E01 Deforestation by Cash Crop Farming Distributed in Teknaf? Maiko Sakamoto1 and Masakazu Tani2 1University of Tokyo, e-mail: [email protected], 2Kyushu University, e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Serious deforestation is reported in the Teknaf peninsula in . Betel leaf cultivation is considered as one of the factors of forest degradation. This paper aims to examine an effective counter measure. First, questionnaire survey about the consciousness and individual attributes of the local population is conducted. Second, by using the survey data, economic and social factors for betel leaf cultivation are statistically analyzed. Third, the distribution of betel leaf cultivation is revealed in time series aspect, which is helpful to understand how characteristics of households that cultivate betel leaf have been changing. Based on the results of the analysis, effective measures for mitigating deforestation are examined.

INTRODUCTION Serious deforestation is observed in the Teknaf peninsula in Bangladesh. However, measures to mitigate deforestation have not been conducted sufficiently. Several factors for deforestation have been pointed out, including firewood collection by locals, migration into forest areas, and betel leaf cultivation. Betel leaf is a cash crop, which has been cultivated widely in the Teknaf peninsula. It requires the use of pan boroz, a facility that offers shade and protection for leaves against sunshine. Tani et al. [1] revealed that consuming forest resource for pan boroz Fig.1 Location of study site [2] construction has a certain impact on deforestation. To propose effective measures to mitigate deforestation caused by betel leaf cultivation, an essential step is to understand the living environment and attitude toward environmental conservation among locals. One village in Teknaf peninsula is selected as case study site. The location is shown in Fig. 1. First, questionnaire survey regarding consciousness and individual attributes of locals is conducted. Second, by using the survey data, economic and social factors for betel leaf cultivation are statistically analyzed. Third, the distribution of betel leaf cultivation is revealed in time series aspect, which is helpful to understand how characteristics of households that Fig. 2 Occupation cultivate betel leaf have been changing. Based on results of the analysis, effective measures for Fig.2 shows that 45% of households are farmers. mitigating deforestation are examined. Fig.3 shows that the annual income in this region is severely low; for comparison, income of non- MATERIALS AND METHODS manufacturing workers in urban areas is, on average, A. Questionnaire survey 20,000 taka/month, and hence, 240,000 taka/year [3]. The questionnaire survey was conducted in In Fig.4, all of the households are plotted September 2010 for all 207 households in the case corresponding to the year when they started betel leaf village. The survey was conducted by face-to-face cultivation. If a household does not cultivate betel meetings with the residents, based on prepared leaf, then its plot is zero in the y-axis. At the time of questions. The questions required “yes” or “no” the survey in 2010, 104 households have started betel answers as well as concrete digits and names. leaf cultivation, whereas 103 households have not. Fig. 2, Fig. 3, and Fig. 4 shows the occupation of Fig.3 shows that betel leaf cultivation has rapidly household residents, the annual income of expanded since about 30 years ago, around 1980. households, and the year when each household A summary of the answers to the questions related started betel leaf cultivation, respectively. to environmental attitude is shown in Fig. 5 and 6.

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of trees. The implication of these responses is that degradation has been underway in the past 10 years. As presented in Fig. 6, population increase is thought as a major cause of environmental change. Half of the households point to illegal logging as a cause of environmental change; thus, aside from natural factors, intentional activity is recognized as a cause of deforestation. These results contradict the current trend of increasing number of pan boroz and continuing deforestation. B. Statistical method

Fig. 3 Annual income In this study, economic and social factors behind betel leaf cultivation are statistically analyzed by using data collected by the questionnaire survey. A t-test is used to evaluate if the means from the two groups have a significant difference. The groups are identified as those households that cultivate betel leaf or not at the time of the survey (Note: identification of betel leaf cultivation was conducted separately from the questionnaire survey in March 2012). Table 1 lists the variables considered for the t-test. Table 1 Considered Variables Classification Variables

Fig. 4 Involvement period with betel leaf cultivation Personal - Number of family members property - Annual income Fig. 5 shows the answers to the question, - Annual income/number of family members “Comparing 10 years ago, what kind of change do - Amount of loan you notice in the natural/physical environment?” - Numbers of cows Fig.6 shows the answers to the question, “What is the - Number of goats cause of that environmental change?” - Number of chickens Attitude to - Attitude to improving environment environment - Complaint about actual situation - Recognition of environmental change Table 2. Questions for Variables Related to Attitude to Environment Variable Questions Attitude to - Access to forest should be regulated improving - Trees should be planted environment - Local people should act for reforestation - Illegal deforestation is a cause of Fig. 5 Answers on environmental change environmental change Complaint - Less grass, more cost of housing about actual materials situation - Need to buy wood from teknaf - Feel unwll because of environmental degradation - Insufficient food Recognition - Decreasing fish, in terms of catch of - Developed roads environment - Death of wild animals change - Less yield of crops - Increased temperature (climate)

The variables classified as attitude to environment Fig. 6 Answers on causes of environmental change are composed of answers to several questions. That is, t-test variables should be continuous ones; answers to As shown in Fig. 5, 194 out of 207 households these variables are either “yes” or “no” which are responded that they notice a decrease in the number discrete answers. Therefore, the summation of the

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answer “yes” to several questions composing each relationship of the starting period of cultivation and variable related to attitude to environment is used as the condition of the households in 2010. This data for each variable. Table 2 shows the questions connection reveals the distribution of betel leaf for each variable classified under attitude to cultivation in time series aspect, which is helpful to environment. understand how characteristics of households that The questions are composed to indicate that more started betel leaf cultivation have been changing. “yes” answers to each variable in Table 2 can be The periods are classified into four. The first interpreted as increased willingness among period is before 1975, namely, more than 35 years respondents to improve the environment, increased ago; the second period is from 1980 to 1985, namely, complaints about the actual situation, and increased around 25 to 30 years ago; the third period is from severity of environmental change. 1990 to 1995, namely, around 15 to 20 years ago; and the fourth period is from 2000 to 2010, namely, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION around 10 years ago. Because the dwellers’ answers A. Relationship of personal attributes and choice of are basically 5 years step, we have adopted those betel leaf cultivation at present time classification periods by just clustering their answers. This does not mean that there is a missing period in The difference in means of the variables listed in analysis. Table 1 between the two groups (betel leaf cultivators/non-cultivators) at the time of survey Table 4 Significant variables by t-test (each period)

(2010) is tested by t-test. Table 3 shows the variables Mean Sample size with significant difference in means between the two groups. For abbreviation, “with” represents cultivators group and “without” represents

ignificance non-cultivators group in the following tables. Period Variable S W 15 Table 3 Significant variables by t-test (2010) 1st N.A. N.A. N.A. WO 192 Variable Significance Mean W 26 Number of family With 7.3269 2nd N.A. N.A. N.A. 0.027 WO 181 members Without 5.1650 Number W 0.3200 W 25 Complaint about With 2.0385 3rd 0.084 0.071 of goats WO 0.6978 182 actual situation Without 1.7476 WO 4th Number W 1.1842 0.066 As shown in Table 3, the means of number of of goats WO 0.5325 family members is significantly different between the Annual W 128.73 W 38 0.075 two groups, where the significant level is p < 0.005. income WO 354.68 WO 169 The mean for the group of betel leaf cultivators is Annual higher than that for the other group (non-cultivators). income/ W 19.739 0.059 WO 49.075 This result might be because betel leaf cultivation Number of family requires intensive labor such that starting betel leaf NB: W, with; WO, without; N.A., not applicable cultivation is practically easier for households with more members. Table 4 shows the variables whose means are The means of complaint about the actual situation significantly different between the two groups in is significantly different between the two groups at each period. None of the variables are significantly the level of p < 0.010. The mean for the group of different in the first and second periods. In the third betel leaf cultivators is higher than that for the other period, the number of goats is evaluated as group. This finding might be due to deforestation; significant at significance level of p < 0.005. The those who have cultivated betel leaf are recently mean of the group of households that started betel leaf obliged to obtain trees and thatch from the market, cultivation in this period is smaller than that of the not from the forest at no cost. Therefore, they group of households that do not cultivate betel leaf. actually have to pay more to keep their living In the fourth period, the number of goats, annual environment. As such, they tend to have more income, and annual income/number of family members complaints about the actual situation. are evaluated as significant variables (p < 0.010). The mean of the number of goats for the group of betel B. Relationship of personal attributes and choice of leaf cultivators is higher than that for the group of betel leaf cultivation during four periods non-cultivators, whereas the means of the annual Based on observation of the trend in the years income and annual income/number of family member when the households started betel leaf cultivation are smaller in the former group. Based on these results, (Fig. 4), we classified the periods into four clusters, the actual situation of households that started betel and conducted a t-test on the means of the variables leaf cultivation in the fourth period is significantly in Table 1 between the two groups during the different from that of the group that started before the classified four periods. The analysis shows the fourth period and has not started yet.

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DISCUSSION contributed to income increase? To answer these Based on the mean of the variable “Annual questions, we classified the households into any income” between “with” and “without” in Table 4, possible combination of two groups divided by the the income of households that started betel leaf periods according to the answers about starting year cultivation in the fourth period (“with”) is of cultivation given by the households. Comparisons significantly lower than the income of those that were made between households that started cultivation started cultivation in the first, second, and third a year ago and the others, between households that periods, and that has not started yet (“without”). started cultivation about 5 to 10 years ago and the Betel leaf leaf is a cash crop, and its cultivation has others, between households that started cultivation rapidly spread, as seen in Fig. 4, such that betel leaf about 15 to 10 years ago and the others, and so on. A cultivation can be expected to increase the income. t-test is applied on the means of the variables in However, why does the group that started cultivation Table 1 between any possible clustering of the two last have a significantly small income? groups (betel leaf cultivators/ non-cultivators) under To answer the question, the relationship between every possible period. As a result, annual income and betel leaf cultivation and increase in income must be annual income/number of households are not examined. evaluated as significant for any possible clustering First, households that started betel leaf cultivation except the clustering of households that started in the fourth period are excluded from the sample to cultivation about 1 to 10 years ago into one group compare income of those that started cultivation by and the others into another group. This is because the third period and that have not started yet. Second, income of households that started cultivation from a the remaining groups are classified into two based on few years ago to around 10 years ago is so low among the condition that households have adopted betel leaf the entire sample that only the clustering in the way cultivation by 2010. Although a t-test was conducted of the fourth clustering makes the variables of annual for the means of the variables in Table 1, no income and annual income/number of family variables were evaluated as significant. Therefore, member significant. Therefore, it can be concluded the annual income and income/number of family that income of the households that started cultivation members has no significant difference between the 10 years ago has not increased yet. This finding may group that started cultivation during the first period be because forest resource around this village started to the third period and the group that did not to decrease about 10 years ago seriously enough to cultivate betel leaf by 2010. oblige local people to obtain trees and thatch from Two hypotheses are assumed regarding the the market, thereby shouldering a certain cost that relationship between betel leaf cultivation and was not needed more than 10 years ago. income increase. Another finding supports this hypothesis. Some Hypothesis 1: Betel leaf cultivation has not other variables were evaluated as significant in the contributed to income increase of households analysis of the clustering of any possible group that started betel leaf cultivation during the first combination mentioned above. That is, “attitude to period to the third period. improving environment,” “complaint to the actual Hypothesis 2: Betel leaf cultivation has contributed situation,” and “recognition of environmental to income increase of households that started change” were evaluated as significant at p < 0.005 betel leaf cultivation during the first period to for the clustering of 10 to 15 years and the others. At the third period. the same time, “complaint to actual situation” is If hypothesis 2 is true, the income of betel leaf significant at p < 0.005, and the other two variables cultivating households has increased, and as a result, are significant at p < 0.010 for the clustering of 1 to the income between the groups of cultivators and 15 years and the others. These findings may be non-cultivators has no difference. In other words, because 10 to 15 years ago indicate the beginning households that started cultivation during the first period when households were obliged to buy trees period to the third period were relatively poor. Given and thatch from the market, although cultivation had that betel leaf is a cash crop and those who have not provided sufficient benefit to those who started started cultivation during the first period to the third cultivation in the same period. The points discussed period could use forest resources to construct a pan above are summarized in Fig.7. boroz for free, hypothesis 1 is not likely to be true. Thus, betel leaf cultivation cannot necessarily Therefore, hypothesis 2 may be true, and betel leaf contribute to recent income increase. Meanwhile, the cultivation must have been related to income number of households that started betel leaf increase. cultivation recently is still increasing. These Then, why is the income of households that households may be those that still think betel leaf started cultivation in the fourth period significantly cultivation contributes to income increase, which was lower than that of the other households? Is it because the case when people could utilize sufficient forest some of those households started recently, that is, resources for free; these households are unaware that earlier than a year ago, such that cultivation has not this case no longer applies.

