects on human health or the envirönment.

THE POLLUTER PAYS PRINCIPAL means that the polluter or the person responsible is to bear the costs of operations.

THE BEST AVAlLABLE TECHNOLOGY. If guidelines orstandards are established aslargets for environmental protection, it doesn't mean that the field is left open for pollution up to the maximum 1E3veLThe best availabletechnology should be used to rninimize the discharges. THE BEST ENVIRONMENTAL PRACTISE means, if demands are made i.e. substitution of hazardous substances.

~ , . ",~, . RESPECT FOR MAN'S AND THE ENVIRONMENTS TOLERANCE LIMITS. The • environmental targets that are to govern sustainable development of the soCiety must be based on man'sand the environment's own tolerance limits vis-a-vis pollutants and other damages to tlie environment.

RESF'"ECT FOR EACH COUNTRY'5SUPREMACY OVER ITS ENVIRONMENT is an importsnt principal, intendedto safeguard a eountry's right to be the masterof its own environment. It means that eaCh nation ha~ a responsability for its .coastal and marine waters but has also ä responsibility that the uses ofthese waters do nöt have detrimentous effects on waters belonging to another state.

3S Among conventions and organizations that are working with aquaculture management related to environmental and natural resources issues the following can be mentioned:

* The Helsinki Convention. HELCOM is a convention on the protection of marine environment of the Baltic Sea area, The convention is dealing with pollutions fram all possible sources. 1992 a revised Convention was signed. At the same time new provisions were introduced with regard to e.g. environmental impact asssessment, nature conservancy and information to the public.The permanent commission work in close co-operation with other intergovernmental organizations and with NGO:s.

* The 0510 and Paris Convention. OSPARCOM deals with issues on marine pollution from landbases sources, on dumping and all kind of impacts on the marine environment not just from pollutions but also from different activities.

* The London Convention is agIobaI convention on protection of the sea from dumping including radioactive wastes. The Convention also covers inceneration at seal The Convention is managed by the International Maritime Organi~ation, IMO. in London. A commission is responsible for the work of the Convention.

* The Nordic Environmental Protection Convention contains rules on mutual considerations at examinations of activities harmful for the environment.

* The Convention for the Barents region and the Rovaniemi-process for the protection of arctic areas. A special advising committee, the Barents Council, has been established to coordinate the work. This Council has adopted a Barents Region Environment Action Programme with the overall aim of protecting the arctic environment and promoting sustainable development. For this purpose a joint Task Force of experts is established. The Task Force should further develop selected projects under five areas of the Action Programme - radioactive pollution, environ mental management, pollution from industrial activities, nature conservation and co-operation between local and regional authorities.

* The Bonn Convention deals with the protection of migrating animals mainly birds itJ... the convention area, which embraces the North Sea and the Baltic. The conventioW also comprises an agreement on the protection of small cetaceans.

* The Bonn Agreement is an agreement between the North Sea states on co-opera tion tor.. combatting oil spills. * The Gdansk Convention is a convention on co-operation between Baltic Sea states to preserve and improve the Iiving resources in the areal The International Baltic Sea Fishery Commission is responsible tor the management of the convention.

Besides these marine conventions there are other environmental conventions of importance for the marine areas around Sweden Le. the ECE-convention on Long-Range Transboundary Transport of Air Pollution and the Global Con'vention on Biological

36 Diversity.

~ ." ~ 'l- 6.3 ORGANIZATIONS DEALING WITH MARINE ISSUES

, i • There are a lot of international organizations working in tne marine field. In most organizations the marine activity is a minor part of the work. Tnere are, however, several organizations which only have marine aetivities in their programmes. International organizations of special importance for Swedish marine activities are: . . THE FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION, (FAO/UN), works with fishery and aquaculture issues under the UN-system as weil as with agriculture and forestry. FAO is the most important UN organization with responsibility for fishery. It's a global center tor discussion, advice and information exchange on both fisheries and aquaculture. Besides its regular budget FAO also manage financial support from international arid national development aid organizations. It's . committee on Fisheries is one of its important advising committees. The committee deals with water pollution in relation to the protection oHne Iiving resources. FAO works together with regional Commissions as co-ordinating bodies to countries concerning the use and protection of the living resources in a region Le. NEAFC, • the North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission outside the 200 nautic miles limit. In the North Sea area the Commission only works with the regulation ef fishing gears.

THE INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION, (IMO) is a UN organization for shipping and navigation. It works with security on board, protection of ttie marine environment against pollutions trom ships, legal and teCtmical advises. A special eommiUee tne Marine Environment Protection Comrriittee, (MEPC) deals with environmental issues. IMO has the responsibilities for several conventions dealing with the marine environment e.g. the international convention to prevent ,. marine pollution from ship, MARPOL 73nS, that entered into force in 1983. In 1986 IMO started its work regarding the issue of Particular Sensitive Areas, defined as an area which needs special protection becäuse of its significance fer recognised ecological or socio-economic or scientific reasons and which may be vulnarable to damage by maritime activities.