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1st Period 2nd period 3rd period 4th period ACKNOWLEDGMENT

before 1980- 1990- 2000- This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI 1975 1985 1995 12010 Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B), Grant Betel leaf Betel leaf Betel leaf Betel leaf Number 24401040. cultivation cultivation cultivation cultivation was started was was was REFERENCES experiment rapidly disseminat disseminate [1] Asahiro, K., Rahman, M.A., Tani, M. 2011. Land use ally disseminat ed among d among nad vegetation type in West coast of Teknaf Peninsula ed among the poor. It the poor. It in Bangladesh: a case study of short transect research the poor. It contributed did not in local village. Proceedings of ICEAB2011. 76-79. contributed to income contributed

to income increase resource of forest point Turing to income [2] Tani, M., Zulfikar, R.M., and Asahiro, K. 2013. The increase increase Study of the Influence of Betel leaf Leaf Cultivation on Forest Loss in the Teknaf Peninsula, Bangladesh. Fig.7. Process of distribution of betel leaf cultivation Kyushu University Institutional Repository. 16: 1-10. (in Japanese) Based on the considerations above, some measures [3] Japan External Trade Organization. 2010. Survey of to mitigate deforestation are discussed hereinafter. Japanese-Affiliated Firms in Asia and Oceania. As betel leaf cultivation does not produce much [Online]. JETRO. Available: http://www.jetro.go.jp/ benefit and it consumes forest resources, starting world/asia/bd/reports/07000173 [Accessed 30April betel leaf cultivation should be prohibited. However, 2013]. based on the hypothesis shown in Fig.7, households that decided to cultivate betel leaf were poor when they started cultivation. As such, if betel leaf cultivation is prohibited, these poor households will suffer as their conceived option to earn added income is taken away. Some other options may provide more or less the same benefit as betel leaf cultivation, which is not as high at present. Possible measures include taxation for use of forest resource and reallocation of tax revenues to the poor through employment that contribute to reforestation, such as patrolling the forest, planting trees, and so on. After locals appreciate the forest condition through environmental education via workshops, they may become willing to donate to forest conservation. This fund can be used as budget for employment creation for the poor. CONCLUSION This study has focused on betel leaf cultivation as a factor of deforestation in the Teknaf peninsula, and revealed the distribution process of betel leaf cultivation as well as the differences in characteristics of households that started cultivation under different starting periods. The major differences have been revealed between households that started betel leaf cultivation before 1995 and those that started in the last 10 years. Furthermore, we found that betel leaf cultivation is not necessarily related to income increase for those that started cultivation in the last 10 years, and that 1995-2000 indicates the turning period of forest resource. If certain counter measures had been adopted before the turning period, reforestation may have been conducted more efficiently. The number of households that start betel leaf cultivation is still increasing, and forest resources around which betel leaf cultivation is not adopted may undergo damage as buying and selling through the market continue. Counter measures should be enforced immediately.

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E02 Use of Information Sources in Maintaining Livelihoods by Rohingya Refugees around Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary

M Zulfikar Rahman1, M Tani2, AZM Mosleh Uddin3, and SM Asik Ullah4 1Professor, Dept of Agric Extension Edu, Bangladesh Agril University; e-mail: [email protected] 2Associate Professor, Faculty of Design, Kyushu University; e-mail: [email protected] 3Professor, Dept of Soil Science, Bangladesh Agril University; e-mail: [email protected] 4Lecturer, Dept of Agric Extension Edu, Bangladesh Agril University; e-mail: [email protected] Abstract This study attempts to investigate mainly the undocumented Rohingyas refugees' extent of use of information sources in maintaining their livelihoods. A cluster of such Rohingyas was chosen for the study who live along coast line of Bay of of Shaplapur village in Teknaf of Cox’s Bazaar district. A randomly selected 125 household heads were sampled from a total of 980 households. Mainly interview and FGDs were conducted to generate data for the study. Most of the Rohingyas were in very low level of livelihoods status and their adopted for livelihoods lead to natural resources destruction. They mostly used localite and interpersonal information sources in maintaining such destructive livelihoods. Their age, schooling and fishing lengths were significantly related to their extent of use of information sources. Use of information sources was influenced mainly by their fear to be caught and credibility, nearness and easiness of access to sources. The analysis of issues of any concern of the Rohingyas can be resolved effectively only when Bangladesh and want to mitigate it cordially.

INTRODUCTION schools as they do not possess the national ID card of Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary (TWS), previously Bangladesh. Having a high birth rate and very low known as Teknaf Game Reserve (TGR), is located level of humanitarian standards they pass their days within the Teknaf peninsula in the south eastern part very localite depending mostly on the dwindling of Bangladesh. The reserve measures roughly 28 km natural resource bases. Under this grave scenario north to south and 3 to 5 km east to west, and lies how do they come in contact to what information between 20°52'–21°09'N latitude and 92°08'–92°18'E source and for what reason to maintain their longitude [1]. The reserve was established purposively livelihoods were the major concerns of the study. to preserve habitat for large diversity of wildlife [2]. Because, the type and extent of contact to Rohingyas are the people who migrated mainly information sources lead people to decide any matter from of Myanmar to Bangladesh. of livelihoods of their own. Anyway, the study Their migration started in early 1960s [3]. It is intends specifically to reveal the present livelihoods estimated that there are about 0.4 million Rohingyas standard of the Rohingya, extent of use of (listed and unlisted) in Bangladesh although the information sources by them in maintaining Bangladesh government has restricted their entry in livelihoods, and exploring the reasons for choosing the recent days. Those who entered Bangladesh the sources in adopting livelihoods. during 1990s have been sheltered at various camps in MATERIALS AND METHODS the southern district Cox’s Bazar concentrating mainly in Teknaf and Ukhia (sub-districts). Shaplapur village of under Cox’s These refugees have been always blamed for forests, Bazar district in Bangladesh was the study area sea and other natural resource destruction [4, 5]. In located near the western side of the TWS. A cluster recent days, natural resource obliteration for of undocumented live in buffer livelihoods maintenance by Rohingya refugees has forest of coastal belt of this Shaplapur buffer zone. become a relentless dilemma in Teknaf peninsula of Shaplapur is a local marketplace and plays an Bangladesh. And, probably, these resource important role in the locality since this market is far destruction activities are much more prominent for away from both Teknaf main market and the Cox’s refugees who have been staying outside camps and Bazaar town. Moreover, TWS splits the east and west not recognized by the government. Because, they are sides’ communication longitudinally. The total devoid of government support and face some undue number of Rohingya households and population are harassment by the law enforcing agency and local about 980 and 5,880 respectively in and around the people. This study considered a cluster of such buffer forest of Shaplapur. Randomly selected 125 undocumented Rohingyas lived within a buffer forest household heads (about 13%) were interviewed of the government near the sea. through structured schedule in order to assess their Some service delivery indicators of human capital livelihoods status and explore their extent of use of indicate that public expenditure per capita was zero information sources. Secondary data on different as they are not the listed as refugee of the country. community and service oriented information were Their access is denied to government primary collected from different official documents of GOs

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and NGOs of the locality. Data were collected during there is meager chance for fair income generation the March 2012. Focus group discussion (FGD) was also annual household income was very pitiable. There conducted to assess some of their social and natural social mobility is very low and asset they possessed facility and service delivery issues of livelihoods. was significantly less. All these indicate a miserable Two FGDs were also conducted to explore condition of the Rohingyas in the locality. influences of information sources in choosing livelihoods. Outcome of these two FGDs were Table 1. Selected individual characteristics of Rohingya household heads merged together to achieve a comprehensive result. At first, the list of livelihood issues was prepared Characteristics Observed Mean by asking the respondents through face to face (unit of measurement) range interview. Then, livelihoods status was measured Age (years) 22~70 42 Education based on the extent of possession of livelihoods 0~10 02 (years of schooling) assets. Assets referred to the resource base of people. Household size 3~10 06 Assets are often represented as a pentagon in the (no. of members) sustainable livelihoods framework, consisting of the No. of labor/household 1-4 1.25 following five categories: natural resources (also % labor force of the 16.66-66 20.83 called ‘natural capital’), physical reproducible goods household (‘physical capital’), monetary resources (‘financial Annual household income 29.20~109.50 33.58 capital’), manpower with different skills (‘human (‘000’ Taka) Length of migration to capital’), social networks of various kinds (‘social 2~13 3.56 capital’) [6]. Obviously, selected indicators were Bangladesh (years) Length of fishing chosen to measure each of the five capitals. 1~11 4.67 Consolidated score from labor power, health and experience (years) Social mobility (rated score, 0~8 04 nutritional status, skills and knowledge of human possible score 0~24) capital constituted the human capital score. For Asset possession (rated 15~30 21 natural capital the indicators were access to land, score, possible score 0~100) water, wildlife, marine resources, forest and storm protection; for social capital they were trust in A. Livelihoods options adopted by Rohingyas government, memberships in civic organizations, Table 2 reveals that about one-third of the hours spent volunteering, voter turnout, newspaper Rohingya family heads were engaged in fishing in readership, access to basic services; for physical sea. Cumulatively, 43% of them were directly related capital these were houses, vehicles, equipment, to the destructive activities of the hill forests. Various livestock, access to information, adequate water studies found out almost similar findings of forest supply and sanitation and for financial capital they destruction by the Rohingyas in and around the were savings, gold/jewellery, access to regular Teknaf hill forest [5, 10, 11]. Interpretation of income, net accesses to credit and insurance. findings demonstrates that about 80% of them are However, the core score of selected indicators for engaged in resource depletion either in sea or hills. Human capital was 4 to12, Natural capital 6 to 18, Social capital 6 to18, Physical capital 7 to 21, and Table 2. Livelihoods adopted by the Rohingyas Financial capital 5 to15.The overall livelihoods score Livelihoods options Respondents for selected core indicators was thus from 28 to 84. adopted No. % Rank The extent of use of information sources for Fishing in sea 46 36.80 1 livelihoods adopted by Rohingyas was measured Cutting fuel woods from 20 16.00 2 through rating scale against 15 selected sources. The hills Cultivating sun grass on scale was ‘not at all’, ‘rarely used’, ‘occasionally used’ 18 14.40 3 and ‘frequently used’ with corresponding scores of 0, hills Collecting small 1, 2 and 3. The factions of sources were individual, 16 12.80 4 group and mass [7-9]. The relationship between the tree-trunk from hill Day labor 11 08.80 5 socio-demographic characteristics of the Rohingya Small grocery/hawking 05 04.00 6 and their extent of use of information sources was Fishing boat renting 03 02.40 7 explored through computation of Pearson’s Product- Others (not ranked as it 06 04.80 - Moment Correlation Co-efficient (r). The influence is assorted) of information sources in choosing the livelihoods Total 125 100.00 - was revealed through conducting FGDs. a) Overall status of livelihoods RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Investigation on the selected characteristics of the Comprising of all the scores of all the capitals of Rohingya household heads shows that their average livelihoods assets, the overall livelihoods score for educational achievements was very poor and number selected core indicators could range from 28-84. The of members in the family was high (Table 1). As observed score ranged from 28-34 with an average of

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30.2 (Table 3). This indicates the low level of Table 5: The overall use of information sources livelihoods status of the respondents in the study area. Categories of use of Respondents communication media Number Percent SD Table 3. Overall livelihoods status of the Rohingya (score) Status of Respondents Mean No use at all (0) 0 0 livelihoods (score) Number Percent score Rarely use (1-16) 72 57.60 11.25 Low (28-47) 125 100 Occasionally use (17-32) 32 25.60 Medium (48-65) 0 0 30.2 Frequently use (33-48) 21 16.80 High (66-84) 0 0 Total 125 100

The details of capital-wise levels of livelihoods are shown in Table 4. It portrays that the level of all capitals in livelihoods standards are far below the acceptable norm. Rohingyas live in a very wretched condition.

Table 4. Level of capitals in livelihoods standard Livelihoods Scores capitals Possible Observed Mean Human 4-12 4-6 4.15 Natural 6-18 6-7 6.25

Social 6-18 6-7 6.30 Fig. 1. Type-wise use of information sources Physical 7-21 7-8 7.60

Financial 5-15 5-6 5.50 Table 6 indicates that the mostly used information source was their Rohingya friend. The next sources In order to identify the consequences of livelihoods were their Bangladeshi friend, neighbor, other adopted by the refugee Rohingyas FGDs were member of their family and so on. The findings show conducted. It has been revealed that undue pressure is the major use of interpersonal sources to adopt their increasingly mounted on the natural resources around livelihoods. the areas they live. Most of them fish in the sea and catch the fish mindlessly without any consideration Table 6. Mostly used ten information sources of subsequent species degradation. Similarly cutting irrespective of livelihoods adopted fuel woods and trunk of small trees has been Information sources Score Rank identified and recognized as the major way to forest destruction in TWS. Cultivation of sun grass on the Rohingya friend 300 1 Bangladeshi friend 291 2 cleared slope of hills is adding further devastation to Neighbor 283 3 hills. More soil erosion on the slope and top of hills, Other members of family 251 4 there creates less scope for forest regeneration and Relatives in Bangladesh (BD) 227 5 increased deposition of soil and gravels to the down Group discussion 200 6 streams. This soil deposition has been degrading the Local leader 165 7 fertile farmland and poise a severe threat to food Sub-Assistant Agric Officer 127 8 security of dwellers having scarce farm land. (SAAO) Television 121 9 B. Use of information sources Agricultural exhibition 129 10 a) Overall extent of use of information sources The overall extent of use of information sources for Use of information sources related to recognize adopting livelihoods options, the Rohingyas mostly livelihoods is presented in following Table 7. It were in ‘rarely use’ category (Table 5). However, the represents that almost for all the livelihoods overall extent of use of information sources was not Rohingyas utilized the individual information sources satisfactory at all. i.e. neighbors, Rohingya or Bangladeshi friends and family members. b) Type-wise use of information sources Data in Table 8 reveal that out of selected 10 All the information sources were grouped into individual characteristics of the respondents only three main types – individual, group and mass. The their age, years of schooling and length of fishing level of use of all the three categories illustrates that experience were positively correlated to their extent habitually they used to use the individual sources of use of information sources. It simply indicated that (Fig. 1). Use of other two groups was not so the more they were aged, more educated and more significant at all. It indicates their localite behavior of experienced in fishing, more they used the communication. information sources for maintaining livelihoods. The

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other characteristics did not show any significant C. Reasons for choosing information sources in relationship. adopting livelihoods Information seekers use different sources for their Table 7. Use of information sources related to identified intended information considering their own personal livelihoods and social settings [12]. The Rohingyas in Bangladesh Livelihoods Rank of sources used are treated as refugees and thus, their movement and options adopted 1 2 3 contacts are restricted. Especially, the cluster of Neighbor, Rohingya Group Fishing in sea BD friends friends discussion Rohingyas under investigation is illegal dweller and Cutting fuel Rohingya is not recognized by the Bangladesh government. Neighbor BD friends woods from hills friends Hence, their peep many issues and ideas behind such Cultivating sun Rohingya contact and to whom is contacted. These sorts of Neighbor BD friends grass on hills friends ideas are revealed in the Table 9, why the Rohingyas Collecting small Rohingya Relative use a specific source of information or not. tree-trunk from BD friends friends in BD The findings in Table 9 reveal that the Rohingyas hills had been in a state of suspended psychology that they Group Local Day labor BD friends were not safe in contacting a source even deemed discussion leader useful. Because, they might be caught by concerned Small Family Rohingya Group grocery/hawking member friends discussion authority of Bangladesh government if informed by Fishing boat Rohingya anybody. Thus, the Rohingyas were found to remain Local leader Television renting friends mostly confined to their near peers to receive information in maintaining livelihoods. They were Table 8. Relationship of the characteristics of Rohingyas not a good user of institutional sources and the mass and their extent of use of information sources media. Individual characteristics ‘r’ value(df=123) CONCLUSION Age 0.150* Most of the Rohingya refugees had been adopting Years of schooling 0.148* livelihoods which are natural resources depleting if Household size 0.111 no care is taken. On the other hand, their status of No. of labor/household 0.100 living was very dreadful as they possessed very low % labor force of the household 0.112 level of all livelihoods capitals. Under this grave Annual household income 0.110 Length of migration to Bangladesh -0.128 condition, it is very much necessary for the Length of fishing experience 0.156* government of Bangladesh to take instant care to Social mobility 0.130 document the scattered refugees not yet listed. This Asset possession 0.127 should be done either to recognize them as refugees *significant at .05 level of probability of the country or to repatriate them through negotiation with Myanmar. Otherwise it would be very difficult to keep the Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary Table 9. Reasons for choosing information sources and coastal resource base sustained. Information sources Reasons for Livelihoods The study also interestingly revealed that the mostly used choosing sources Rohingyas mostly used the localite interpersonal Fishing in Neighbor, BD and No fear to be information sources in maintaining their livelihoods. sea Rohingya friends caught, safe and helpful Fear to be caught while contact, personal safety, idea Cutting fuel Rohingya and BD Relevant, safe of getting easy access to and credibility of sources woods from friends, Neighbor and no fear to were the major reasons behind their unusual hills be caught communication behavior. Use of only such Cultivating Neighbor, Easily available, compelled communication may lead to further sun grass on Rohingya and BD safe and resource depletion as they are not receiving any hills friends dependable responsiveness information to conserve the natural Collecting Rohingya and BD Experienced resources. Some generous support from Bangladesh small friends, Relative and no fear to government and its people may help Rohingyas tree-trunk in BD be caught from hills substantially in choosing the right sources for taking Day labor BD friends, Credible, safe right decisions. Thus, fear to be caught illegally Group discussion, and helpful should be removed, basic food and shelter supports, Local leader and assurance of access to credible source may be Small Family member, No fear to be adopted as some parts of concern. Finally, the grocery/ Rohingya friends, caught, safe and study believes in cordial and effectual bilateral hawking Group discussion helpful negotiation between the two neighboring countries, Fishing boat Rohingya friends, Easily available, Bangladesh and Myanmar, to resolve the concerned renting Local leader, TV safe and helpful critiques.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT The study is a part of research activities conducted under the project entitled “The Political Ecology of the Poverty and Deforestation in the Teknaf Peninsula”, Ministry of Education, Science and Technology of the Japanese Govt. through Faculty of Design, Kyushu University, Japan.

REFERENCES [1] EA Rosario. 1997. The conservation management plan of the protected areas other than those in the Sundarban forests in Bangladesh. GOB/WB Forest Management Project: Bangladesh. . 39p. [2] A Bari and U Dutta. 2004. Co-management of protected forest resources in Bangladesh: Teknaf Game Reserve. USAID –Bangladesh and Ministry of Environment and Forestry, Dhaka. 40P. [3] AR Mollah. MM Rahman, MS Rahman. 2004. Site-level field appraisal for protected area co-management: Teknaf Game Reserve (Draft). Nature Conservation Management (NACOM): Bangladesh. 68p. [4] MASA Kahn, SA Mukul, MA Uddin, MG Kibria and F Sulatna. 2009. The use of medicinal palnts in healthcare practices by Rohingya refugees in a degraded forest and conservation area of Bangladesh. Intl J. Bio. Sc. and Mangt. 5(2): 76-82. [5] D Chattarjee. 2011. Ecological consequences due to subsistence activities of the people in a hill forest area. MS thesis, Dept of Agric Extension Education, Bangladesh Agricultural University. 30-31 pp. [6] Anonymous. 2009. The Livelihoods Assessment Tool-kit: Analysing and responding to the impact of disasters on the livelihoods of people. FAO, Rome and ILO, Geneva. 11 p. [7] S Alamin. 1997. Communication exposure of the farm women in receiving homestead farm information. MS thesis, Dept of Agric Extension Education, Bangladesh Agricultural University, 41-44 pp. [8] MK Hossain. 2010. Use of communication media by the famers in practicing rice-cum-fish culture. MS thesis, Dept of Agric Extension Education, Bangladesh Agricultural University, 28-29 pp. [9] MS Karim. 2005. Farmers’ use of communication sources in receiving agricultural information. MS thesis, Dept of Agric Extension Education, Bangladesh Agricultural University, 32-33 pp. [10] M Tani, MZ Rahman, MA Rahman, K Asahiro, S Akther. 2011. Deforestation by daily activities in the Teknaf Peninsula, Bangladesh. Proceedings of ICEAB 2011. 29-30pp. [11] C Lewa. 2010. Unregistered Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh: Crackdown, forced displacement and hunger. The Project, Bangkok. 9p. [12] EM Rogers. 1995. Diffusion of innovation, Fourth edition. NY: Free Press. 182 p.