THE INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL FOR THE EXPLORATION OFTHE SEA, (ICES) is the oldest intergovernmental organization in the world. The principal • functions are to promote, encourage, develop and coordinate marine research and to provide scientific advice to member governments and regulatorycommissions concerning fisherY and environmental issues. ICES deals with aquaculture ' ... ' research in its Mariculti.ire CommiUee. A working group under this committee is the WG on Environmentsl interactions of Mariculture. Its researCh refleCts the interactions of mariculture with ether human activities in coastal areas.

UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME, (UNEP) is co-ordinating the UN-system achivements for protection of the environment. On the marine side UNEP works with regional converitions to develop the control of pollutions. This work is developed within the, Ocean and Coastal Artias Programme, which is managed in co-operation with other UN organizations.

37 INTERGOVERNMENTAL OCEANOGRAPHIC COMMISSION (IOC), is responsible . for UNESCO:s marine scientific programme. IOC shall develop and support scientific investigations by co-ordinating the work of member countries to increase the knowledge of the marine environment and its resources.

UNITED NATION LAW OF THE SEA CONVENTION, (UNCLOS). will entry into force in November 16, 1994. The interimistic organization that has been respon sible for the management of the convention will then be a permanent organization. It's responsibilities in the UN system are under discussion. .

WORLD AQUACULTURE SOCIETY, (WAS) is an international organization to promote the development of aquaculture in the world. It works through different commiUees and arrange international symposia and conferences in co-operation with other organizations.

EUROPEAN AQUACULTURE SOCIETY, (EAS) is a European organization work ing with development of aquaculture in Europe. The organization supports inter disciplinary research and arranges international conferences. It is associated to the World Aquaculture Society. . •

INTERNATIONAL ARCTIC SCIENCE COMMITTEE, (IASC) is a scientific body co ordinating artic research. In the arctic co-operation there are special co-ordination programmes e.g. AMAP - Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme.

THE EUROPEAN UNION, (EU) is an intergovernmental organization which aims at a beUer integration between different European states. The member countries take decisions together which are implemented by the Commission. Europe is gradually growing into a new, more integrated unity, with a rich manyfaced identity as weil as numerous joint interests - political, cultural, economic and scientific. EU co operates with other organizations and conventions covering e.g. the coastal and sea areas of the member countries. Concerning the use of natural resources and environmental Protection EU is co-ordinating different activities for example the fisheries and research in the member countries. The European frame-work programme in the field of research sets out aims and priorities for research support over periods of five years. The aims of the research are: to improve the industrial competition • to exploit the advantageous of the inner market

to support a sustainable development of the society and to protect the human health and the quality of Iife.

EU:s forth frame-programme for research consists of 15 subprogrammes. Several of those subprogrammes are open for applications related to aquaculture e.g. Agriculture and agro industrial research, Environment, Marine sience and technology and Bio-technology.

38 .'".. "

8. REFERENCES

Ackefors,H. and S. Fonselius, 1968. Preliminary investigations on the effect of Marine Sand and Gravel extraction. Medd. Havsfiskelab., Lysekil no 58, 10 pp.

Ackefors ,H., K Grip and N. Holmström-Dhejne (Eds.)., .1982. VattenbrukfÖrSvei"ige. Förslag till ätgärder. (Aquaculture for Sweden. Proposals for actions to be taken). FRN, Rapport 82:14, 112pp, ISBN 91-86174-16-9.

Ackefors, H.; KMurray and H. Rosenthai, 1984. Development of Aquaculture in Asia. A European View. ICES, C.M. 1984/F:3, Mariculture Committee, 38 pp.

Ackefors H. and K Grip, 1985. Musslor och Ostron. En ny näringsgren för svenska västkusten. (Musseis and oysters. A new. branch of the industry on the Swedish west-coast). FRN, Rapport 85:2,84 pp., ISBN 91- 86174-25-8.

Ackefors, H. arid J. Haamer, 1987. A New Swedish Technique For Culturing Blus Musse\. • ICES, C.M. 1987/ K:36, Shellfish Committee, Ref. Mariculture Committee, 7 pp. Ackefors, H. and M. Enell, 1990. Discharge of Nutrients from Swedish Fish Farmirig tö Adjacent Sea Areas. AMBIO, Vol 19{1 ):28-35.

Ackefors, H., N Johansson and B. Wahlberg, 1991. The Swedish compensatory programme for salmon in the Baltic: an action plan with biological and econömic impliea tions. ICES mal'. Sei. Symp., 192: 109-119.