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E03 Impacts of Climate Change and Land Use on Forest Degradation in Teknaf Peninsula Md. Abiar Rahman1, Masakazu Tani2, Kazuo Asahiro2, Abu Zofar Md. Moslehuddin3 and Md. Zulfikar Rahman4 1Department of Agroforestry and Environment, BSMRAU, Gazipu, Bangladesh 2Department of Environment and Heritage Design, Kyushu University, Japan 3Department of Soil Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Bangladesh 4Department of Agricultural Extension Education, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Bangladesh Abstract Teknaf peninsula was very rich in natural resources, which is under threat due to climate change and human activities. Various land uses are degrading the forest resources. The aim of this study was to examine the impacts of climate change and land use on forest resources in Teknaf peninsula of Bangladesh. Long-term climatic data were used to understand the trend of climatic parameters. A survey was conducted to know the impacts of climate and land use changes on forest resources degradation. Climatic data showed that minimum temperature did not vary much over time, while maximum temperature has increased slightly in recent years compared to 30 years back. Rainfall was not well distributed over month, although it showed an increasing trend. The monsoon rainfall was increased by 66%, while dry season rainfall was decreased by 29%. Forest area and settlement showed reverse trend, particularly the period between 1972 and 1990, while agriculture was widely started after 1990. Currently, the area for pan cultivation has increased tremendously and farmers mostly collect shading materials from forest area. Climate change along with improper land use has created huge pressure on forest resources. Appropriate adaptation, mitigation and conservation measures must be taken immediately to conserve the forest resources in Teknaf peninsula.

INTRODUCTION The aim of this study is to understand the trend of Teknaf upazila, under Cox`s Bazaar district, is climate and land use changes; and their impacts on located at the southeast corner of Bangladesh where forest degradation in Teknaf peninsula. hill and coastal ecosystems are dominated. Once METHODOLOGY upon a time, this area was rich in various forest and marine resources. Recently, however, most of the A. Study area and climate resources are degraded due to climate change and The study was conducted at Baharchara union of human activities. Various climatic hazards such as Teknaf upazila (Fig. 1), which has been declared as increasing temperature, uncertainty of rainfall, ecologically critical area by Bangladesh Government increasing salinity and frequent cyclones are common because of reduction of biodiversity at an alarming throughout the coast of Bangladesh [6]. On the other rate. The study area is located along the west coast of hand, land use has been changed in this area due to the peninsula and about 30 km far from the upazila increasing pressure of population [4]. Poor people are headquarter. The area is characterized by subtropical dependent on local ecosystems for their livelihood, climate with 15 and 33°C minimum (January) and which is responsible for loss of biodiversity. Various maximum (May) temperatures, respectively. Total livelihood activities have been destroying forests as annual rainfall is appreciable (around 5000 mm), but they do not think and know about the conservation it is not well distributed. Significant amount of strategies. Moreover, poor people are also the primary rainfall occurs during the months of June, July and agent of environmental destruction. People are August. However, negligible rainfall occurs from destroying the hills and cutting the trees for living December through March. and food production [7]. Deforestation is responsible B. Dataset for environmental degradation, which is a big concern. The long-term monthly temperature and rainfall Expansion of agricultural land has been eroding the data series for the study area was collected from natural environment; therefore the sustainability of Bangladesh Meteorology Department (BMD). Data agriculture itself is in a critical situation [3]. In the of monthly mean, maximum and minimum surface recent years, betel leaf (Piper betle) became one of air temperatures were used in this study. The mean the most important crops in Teknaf peninsula and the monthly maximum and minimum temperatures are area coverage has been increased tremendously. derived by averaging the daily maximum and Shading is a must for betel leaf cultivation, which minimum temperatures. ensures high production and quality. Farmers use to C. Survey go forest to collect shading materials, which is one of A survey on pan (battle leaf) cultivation was done the major causes of forest degradation. It is very during December 2012 to know the impact of pan urgent to address the problem and take necessary cultivation on forest resource degradation. A steps to conserve the forest as well as the environment.

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structured questionnaire was used to survey 50 pan 30.5 and 30.7°C in 1997-06 and recent year (2008), farmers for data collection. respectively. Rainfall showed an interesting trend of variation at different decades. The data showed that rainfall was increased by 66% during monsoon (June to August), while it was decreased by 29% during dry season (November to March) in recent year compared to base decade (1977-86).

a

b

Fig. 1. Location map of the study area D. Secondary information Secondary information on forest resources and land use were collected from Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE), Bangladesh Space Research & Remote Sensing Organization c (SPARRSO), Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD) and Forest Department (FD). E. Data analyses Climatic data were analyzed by MS Excel, while survey data were analyzed by SPSS computer software.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. Climate change The decadal changes in temperature and rainfall d have been shown in Fig. 2 (a, b and c). Decadal change of monthly minimum temperature was not so Fig. 2. Month wise decadal change of (a) maximum distinct. However, minimum temperature showed temperature, (b) minimum temperature, (c) rainfall; and slightly increasing trend in recent year (2008) during trend of climate in the study area. hot months and decreased in winter (February). In case of maximum temperature, it showed increasing Long-term trend showed an increasing trend of trend throughout the year. The maximum temperature maximum temperature, minimum temperature and was 30°C in 1977-86 decade, which was increased to rainfall. The regression equations indicated that

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increasing trend of maximum temperature (R2 = 0.31) lands are being brought under cultivation. The rate of was rapid than minimum temperature (R2 = 0.22). increase was more prominent in case of betel leaf The annual increment rates of temperature for cultivation, which was increased by 56% in 2012 maximum and minimum temperatures were 0.022 compared to five years back followed by chili (25%), and 0.019°C, respectively. The increment rate, brinjal (22%), tomato (13%) and rice (12%). however, for rainfall was more sharp than temperature Although the cropping area and intensity are (R2 = 0.30). The rainfall was increased annually by increasing, but the production per unit area is under 42.08 mm, which is quite appreciable (Fig. 2d). the national average [2], might be due to climate However, although the annual rainfall showed change. On the other hand, expansion of agriculture increasing trend but it was not well distributed over is creating tremendous pressure on forest as the months. In the recent year, it was observed prolong expansion is mainly occurring in forest area. drought during dry season and high rainfall during C. Betel leaf cultivation and resource use monsoon [4]. Therefore, this patchy rainfall is not The cutting of betel leaf is usually planted after good for resource conservation and agriculture rain (August-October). It is a shade loving crop and production. Rainfall anomalies and high fluctuation the production and quality are largely dependent on of temperature were observed in coastal area which the shade imposition. On the other hand, rainfall is were responsible for reduce crop yield productivity scarce during its vegetative growth stage (November (19%) despite the technological development [5]. through March); therefore irrigation is indispensible B. Land use change for better production. Most of the farmers (36%) Land use change over time in the study area has used to apply irrigation once a week followed by been shown Fig. 3 and Table 1. It was observed that 3-day interval (28%), while few farmers (8%) also forest area decreased sharply between 1972 and 1990, applied irrigation every alternative day (Fig. 4). while settlement was increased dramatically during Source of irrigation is very limited. Many farmers the same period. Forest area was decreased by 39% carry water from canal or water catchment near by and settlement was increased by 50% during 2006 the hill), while in some cases they use irrigation pipe. compared to 1972. Before 1990, people were not However, due to prolonged drought most of the interested in agriculture as other resources (forest and canals and catchments contain no water during dry marine) were abundant. Agricultural practice, however, season. On the other hand, due to over utilization of was increased tremendously after 1990 [1]. water for betel leaf and other crop cultivation, most of the canals and water catchments remain waterless in most of the months of the year, which ultimately affects biodiversity and resources of forests. Farmers are cultivating betel leaf intensively for higher income without considering the resource conservation. Climate change along with improper betel leaf cultivation is making the ecosystem more vulnerable in terms of resources. Suitable production technique should be introduced for pan cultivation so that farmers may reduce their dependency on forest for material collection. Introduction of trees inside the betel leaf field may be one of the options. Fig. 3. Trend of land use change in Baharchara.

Table 1. Area coverage change of major crops in 2012 compared to five years back Crop % Area change Rice 12 Pan 56 Corn 8 Tomato 13 Brinjal 22 Chili 25

Rice was the only major crop during 1990 and Fig. 4. Frequency of irrigation for pan cultivation other crops were not popular at that time. However, Farmers usally use various materails to provide due to human pressure and commercialization of shade for betel leaf cultivation. Forest is the prime agriculture, various crops are being cultivated at source of materails (46%) followed by market (22%), present. Still now crop area is increasing as fallow own (18%) and market+forest (14%) (Fig. 5a).

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Mostly farmers use bamboo, sungrass, forest pole conservation measures must be taken immediately to (from different species) and grassess as shading conserve the forest resources in Teknaf peninsula. materials and structure (5b). Many villagers got mountain area from forest department for their ACKNOWLEDGMENT subsistance and sustainable production. Surprisingly, This study was supported by JSPS grant for most of the villagers cultivate bettele leaf and sun scientific research (Grant # 24401040), Japan. grass in those land without keeping conservation issue in mind. They are interested in sungrass REFERENCES cultivation as it is used for shading and house making. [1] Anonymous. 2010. Satellite images and baseline Along with sungrass other shading materials come information of Marisbunia village of Teknaf Peninsula. from forests. It inidicates that farmers largely depend Space Research and Remote Sensing Organization on forest for shading materials. Over exploitation of (SPARRSO), Dhaka, Bangladesh. resources is responsible for hamparing the forest [2] Anonymous. 2013. Upazila Report. Department of growth and enentually degrading the forest Agricultural Extension (DAE), Teknaf Upazila, Cox`s ecosystem. Bazaar, Bangladesh. [3] K Yaoita, M Nagano and N Nishiyama. 2011. Cultural Landscape of Teknaf Peninsula. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh (ICEAB 2011), 70-71. [4] MA Rahman, K Asahiro and M Tani. 2011. Land use Change in Teknaf Peninsula: Farmer`s Experience. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh (ICEAB 2011), 95-97. [5] MA Rahman. 201. Assessment of climate change and its impact on major food crops in Bangladesh. Final Report on Young Scientist Support Program, APEC a Climate Center, Busan, Republic of Korea. [6] MG Miah, MN Bari and MA Rahman. 2010. Resource degradation and livelihood in the coastal region of Bangladesh. Front. Earth Sci. China, 4(4):427-437. [7] MZ Rahman, M Tani, D Chattarjee and S Akhter. 2011. Ecological Consequences Due to Subsistance Activities of the People in a Hill Forest Area of Bangladesh. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh (ICEAB 2011), 98-101.

b Fig. 5. Shading materials (a) and their sources (b) for betel leaf cultivation

CONCLUSION Long-term climatic data showed that minimum temperature did not change over decade, while maximum temperature showed slightly increasing trend. Annual rainfall showed an increasing trend, which was not well distributed over month. It was observed that monsoon rainfall was increased by 66%, while dry season rainfall was decreased by 29%. Forest area was decreased very fast between 1972 and 1990 due to huge settlement. However, agriculture was widely started after 1990. At initial stage of settlement, rice was the major crop, but recently pan cultivation became the most preferable farming among the settlers. The trend of climate change and improper land uses have been degrading the forest resources and making the agriculture difficult. Appropriate adaptation, mitigation and

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E04 Tree Census and Household Lifestyle in Homestead of Bangladesh – A Case Study in the West Coast of Teknaf Kazuo Asahiro1*, Mayu Takada2, Md. Abiar Rahman3 and Masakazu Tani1 1Department of Environment and Heritage Design, Kyushu University, Japan 2Nihon SokuchiSekkri CO.,Ltd, Japan 3Department of Agroforestry and Environment, Bangabandhsu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University, Bangladesh *e-mail: [email protected] Abstract In the Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary, the forest area was reduced by 45.7% from 1989 to 2009. On the other hand, local people are own homesteads and the conservation of biodiversity has been pointed out as an important indicator to improve local life. This paper reports a case study of homesteads at Marish Bunia (MB) village in the west coast of Teknaf peninsula. To understand homestead lifestyle and plant environment, 7 homestead s were selected to know social aspects, vegetation and the number of tree more than 5cm diameter at breast height (DBH) through survey. A total of 193 species were identified and 44 species that existed more than 4 homesteads were counted in 7 homesteads. Household head who does not have more than 9,000m2 land are tend to have other income sources such as side business, migrant work and betel leaf cultivation. Because betel nut planting seems to increase, therefore more diverse tree plantation should be given emphasize.

INTRODUCTION Under these situations, homestead may play roles for In the past, hill forests spread from Myanmar to production, biodiversity conservation and life of Teknaf peninsula. Those forests were degraded by quality (LQ) maintenance. Mannan (2006) pointed clearing activities. IPAC (2011) reported that the out the decreasing trend of homestead plant ‘Forest’ area coverage within the Teknaf Wildlife biodiversity in the ECA in recent years [5]. Sanctuary was about 3,304 hectare (28.4%) in 1989; This paper reports a study of homesteads’ and 1,794 hectare (15.4%) in 2009. It was reduced by biodiversity at MB village in the west coast of 45.7% of the forest area during the same period [1]. Teknaf peninsula as a series of collaboration studies, To tackle the problem, two different sets of strategic started from 2009. To understand homestead lifestyle priorities were thought by Iftekhar (2006). One is and homestead plants environment, social aspects, maintaining the environmental and ecological vegetation and tree composition were surveyed. services of the forests through multi-stakeholder Following three points were set as the purpose of this -based holistic management. The other set is meeting study. the forest product demand from homestead and i. To clarify selected 7 households’ settlement year, private forests through massive forest extension and occupation and properties by comparing with MB social forestry activities [2]. Kabir and Webb (2008) village whole household (HH) research data. pointed out the importance of a homestead for ii. To survey plants and their usages in these 7 HHs. biodiversity conservation. A total 419 species have Extracting the species exists of more than 4 been identified in 402 homesteads in south-western homesteads (about 50%). Bangladesh, but 60% of all tree and shrub species iii. To survey trees whose diameter at breast height had 50 or fewer individuals each. Thus, serious effort (DBH) is bigger than 5cm in all of 7 homesteads must be made to increase the populations of most and discuss to know the ecological issue. species [3]. We think 7 homesteads as samples are too small to In Teknaf, that type of study has not yet carried conclude anything. However, the selected out. Teknaf wildlife sanctuary has been explored to homesteads are good representation of the locality assess angiosperm diversity using traditional and we believe this study give an important taxonomic techniques from 2010 to 2011 by perspective to next step for the future. Mohammad (2012). The assessment has resulted in SITE AND METHODS recording of total 535 angiosperm species under 370 genera and 103 families [4]. In Teknaf Peninsula A. Site selection Ecologically Critical Areas (ECA), 249 species under For this study, MB village was selected as the 84 families has confirmed at 65 spots by Mannan research site [Fig. 1.] because the distance from (2006) [5]. seashore to hilltop is short. The survey was carried In this our study, sustainable conservation of local out from 14 to 21 September 2010. Shupari (Areca life and biodiversity is set as an overall goal. catechu) is widely planted around thatched-roofing Although traditional agroforestry is being practiced houses. The main occupation in this village is in Teknaf peninsula, even population is increasing, agriculture, and many HH in this village cultivate but production area for cash crops is expanding too. betel leaf vine （Piper betle）.

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Table 1. The year of initial settlement, occupation and the area size of homestead & farmland

a b c d e f g

and rate*

Year

No. homestead of Fig. 1. MB village survey homestead site in Teknaf <1950s 14 ■ ■ B. Survey of 7 selected homesteads (7 %) 1950s 1 To understand the composition of trees and its (0 %) structure, 7 homesteads were selected. For selecting 1960s 5 homesteads, we considered the following aspects: the (2 %) ■ settlement period; 3 of the selected homesteads (a, b, 1970s 11

& c.) were located on the western side of the main (5%) road (a comparatively old settlement area), while the 1980 35 other 4 homesteads (d, e, f, & g.) were located on the (17%) eastern side of the main road (a new area, that is a History 1990s 67 ■ ○ part of the national forest) [Fig. 1]. As an additional (33%) 2000s 64 character, homestead located near a stream ○ ■ homestead c, a homestead located in a hilly region (31%) 2010s 7 homestead d, and a homestead owned by person who (3 %) had received training on planting from a NGO Unkn 3 homestead g, were selected as habitat interest. own C. Research method Total 207 Farming Research composed of three methods as follows. ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ i. Survey for area maps drawing: homestead (PB: Farm Business PB PB PB boundary, house, forest, crop field and tree Side ○ ○ (DBH>5cm) positions were recorded. Business ii. Interview survey: farming area size and activities Occupation Migrant ○ were recorded by interviews. worker iii. Vegetation and tree census: Tree layer areas were Homestead 1452 3024 552 952 2070 480 4448 surveyed by Braun‐Blanquet method. Species (m2)

and diameter of the breast height (DBH) Area Farm land 2 5320 7980 1882 1330 3990 2660 4655 measurement carried out with trees of more than (m ) ： ： 5cm DBH covering all trees except for Shupari in ■ New establishment, ○ Moved from other places, *: No. of homesteads in MB village a homestead area. Shupari were counted and their density within 5m radius area was recorded.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. Social aspect of householder The time of initial settlement of homesteads a, to g, are shown in Table 1. Homesteads a, b, & c, were settled before the 70s. After 80s, homesteads d, e, f & g, placed on the west side of the main road and encroached to the national forest for family new home and refugee from sea storm. Hence, homesteads a, to g, were sampled from each typical decade. B. Occupation and owning area Farming land owning proportion was yes/no: 20/80% in MB village. In this study, 7 HHs’ heads Fig. 2. Area of homestead and farming land own farm lands and it has been shown in Tab.1 and 2 Fig.2. As an extra feature, HH a, f, run on side i. homestead b, (Total land: 11,004m ) and g, 2 business, head of HH e is a migrant worker and HH c, (9,103m ), owning much more land than the d & f, cultivated betel leaf. Average of farm lands average. The main income source was agriculture. and homesteads were 550m2 and 1700m2 in MB ii. Cultivate betel leaf’s HH head tends to own small 2 village, respectively. Next two features are able to homestead such as the homestead c, (552m ), d, 2 2 point out by comparing with these data. (952m ) and f, (480m ).

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As a trend in the relationship between HH occupation and land ownership of own homestead, HH heads who own less than 9,000m2 of land tend to have other income sources such as side business, migrant work and betel leaf cultivation. Increasing population in these limited areas seems force residents to produce high-income cash crops and other business. Encroaching to the national forest land would have caused for the same reason. C. Results of vegetation research The number of confirmed species in homestead is 193, and 164 of them were identified under 68 families. Table 2. shows 44 species that confirmed in more than 4 homesteads (exist degree > 50%), and its scientific name, Bengal name, type of tree layer, utilization, co-listed with references [4], [5] and exist degree. Shupari (Areca catechu), Billimbi (Averrhoa bilimbi) and Am (Mangifera indica) were confirmed in 7 homesteads, followed by Kathal (Artocarpus heterophyllus), and Finagura (Flacourita jangomas). These fruit species were exist 26%, and medicinal plants, ornamental plants, woody plants and vegetable plants were followed. D. Result of tree census Fig. 3. shows results of tree census, the number of tree by DBH interval of each species. Difference in trend of across homesteads seems to have a strong relation with the year of homestead settlement. The following description can be made: i. homesteads b, c, where trees of most DBH intervals exist settled before 1950’s. Both homesteads own three Am trees of more than 40cm DBH and other fruit species such as Kathal, Narikel and so on. ii. homestead a. which settled in the 1970’s, owns three of the Narikel of more than 30cm DBH. iii. homesteads d, e, f & g, mainly owns trees of around less than 15cm DBH, and more small trees exist rather than larger one. These homesteads can to be said as an earlier stage of growing those trees. Especially, homestead d, owns Pepe (Carica papaya) and Sazina (Moringa olefera), these are trees that can yield within a few years.

Fig. 4. Shupari and the other number of the trees and Fig. 3. The number of trees by the diameter of homesteads area size breast height (DBH) of each homestead

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Table 2. Species list of more than 50% of plant existence Conservation Management (NACOM) and who in 7 home gardens practiced it. These trends are similar in a case reported by Rahman (2006) that was related to tree diversity, land size and education [6]. Table 3. 24 selected plant species need to take more attention for management in the ECA [5]. Bakul Champa Babla Boilam Chapalish Jarul Jilapi Pit Raj Shal Shegun Sonalu Telshur Amloki Aor Barai Chalta Jolpai Kaju Kamranga Karamja Sarifa Badam Akanda Arjun Bsak Tulsi

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The overall goal of this study is to assess the compatibility of sustainable production and biodiversity. In spite of 7 homesteads and having identification difficulties on the survey, the following conclusions can be drawn from this study. i. HH heads who have area size larger than 9,000 m2 is mainly earning from agriculture. ii. HH heads who have less than 9,000m2 land are tend to have the other income sources such as side business, migrant working and betel leaf cultivation. iii. This research confirmed a total of 193 species of which 44 species had more than 50% of existing rate. iv. Four tree species namely Am, Kathal, Narikel and Garjan have more than 30cm DBH. These species provide fruit and other necessities of livelihood, but Garjan is kept for the purpose of conservation. v. Most of the homesteads were dominated by Shupari, but 12 trees species still remained. These trees were planted or grew from seed, which have been remained for householder usage in year by year. The proportion of Shupari seems to have the relationship among homestead area size, side business and education. Fig. 4. shows all the number of trees including For a future perspective beyond the increase in the Shupari (density by area) and homestead area size of biodiversity in the homesteads, it would be desirable these 7 homesteads. Shupari is the most dominant that the other species set the conditions of growing tree species compared to the other species in each longer year with diverse feature and ensures of homesteads. As mentioned above, homesteads c, d economical aspect as well. For example, the usages & f, cultivate betel leaf. homestead d, would plant of species, Billimbi, Fainagura, Amra (Spondias around sixty Shupari in the future. As a comparative mangifera), Goranim (Melia azedarach) and Gamari discussion, homestead a, doing side business and (Gmelina arborea) can be extracted from Tab.2. homestead g, agricultural HH head are picked up Plant species as reported by Mannan (2006) need to here. Their difference is interesting. The proportion pay more attention for management in the ECA, of the number of Shupari and the other trees were for which is shown in Tab.3. homestead a, (98.4%, 1.4%) and g, (71.2%, 28.8%). In terms of the shrub and herb layer, lots of areas homestead a, are planted more Shupari than g. On of the homesteads were shaded by dense Shupari the other hand, trees in homestead g, are still young, canopy. However, many species were found around but many kinds of fruit trees were planted. The head sunny front yard, vegetable garden and pond area in of homestead g, is the farmer who had received those limited spaces. There would be potential that training on planting method by a NGO, Nature local farmer designed planting and growing many kinds of species in the homestead. Especially,

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homesteads d, and g, that settled after 1990s showed multiple production activities. As a current issue derived from the above mentioned discussion, a Shupari expansion demand seems to increase. Especially there is high demand from the farmer who has side business. This trend will decrease the biodiversity of shrub and herb layer as there is limited space under tree layer. Those double income lifestyle and occupations are estimating increase near future. It is important that developing production value used by many sorts of plants so that conserving those both balance homestead production and biodiversity conservation. This case study analyzed only 7 homesteads in MB village in the west coast of Teknaf peninsula. There would be another type of homestead such as the villager who doesn’t own farming land. It is necessary that further research conducting to know those homesteads capabilities in future.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT This study is in part supported by JSPS grant for scientific research to the senior author (#24401040).