Anon., 1982. Fär Jag Lov? Vattenbrukets juridik. (May I get a license? The legal aspect cif aquaculture.) FRN, Rapport 82:6.73 pp. , ISBN 91-86174-07-X.

Anon., 1990a. Sjöfartens Miljöeffekter. Inventering och förslag till ätgärder.. (The environmentid effects of shipping. Analyses and proposals for measures). Sjöfartsverket (Swedish National Maritime Administration), Norrköping, Sweden.

Anon., 1990 ti Marine Pollution '90. Action Programme. Swedish Environmental Protecticiri Agency. ISBN 91-620-1084-0, pp 165~

Anon., 1990c. A Iiving Environment. The Swedish Government Bill 1990/91:90, 288 pp.

iman.; 1991.Översiktsplan 90. Lysekil Municipality, coastai water and sea. County Board of Göteborg and Bohuslän, Natural Sea Resources Commission, Environ mental Protection Agency, Boverket. 89 pp.

Anon., 1992a. Fritidsfiskefiskeutredningen.{lnvestigatiori on Recreational fis~eries). Fiskeristyrelsen och Statistiska centralbyrän (National Fishery Board and Statistieal Board). ISBN 91-618-0387-1, 55 PI),

39 Anon.• 1992b. Rapport om kartläggningen av förekomsten av dumpade kemiska stridsme- . deI pa den svenska delen av kontinentalsockeln. Sjöfartsverket. (A report on Investigations of the Existence of Dumped Chemical Weapons on the Swedish Part of the Continental Shelf. National Maritime Administration).

Anon.• 1992c. Forskning och utveckling för bättre miljö. (Research and development for a better environment). Naturvärdsverket (Swedish Environmental Agency) Report 4062. ISBN 91-620-4062-6. 97 pp.

Anon.• 1993. Fiskodling, Planering. TiIIständ. Tillsyn. (Fish culture, Planning. License. Supervision). Naturvärdsverket (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency) 93:10. ISBN 91-620- 0080-2. 90 pp.

Anon.• 1994. Persistent Organic Pollutants. A Research Programme for the Period 1992/93-1997/98. Naturvärdsverket (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency) ISBN 91-620-4283-1. 56 pp.

Barg. U.C.• 1992. Guide-Iines for the promotion of environmental management ofcoastal aquaculture development. FAO Fish.tech.Paper 328. 122pp. ISBN 92-5':'103264-5. •

Chua.T.-E. and L.F. Scura.(eds.) 1992. Integrative Framework and Methods for Coastal Area Management. ICLARM. Conf. Proc. 12.169 pp. ISBN 971-8709-32-0.

Clark. J.R.. 1992. Integrated management of coastal zones. FAO Fish. Tech. Paper 327. 167 pp. ISBN 92-5-103275-0.

DSH. 1985. Fysisk Planering av Kustvatten och Hav. (Physical Planning of Coastal Water and Sea Areas). Havsresursdelegationen. Naturvardsverket och Planverket (Swedish Marine Resources Commission. Swedish Environmental Protection Agency and The National Agency for Physical Planning and Building). 1985:4. 117 pp.

DSH. 1989. Översiktlig Kustvatten Planering (Summary Planning of Coastal Waters). Havsresursdelegationen (Swedish Marine Resources Commission). Rapport 1989:2. 71 pp.

EIFAC. 1994. Effects of cormorant Predation on Fish Populations of Inland Waters. EIFACIXVII1/94/1nf.8. 29 pp. . • Elmgren. R. 1989. Man's impact on the ecosystem of the Baltic sea: Energy f10ws today and at the t!:Jrn of the century. AMBIO 18: 326-332.

FRP. 1978. Marin verksamhet och ansprak pa den marina miljön. Underlagsmaterial nr 6. 78. (Marine activity and demands on the marine environment. Basic material no 6. 78 Bostadsdepartementet (National Agency for Buildings).

Haamer. J.. 1977. Musselodling. Havets hängande trädgärdar. (Mussei culture. The suspended gardens of the sea). FORUM. ISBN 91-37-06594-7. 144 pp.

40 Lindahl,A.H., G. Persson ach H. Olsson, 1993. Eutrofiering av svenska kustomräden samt omgivande hav, tillständ, utveckling, orsaker och verkän ( Eutrophication of Swedish c~astal. ?reas and surrC?unding sea areas, Iicenses, development, ~ause and effect). Naturvardsverket (Swedish Environmental protection Agency) Rapport 4151, ISBN 91-620-4151-7,85, pp.

Monitor, 1988. Sweden's marine environment- ecosystems under pressure. NaturVärdsver• kat (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency.) ISBN 91-620- 1049-2, 207 pp.

Olsson, M, B. Karlsson och E. Ahnlund, 1992 Seals and seal proteetion: A Presentation of a Swedish Research Project. AMBIO 21 (8): 494-496..