REFERENCES [1] IPAC. 2011. Landuse change trend analysis in seven protected areas in Bangladesh under IPAC through application of LANDSAT imageries. Integrated Protected Area Co-Management (IPAC), 23 [2] MS Iftekhar. 2006. . In: An Overview Journal of Forestry. 104(3): 148-153 [3] ME Kabir and EL Webb. 2008. Can Homegardens Conserve Biodiversity in Bangladesh?. In: Biotropica. 40(1), 95-103 [4] M.Z. Uddin, M.F. Alam, and M.A. Hassan. 2012. Diversity in angiosperm flora of Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh. [5] MA Mannan. 2006. Plant Biodiversity Management at Teknaf Peninsula ECA. Coastal & Wetland Biodiversity Management Project, Cox’s Bazar Site Office. 7-8, 41 [6] MM Rahman, Y Furukawa, I Kawata, MM Rahman, M Alam. 2006. Role of homestead forests in household economy and factors affecting forest production: a case study in southwest Bangladesh. Journal of Forest Research. 11(2): 89-97.

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E05 The Process of Betel leaf Cultivation and Shipment in the Teknaf Peninsula Hiroshi Tsuruta1, Masakazu Tani2, M Zulfikar Rahman3 1Graduate school of Design, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan; e-mail: [email protected] 2Faculty of Design, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan 3Dept of Agricultural Extension Education, Mymensingh, Bangladesh Abstract This paper examines the process of cultivation and shipment of betel leaves based on data collected by field surveys in Jahajpura village in Baharcharra Union, Teknaf Upazila. We collected the data in the village through interviews to actors of betel leaf cultivation and shipment to local market; farmers, day laborers, middlemen and wholesalers. We analyzed the employment generated through the process. We found that the 65.6% of day laborer in the village, and 52.4 % of households in the village were supported by betel leaf cultivation. We concluded that betel leaves highly contributed to generation of employment in the village. INTRODUCTION economy is supported by the leaves. Deforestation is a crucial issue in the Teknaf Therefore, in this paper, we are going to examine Peninsula, located in the south eastern region of the process of betel leaf cultivation and shipment in Bangladesh. USAID reported the half of the forest Jahajpura village in the Teknaf Peninsula and area in the Teknaf Peninsula has decreased during the analyze generation of employment through the process. past 20 years [1]. The deforestation seems be caused by local people, since they highly depend on forest MATERIALS AND METHODS resources in their daily lives. Mohammad et al.[2] We conducted surveys in Jahajpura village in listed 14 livelihood activities by the local people in Baharcharra Union, Teknaf Upazila, Cox’s Bazar the peninsula which risk the forest. The list consists District. of 14 daily activities which include fuel wood Jahajpura village is surrounded by sea and mountain. collection, housing materials and betel leaf The western side of the village faces the Bay of cultivation. Among those daily activities, betel leaf Bengal and many people engage in fishing. The cultivation is one of important factors of eastern side faces mountain and betel leaf cultivation deforestation, since it consumes a large amount of is popular among people. There are 349 households wood for the construction of pan boroj, which is a in the village. 84 households are betel leaf farmers, facility to provide shade for betel leaves. Tsuruta et 24 percent of all households. The average size of al. [3] documented that a pan boroj measuring land for betel leaf cultivation in the village is 1.44 22m×23m required 920kg of wooden material. There kuni (580 m2). Kuni is a local measurement unit of were 1653 pan borojs in the study area of this paper, area equals to approximately 400 m2. Bharchhara Union, Teknaf Upazila. They estimated We conducted surveys 2 times in the village in total wood consumption by betel leaf cultivation in September 2011 and March 2012. Through those the union was 1500ton which equals to 8.7% of the surveys, we collected data of the process of betel leaf annual production of the local forest in the union. cultivation and shipment in the village. As for Betel leaf is widely popular among people in cultivation, we interviewed a betel leaf farmer who Bangladesh as a favorite item. The leaf is an lives in Jahajpura village in September 2011 and important income source for local people in the again March 2012 to supplement the first interview. Teknaf Peninsula, since it generates better income As for shipment, we interviewed 6 farmers, 2 than other crops [4]. Even though the betel leaf middlemen and 3 wholesalers in Jahajpura Bazar on cultivation contributes to the deforestation, it seems a market day in March 2012. Based on information to be difficult for the local people to quit the collected by those interviews, process of betel leaf cultivation totally. As for betel leaf cultivation, cultivation and shipment in Jahajpura village is trade-offs must be made between reduction of the reconstructed as we describe in the following section. wood consumption through construction of pan boroj and security of financial stability of local people. RESULTS This requires detail analysis of betel leaf cultivation. The following description shows (1) the process of Previous studies take up betel leaf cultivation in betel cultivation of one farmer we interviewed in the Teknaf Peninsula, as a factor of the deforestation Jahajpura village and (2) that of shipment of betel [3, 4]. However, in those studies, little is discuss on leaves in Jahajpura bazar based on the interviewers in the betel leaf cultivation itself and how local the bazar.

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A. Process of betel leaf cultivation We interviewed a farmer owns a pan boroj measuring 16m ×37.5m, which equals to 1.5 kuni (600m2) (Fig.1).He engages in betel leaf cultivation for 10 months in a year. The first process, land preparation, starts from middle of August. His activities for betel leaf cultivation are as follows: (1) Land preparation: The farmer and 3 laborers plow soil and make 16 ridges in the land (Fig. 1). Fig. 5. Pan boroj Each ridge is made to be 55cm wide. The interval between two ridges is also 55cm (Fig. 2). (4) Construction of temporary shading: Soon after (2) Purchase of sapling: After the land preparation, the planting, the farmer and 10 laborers prepare the farmer and 3 laborers go to Lohagara Upazila in temporary shading within the day so that the leaves District to purchase sapling, young betel won’t be exposed to sunshine which makes the vine. The vine costs 1 BDT per gheet, which is a leaves bitter. The temporary shading is made of small local unit meaning 1 meter length of vine (Fig. 3). wood stick and dried grass. The height of the (3) Planting: In October to November, the farmer temporary shading is about 30cm (Fig.4). and 10 community members plant the saplings. The (5) Construction of pan boroj: As soon as they community members help planting for free. The finish the temporary shading, the farmer and 10 saplings are planted in two lines in one ridge, and laborers start constructing a larger shading called pan each leaf of the vine is tied with supporting sticks by boroj (Fig.5). The construction takes 4 days. To a piece of jute rope. The interval between two sticks construct a pan boroj requires structural materials, is 14cm (Fig.2). In each ridge, 510 saplings are supporting sticks and covering materials as we show planted. in fig. 6 (Fig. 6). Thick woods and bamboos are used for structural materials such as posts and poles and thin bamboos are used for supporting sticks. Sungrass is used for covering material. The size of each part is shown in Table 1 (Table 1). (6) Care activity: According to the farmer, betel plants need regular care; watering, weeding, application of fertilizer, pesticides and insecticides during the whole cultivation period. He hires a laborer for those care activities and harvesting for 6

Fig. 1. Size of a pan boroj months. He pays 5000 BDT for the labor per season. Table 1. Materials used in a pan boroj in Jahajpura village Part Material Diameter Length Quantity (cm) (cm) Structural material a : Post Wood, 3.5 235 490 Bamboo b : Pole Wood, 2.5 120 520 Bamboo c : Bar Wood, 2.5 260 410 Bamboo d : Rafter Wood, 2.7 100 125 Fig. 2. Diagram of a ridge Bamboo e : Purine Wood, 1.5 250 115 Bamboo f : beam Bamboo 3.0 300 155 g : beam Bamboo 3.0 300 680 Supporting Bamboo 1.0 225 816 Material Covering Sungrass - 200 - material

(7) Harvesting: The harvesting starts from December and continues up to May, end of dry season. During the period, the laborer picks the

leaves every other week. The labor harvests the Fig. 3. A gheet of Fig. 4. Temporary shading leaves in the morning on Tuesday or Saturday which betel vine is the market day in the Jahajpura Bazar.

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The leaves are carried into the bazar using different sizes of basket. Farmers carried their leaves using small basket called kharang (S) each of which holds 50 bera (Fig.8). Middlemen use kharang (M), which carries 100 bera at 1 time. Since wholesaler deals a large amount of betel leaves, they used still larger baskets called khasi, each of which carries 600 bera at 1 time. (Table 4). Table 3. Unit price of betel leaves in trading between a farmer and a wholesaler in the Jahjpura Bazar Fig. 6. Materials for pan boroj Unit price Size Betel leaf (BDT/bera) (cm×cm) B. Process of betel leaf shipment Small 20 7×10 In order to analyze the process of betel leaf Medium 100 12×16 shipment, we conducted survey about the trading on Large 150 15×20 Tuesday of 13rd March in 2012. On that day, 95 Table 4. The basket used for carrying betel leaves persons gathered for the trading at the Jahajpura Capacity Bazar. At the bazar, trading of betel leaves is taken Basket Capacity (ℓ) (bera) place on every Tuesday and Saturday. The number of Kharang（S） 50 3.3 the participants of the day is shown below (Table 2.). Kharang（M） 100 7.5 Table 2. The number of participants on the market day Khasi 600 62 (2012/3/13) Participant Number Interviewed number Farmer 84 6 Middleman 10 2 Wholesaler 5 3

(1) Channels of transactions: There are 2 actors besides farmers in the trading of betel leaves in Jahajpura village; middlemen and wholesalers. A middleman is person who visits some farmers’ house to buy the leaves and carries them to bazar to resell Fig. 8. Kharang (s) them to wholesalers. A wholesaler is person who buys the leaves from farmers and middlemen at bazar and DISCUSSION carries them to the big cities such as Dhaka, Chittagong Sayan et al. [5] stated betel leaf cultivation is and Cox’s Bazar. Fig. 6 summarizes the flow of betel highly labor intensive. Here, we analyzed generation leaves to and from the Jahajpura bazar (Fig. 7). of employment through the process of betel leaf cultivation and shipment. Tasks in the process of cultivation and shipment of betel leaves described in the previous section can be summarized as in Table 5. As shown in the table, there are many actors involved in the process. Betel leaves themselves generate a large amount of cash income for farmers, and middlemen and wholesalers are also benefitted from trading the leaves. Along with them, the table shows that a large number of day laborers are hired for cultivating betel leaves. 2 At the pan boroj mesuring 600m , described in the Fig. 7. Flow of betel leaves in the Jahajpura village previous section, the number of man-days spent by day laborers for one season can be calculated by (2) Trade Unit, Unit price, and carrying baskets: multiplying the number of persons for each task by The leaves were traded in a unit called bera which the length of the labor in days; it is 245 man-days. equals to approx. 150 betel leaves. The price of the Sayan et al. also revealed the number of man-days leaves is determined through negotiation based on spent by day laborers for one season in 2 villages in the size and quality of the leaves. A farmer in the Nadia district, West Bengal, India. He reported a pan bazar told us unit price of different sizes of betel boroj measuring 1335 square meters generates 301 leaves, when he trades with a wholesaler (Table 3). man-days’ employment for one season [5].

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Table 5. The process of betel leaf cultivation and shipment of a farmer in Jahajpura village Month Process Labor force Period Actor Labor cost Middle Farmer, 300BDT/ Land preparation 3 persons 2 days of August Day labor day October- Farmer, 300BDT/ Purchase of saplings 3 persons 3 days November Day labor day Planting 10 persons 1 day Community group Free

October- Farmer, 300BDT/ November Making shading 10 persons 1 day Day labor day November- Construction of Farmer, 300BDT/ 10 persons 4 days December pan boroj Day labor day Cultivation Care activities November- Farmer, (Watering, Weeding, Application May Day labor 5000BDT/ of fertilizer, pesticides, insecticides) 1 person 6 months season December- Farmer, Harvesting May Day labor 245man- Labor cost 24500 Labor requirement in a season days in a season BDT Middleman

- Trading - - Wholesaler - Day labor - Transportation - - Wholesaler -

Shipment - Retailing - - Retailor -

The number in Nadia is bigger than that in the through the process of cultivation and shipment. Jahajpura village. This is because the difference of Therefore, we conclude that betel leaves highly the standard size of pan borojs between 2 areas. contribute to generation of employment in the However, in both areas, betel leaf cultivation village. generates almost 1 year’s employment from one pan ACKNOWLEDMENT boroj. This means one pan boroj would provide the This study was supported by a research grant by labor opportunity for one person for almost the entire JSPS-MEXT of Japanese government. year. Because the pan boroj measuring 600m2 is an average size in Jahajpura village and because there REFERENCES are 84 betel farmers in the village, the whole betel leaf cultivation of the village may provide 84 persons [1] USAID. 2010. Land use change trend analysis in seven protected areas in Bangladesh under IPAC with employment for one year. There are 349 through application of Landsat imageries. USAID. households in the village, and the main occupation of [2] Mohammed Salim Uddin, Mohammed Abu Sayed 128 households is day labor. That means 65.6% of Arfin Khan. 2007. Compering the Impacts of Local day labor is offered by betel leaf cultivation, people and Rohingya Refugees on Teknaf Game confirming the importance of this activity. Reserve. Making Conservation Work : Linking Rural Another way to measure the importance of betel leaf Livelihoods and Protected Area Management in Bangladesh. pp.150-175. cultivation in local economy is the number of actors [3] Asahiro Kazuo, Tani Masakazu, Rahman M. Zulfikar. of all kinds. There are 84 betel leaf farmers, 84 day 2012. The Study on the Influence of Betel Leaf laborers employed by them, 10 middlemen, and 5 Cultivation on Forest Loss in the Teknaf Peninsula, wholesalers, a total of 183 persons. Assuming each Bangladesh. the Journal of Design, Kyushu of the 183 is the household head, 183 households of University, 16 : 1-10. Available at: the 349 village households (52.4%) are supported by http://hdl.handle.net/2324/21844 betel leaf cultivation. Other than them, there are [4] Tsuruta Hiroshi, Tani Masakazu, M Zulfikar Rahman, people who are involved in betel leaf cultivation, 2012. The study on the impact of betel leaf cultivation on the local forest in the Teknaf Peninsula. such as providers of materials for constructing pan Proceeding of 3rd International Conference on boroj. Therefore, the contribution of betel leaf Environmental Aspects of Bangladesh. pp.51-53. cultivation to the local economy may be even bigger [5] Sayan Ghosh, Asit Maiti. 2011. Betel leaf cultivation than that. – A Potential Crop for Sustainable Income. An In-depth Study on Economy of Betel leaf Cultivation CONCLUSION and Marketing with reference to Nadia District, West In Jahajpura village, we confirmed that farmers Bengal, India. 120p. cultivated betel leaves as labor intensive crop. Since there are a lot of betel leaf farmers in the village, plenty of working opportunities are generated

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E06 Simple Method for Isolation and Identification of Two New Phlorotannins from Ecklonia cava and their Antioxidant Activities MTH Chowdhury1,2, T Shahrin2, MR Islam3,4, ZP Sukhan5, JY Kang1, P Gatachow1, MA Hannan1, MM Far1 AT Siddique5 and YK Hong1 1Department of Biotechnology, Pukyong National University, Busan 608-737, South Korea 2Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Fisheries & Livestock, People’s Republic of Bangladesh 3Energy & Mineral Resources Division; Ministry of Power, Energy & Mineral Resources; Govt. of Bangladesh 4Department of Imaging System Engineering, Pukyong National University, Busan 608-737, South Korea 5Sharnalata Agro Fisheries Ltd., Radhakanai, Fulbaria, Mymensingh, Bangladesh. Corresponding Author: YK Hong, Phone: +82-51-629-5862, e-mail: [email protected] Abstract A simple isolation method was developed for two new phlorotannins with molecular weight of 974, and two known phlorotannins, dieckol and phlorofucofuroeckol-A from the brown seaweed Ecklonia cava. The chemical structures of isolated phlorotannins were identified by spectrometric analysis including two dimensional NMR. Antioxidant activity of the phlorotannins was assessed in vitro by measuring the DPPH radical scavenging activity. Isolated two new phlorotannins exhibit stronger antioxidant activity compared with already known phlorotannins dieckol and phorofucofuroeckol-A, and are more potent than commercial antioxidant BHT and L-Ascorbic acid. This result suggests a beneficial role of these isolated phlorotannins in the medicinal as well as food industries as antioxidant rich functional food ingredients.

INTRODUCTION phloroglucinol (1,3,5-trihydroxybenzene) [10]. In the Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced by brown algae, phlorotannins function as defense all aerobic organisms and known to cause oxidative against herbivore [11-12], microbes [13-14], modification of DNA, proteins, lipids and small allelopathic activity against epibionts [15], harmful cellular molecules. ROS are associated with tissue effects of UV radiation [16] or as structural damage and are the prime contributing factors for compounds in cell wall hardening [17-19]. During various diseases such as inflammation, various the past decades, it has been reported that Ecklonia cancer, hypertension, diabetes and degenerative species by virtue of its phlorotannin contents exhibits process associated with aging [1-3]. Antioxidants antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities [20], are important inhibitors of lipid peroxidation for food radical scavenging activity [21], anti-allergic activity production and act as a defense mechanism of living [22], anti-plasmin activity [23], bactericidal activity cell against ROS-causing oxidative damage [4-5]. [24], HIV-1 reverse transcriptase and protease Antioxidants intercept the free radical chain of inhibitory activity [25], acetyl cholinesterase oxidation by donating hydrogen from the phenolic inhibitory activity [26-27] and tyrosinase inhibitory hydrogen groups, forming a stable end product which activity [28]. These diverse biological activities do not initiate or propagate oxidation of lipids. So, promoted us to isolate and identify the phlorotannin antioxidant regulates various oxidative reactions compounds from the brown alga E. cava. Purpose of naturally occurring in tissues. The most extensively the study was to develop a simple and easy method used synthetic antioxidants are propylgallate (PG), for isolation of two new phorotannins from the butylated hydroxylanisol (BHA), bytylated brown seaweed E. cava. Furthermore, the antioxidant hydroxytoluene (BHT) and tart-butylhydroquinone activities of the isolated compounds were examined (TBHQ), most of them have, however, been reported by electro spectrophotometer. to be toxic, carcinogenic and responsible for liver METHODS damage [6-7]. Therefore, much attention of consumers and food producers are focusing on A. Algal materials natural substances to replace synthetic antioxidant. Leafy thalli of the brown seaweed, E. cava, was Ecklonia cava Kjellman is brown seaweed collected from Busan coast, Korea between distributed only in the coast of Japan and Korea [8] December, 2009 to December, 2010. Voucher and is utilized as food ingredient, animal feed, specimen has been deposited in our laboratory. fertilizer and medicine [9]. E. cava contains variety Epiphytes and salt were removed by washing the of compounds including carotenoids, fucoidans and seaweed with fresh water and 1 min sonication. Then phlorotannins, playing diverse biological and the seaweed tissues were dried completely for 1 week ecological roles. Marine algal polyphenols, known as at room temperature and ground to a fine powder phlorotannins as major metabolites of Ecklonia using a coffee grinder. Finally, the seaweed powder species, which have only been found to exist within was stored in a dark room at 20°C until use. brown algae, are formed by the polymerization of

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B. Chemicals All solvents used in this study were high-purity spectroscopic grade solvents (J.T. Baker, Avantor Performance Materials, NJ, USA). DPPH (2, 2- diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) and NMR solvent Methanol-d4 were purchased from Sigma (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Luis, MO, USA). C. Isolation of phlorotannin Isolation of four phlorotannins from the algal powder of E. cava was done according to Chowdhury et al [29-30] with some modification. The dried powder of E. cava (100 g) was mixed with methanol (400 mL) and shaken at 180 rpm at 20°C by a rotary Fig. 1. Simple isolation and purification scheme of four shaker for 2 hours. Chloroform (800 mL) was added phlorotannins viz. dieckol, 974B, 974A and phlorofucofuroeckol-A from brown seaweed E. cava. and homogenized and filtered. The filtered methanol- chloroform extract was partitioned with water (300 mL) and then the water layer was extracted with diethyl ether (600 mL). Ethyl ether fraction was evaporated in a rotary evaporator (EYELA MP-1000, Tokyo Ri. Kakikai Co. Ltd, Japan) under vacuum at 37°C and the residue was again completely dried by a nitrogen generator (G 4510E; Dominic Hunter Ltd., England) to prevent oxidation of polyphenol. The diethyl ether fraction was than dissolved in 100% methanol and Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) was run on pre-coated ALUGRAM 0.15 mm kieselgel Fig. 2. HPLC chromatogram of the ethyl ether fraction of C18 UV254 plate (MACHEREY-NAGEL GmbH & Ecklonia cava.. 1, 2, 3 and 4 represent the dieckol (Peak 32), Co, Germany) and the spots of the TLC plate were purified new phlorotannin 1 (Peak 36, molecular weight detected under UV lamp (254 and 365 nm). The TLC 974 B), purified new phlorotannin 2 (Peak 37, molecular plates were activated at 120°C for 5 min before use, weight 974 A) and phlorofucofuroeckol-A (Peak 41). HPLC using CHCl3:CH3OH:H2O:CH3COOH (65:25:4:3 system consist of a C18, 5 µm (10 mm i.d × 25 cm) column, v/v) as a developing solvent. After removing the monitor at 290 nm wavelength with linear gradient solvent system consisted of water and 100% methanol. The gradient solvent, 50% H2SO4 was used as detecting agent. was made from 30% to 100% methanol over 40 min and Five spots were detected. After that the diethyl ether with isocratic 100% methanol over 10 min, at a flow rate of fraction was directly subjected to reverse phase 1.0 mL/min. HPLC (Waters 600 pump, Waters 2487 Dual λ Absorbance Detector) purification on a preparative E. Determination of Antioxidant Activity