Olsson, M, B. Karlsson och E. Ahnlund, 1994. Vad händer med sälarna ( What happen to the seals). Naturvärdsverket (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency). Rapp. 4254,72 pp. ISBN 9 1-620-4254-8.

Perssan, L.-E., 1983. Miljäeffekter av marin sand- och grustäkt (The environmental effects of marine sand and gravel extraction). Naturvärdsverket (Swedish Environmental . • Proteetion Agency), SNV PM 1719, 70 pp. ISBN 9 1 -7590-136-6. Pullin, RS.V., H. Rosenthai and J.L. Maclean, teds.) 1993. Environment and Aquacuiture in Developing Countries. ICLARM Conf. Proc. 31, 351, 359 pp. ISBN 971-8709-05-3.

Rosemberg, R{ed.), 1983. Odlingav blämusslor. (The cultivation of blue musseis.) SIGNUM. ISBN 91-85330-54-X, 127 pp.

Rosenberg, R (ed.) 1985. Biologisk värdering av grunda svenska havsomräden. Fisk och bottenfauna. (Biological assessment of shallow Swedish sea areas. Fish and bottomfauna.) Naturvärdsverket (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency), SNV PM 1911, 384 pp.

Rosenberg,R; (ed.) 1986. Eutrophication ofwaters surrounding Sweden.. Statens ., Naturvärdsverk (Swedish Envirorimental Pratection Ageney), Rapport 3054, ISBN pp. 137

SOU, 1971.Hushällning med Mark och Vattfm. (Manägement of Naturai Resourees.) 529 pp. ISBN 91-40-03311-2.

" • > ~. SOU, 1988. Läge fär Vindkraft. (Sites for wind energy.) 1988:32, ISBN 91-3810177-7,402 pp.

41 •

•

Fig. 1 The drainage basin of the Baltic Sea, the Danish Sounds and Kattegat. •

•

Fig. 2 Coastal and Marine areas of the system of Baltic Sea Protected Areas (BSPA). LYSEKILS KOMMUN \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \\ \ \ T'"._._._._...... _. . \ \ \ . \ \ \ \ \ Orusts kommun . \ L._._._._~_. ORUST \ \ \ Three nautic miles \ \

The territorial boundary The base fine

Fig 6 Boundaries of Lysekil municipality on the Swedish west-coast at N 58° and 11°. 120 km north of Gothenburg (the Skagerrak area). The comprehensive physical plan of Lysekil municipality. 1990. SOTENÄS

(

BOKENÄS

I~l!lllll tätort ORUST an oljcr:lffin:ldcri o 5 krr I Sk:ll:l 1:150000

Fig 7. Planning divisions of Lysekil' municipality.

o 1. ABYFJORDEN 5. STRÖMMARNA. SNÄCKEDJUPET 2. BROFJORDEN aCH ELLÖSEFJORDEN 3. TRÄLEBERGS KILE 6. SKÄRGÄRDEN 4. GULLMARN 7. ÖPPNA HAVET o

1I1l11m tatort t:m oljeraffinaderi

o 5km ,'" ',' , (' r Skala 1:150 000

~:""-..L.J.:L.l....Jje.~----_. - -_.. ..

Fig 8. The use of the recipient of Lysekil municipaiity. Sewage treatment faCiiities.

Sewage treatment plant Affected waterways j

SOTENÄS

\\\\1\\\1 tätort e ORUST an oljeraffinaderi

.... ,...... ,:' o 5km

.,.;.~~.-.--._~ Skala 1:150 000 . :. '.'

Fig. 9 Recreation and tourism

Small boat harbour Camping • Ä G Guest harbour 0 Tourist site with service • Natural small boat harbour •••••• Popular small boat route B Bathing piace aß Historical site , ." .• -,~" J., ...... ~'

Fig. 10 The comprehensive plan of Lysekil municipality.

_.- Municipality boundary

0000 Drainage area boundary

Nature conservancy restrietions

Fr Näture reserve

Fi Planned nature reserve

Ff Bird protection area

Fs Seal protection area e- Area with a detailed physical plan

Recommendations for marine areas • Rv1 Water area, where the municipality wants to have the possibility to rebuild or construct new small boat harbours.

Rv2 Water area of interest for harbour activities.

Rv3 Water area helonging to public harbour

c~ • Rv4 Water area for harbour activity related to Brofjorden industrial area -~~ - -~--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~------

AJlrr.Vll k&t1ln~I.uaJ trin l.anlm~l.ri.f Mfdg",anc. 1l9.0195 GodkW UI ••kfrt,nynpvnkt 10< .p

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Fig 11. The importance of International co-operation in the marine field is increasing.

Swedish Coastal Zone Management ­ a System for Integration of Various Activities

Swedish Coastal Zone Management a System for Integration of Various Activities