Altima C18, 5µ column (250 mm × 22 mm) equipped with a Alltima C18 10µ preparatory guard The radical scavenging activities of the four column (33×7 mm) (Alltech Associates, IL, USA) at purified phlorotannins were measured using the a flow rate of 5.0 mL/min. Further purification was DPPH (2, 2- diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) method [31] conducted by semi-preparative Altima C18, 5µ with some modification. Briefly, 1 mL of 0.2 mM column (250 mm × 10 mm) equipped with a Alltima DPPH prepared freshly in ethanol was added to 1 C18 5µ guard column (7.5×4.6 mm) (Alltech mL of purified compounds at various concentrations Associates, IL, USA). HPLC mobile phase was linear (5 to 50 µg/mL). The mixture was vortexed and gradient solvent system consisted of water and 100% incubated at 25°C for 30 min in the dark, and the methanol. The gradient was made from 30% to 100% absorbance at 517 nm was measured. Lower methanol over 40 min and with isocratic 100% absorbance indicates higher free radical scavenging methanol over 10 min, at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min. activity. The percentage of scavenging activity was The purity of the compound was >97%, based on the calculated using the following formula: scavenging HPLC peak area of all components absorbed at 290 activity (%) = [1 – (A1–A2)/A0] × 100%, where A0 is nm wavelength in the HPLC analysis. the absorbance of the control (water instead of test D. Spectrometry sample solution), A1 is the absorbance of the sample, and A2 is the absorbance of the sample with water Isolated all phlorotannins were analyzed on a instead of DPPH. The IC50 value, which is the JNM-ECP 400 NMR spectrometer (JEOL, Tokyo, 1 concentration of the test material that reduces the Japan), using methanol-d4 (CD3OD) for the H and free radical concentration by 50%, was calculated as 13C-NMR spectra. FABMS data were obtained from μg/mL and µM using a dose-response curve. JMS-700 spectrometer (JEOL).

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F. Statistical Analysis 125.3 (C-4a), 124.7 (C-1''''), 124.0 (C-1, C-1'''''), 122.1 All data were compiled as the mean ± SEM of at (C-8), 110.0 (C-13), 106.4 (C-12), 102.7 (C-2'''), 102.5 least three independent determinations. Statistical (C-2'), 99.6 (C-3), 99.5 (C-10), 98.6 (C-4'''), 98.4 (C-4'), comparisons of mean values were performed with an 97.7 (C-3''''), 97.6 (C-4''), 96.5 (C-3''''', C-5'''''), 95.3 (C-2'', C-6''), 95.2 (C-6'), 94.3 (C-5'''', C-6'''), 92.7 (C-6). analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by a New phlorotannin 2 (Peak 37 (974 A): light brown Duncan’s multiple test using SPSS software, version powder, FABMS m/z (%) Found: 974.1175 [M]+; bp), 16 (SPSS Inc. Chicago, IL). P values <0.05 were 1 matching the formula of C48H30O23. H-NMR (400 MHz, considered statistically significant. CD3OD) δ: 6.63 (1H, s, H-13), 6.40 (1H, s, H-9), 6.25 (1H, s, H-3), 6.20 (2H, d, J =2.08 Hz, H-4"'), 6.19 (1H, d, J RESULTS AND DISCUSSION =2.40 Hz, H-4'), 6.12 (1H, d, J =2.40 H-6"), 6.04 (1H, d, J A. Isolation and structural determination of = 2.72 Hz, H-3''''), 5.93 (2H, s, H-3''''', H-5'''''), 5.91 (1H, t, phlorotannins J = 2.04 Hz, H-4''), 5.90 (1H, d, J=2.04 Hz, H-6'''), 5.87 (2H, d, J =2.04 Hz, H-2'', H-6''), 5.73 (1H, d, J =2.72 Hz, H-5''''); To isolate the phlorotannin compounds from E 13 C-NMR (100 MHz, CD3OD) δ:161.9 (C-1"), 160.2 (C-3", cava, dried seaweed were extracted with methanol- C-5"), 159.9 (C-5"'), 159.8 (C-1"'), 159.5 (C-5'), 159.2 chloroform. The methanol-chloroform fraction was (C-1'), 156.7 (C-4''''), 156.6 (C-3', C-3''', C-3''''), 153.8 partitioned with water. Water fraction was extracted (C-6''''), 153.4 (C-12a), 152.2 (C-2''''', C-6'''''), 151.9 (C-2''''), with diethyl ether. Then the diethyl ether fraction 151.8 (C-10), 151.2 (C-11a), 148.2 (C-8), 147.8 (C-2), was directly subjected to the RP-HPLC (Fig. 1). 145.8 (C-14), 144.3 (C-4), 138.1 (C-15a), 135.2 (C-5a), Among the various peaks in the chromatograms, 127.7 (C-14a), 125.0 (C-1''''), 124.9 (C-4a), 124.3 (C-1), elutes of four peaks with retention time 32, 36, 37 124.2 (C-1'''''),122.4 (C-11), 105.3 (C-6, C-7), 102.7 (C-2'''), and 41 min, (Fig. 2) respectively were collected. 102.4 (C-2'), 99.9 (C-9), 99.3 (C-3), 98.7 (C-4'''), 98.4 (C-4'), 97.8 (C-4''''), 97.6 (C-4''), 96.4 (C-3'''', C-5''''), 96.1 From FAB-MS spectrum of phlorotannin compounds (C-13), 95.3 (C-2'', C-6', C-6''), 94.5 (C-5''''), 94.3 (C-6'''). peak retention time 36 and 37 min, [M]+ ion at m/z were 974.1183 and 974.1175, respectively. Their 1H-NMR and 13C-NMR spectral data were similar to the two new and novel phlorotannins 974B and 974A respectively isolated from the brown seaweed Ecklonia kurome [32]. In our previous study, we also isolated these two new and novel phlorotannins from brown seaweed E. cava [30]. Judging from these results, phlorotannins compound of peak 36 and 37 were new and novel compounds (Fig. 2) and matched the molecular weight and formula with 974 and New Phlorotannin 1 New Phlorotannin 2 C48H30O23, respectively. It is also reported first time that brown seaweed E. cava contains two new [Peak 36 (974 B)] [Peak 37 (974 A)]

4' 4' phlorotannins compounds whose molecular weight HO OH HO OH 3' 5' 3' 5' and formula are 974 and C48H30O23, respectively. 2' 6' 2' 6' 1' 1' OH O Another two phlorotannins (peak retention time 32 10 OH O 9 1 15 9a O 10a OH 14 1 8 14a O 15a OH 2 13 and 41 min) were also isolated. From FAB-MS, 2 7 3 5a 4a 12a 1 13 O 6 O 4 3 5 5a 4a H-NMR and C-NMR spectral data, phlorotannins 4''' 6 O 4 HO OH OH 12 O 5 compounds of 32 and 41 min retention time were 5''' 3''' 7 OH OH 6''' 2''' 11a 8 1''' confirmed as identical to the spectral data of dieckol 11 9 OH O 6'' 10 10'' O 9'' 1'' HO 9a'' 10a'' OH 8'' O 5'' 1'' OH and phlorofucofuroeckol-A, (Fig. 2) respectively 2''

3'' 4'' 2'' 7'' 5a'' 4a'' 4'' 3'' [20],[26]. The spectral data and structure of isolated HO 6'' O5'' OH OH four phlorotannins were given below: Dieckol Phlorofucofuroeckol-A New phlorotannin 1 [Peak 36 (974 B)]: light brown Fig. 3. Structures of New Phlorotannin 1 [Peak 36 (974 powder, FABMS m/z (%) Found: 974.1183 [M]+; B)], New Phlorotannin 2 [Peak 37 (974 A)], dieckol and (bp), 997.1076 [M+Na], matching the formula of phlorofucofuroeckol-A isolated from the edible brown alga 1 C48H30O23. H-NMR (400 MHz, CD3OD) δ: 6.68 (1H, s, E. cava. H-6), 6.37 (1H, s, H-10), 6.21 (1H, d, J = 2.08 Hz, H-4'''), 6.20 (2H, d, J =2.40 Hz, H-4'), 6.16 (1H, s, H-3), 6.15 (1H, Dieckol: (Peak 32): light brown powder, FABMS d, J =2.40 H-6'), 6.05 (1H, d, J = 2.76 Hz, H-3''''), 5.99 (2H, m/z (%) Found: 742.0811 (M+; bp), 743.0880 [M+1]+; + s, H-3''''', H-5'''''), 5.91 (1H, t, J=2.04 Hz, H-4''), 5.89 (2H, (64), 741.0726 [M-1] ; (18), Calcd for C36H22O18: 742.0806; 1 d, J =2.40 Hz, H-6'''), 5.87 (1H, d, J =2.04 Hz, H-2'', H-6''), H-NMR (400 MHz, CD3OD) δ :6.14 (1H, s, H-3"), 6.12 5.75 (1H, d, J = 2.72 Hz, H-5''''); 13C-NMR (100 MHz, (1H, s, H-3), 6.08 (2H, s, H-2"', H-6), 6.06 (1H, d, J = CD3OD) δ: 161.9 (C-1"), 160.2 (C-3", C-5"), 159.7 (C-5"'), 2.72 Hz, H-8), 6.04 (1H, d, J = 3.08 Hz, H-6"'), 5.98 (1H, 159.6 (C-5'), 159.2 (C-1'''), 159.0 (C-1'), 157.5 (C-3'''), d, J = 2.72 Hz, H-6"), 5.95 (1H, d, J = 2.72 Hz, H-8"), 5.92 13 156.9 (C-3'), 156.6 (C-4''''), 156.4 (C-4'''''), 153.8 (C-6''''), (3H, s, H-2',4',6'); C-NMR (100 MHz, CD3OD) δ :161.9 152.7 (C-6a), 152.2 (C-2''''', C-6'''''), 152.0 (C-2''''), 151.6 (C-1'), 160.1 (C-3',5'), 157.8 (C-7), 155.9 (C-7"), 154.5 (C-9), 150.9 (C-7a), 148.4 (C-11), 147.0 (C-2), 143.8 (C-4), (C-4a, 4a"), 152.4 (C-3"',5"'), 147.4 (C-9a"), 147.3 (C-2", 142.9 (C-5a), 138.3 (C-14), 138.0 (C-15a), 127.5 (C-14a), C-1"), 147.2 (C-2), 146.9 (C-9, 9"), 144.3 (C-5a"), 144.1

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(C-5a, 4), 143.4 (C-4"), 143.3 (C-4"'), 138.6 (C-10a), 138.5 stronger antioxidant activity than the standard BHT (C-10a"), 126.1 (C-1"'), 125.5 (C-9a), 124.5 (C-1), 99.8 (C-8"), (127.85 ± 1.46 µM) and six-fold greater than 99.6 (C-8), 99.4 (C-3), 99.3 (C-3"), 97.6 (C-4'), 96.1 L-Ascorbic acid (78.74 ± 1.79 µM) in a molar (C-2"',6"'), 95.8 (C-6"), 95.7 (C-6'), 95.3 (C-2',6). concentration. The multifunctional antioxidant Phlorofucofuroeckol-A (Peak 41): light brown activity of polyphenols is highly related to phenol powder, FABMS m/z (%) Found: 603.0779 [M+1]+; bp, + rings which act as electron traps to scavenge peroxy, 602.0693 [M] , (70), Calcd for C30H18O14: 602.0697; 1 superoxide-anions and hydroxyl radicals. H-NMR (400 MHz, CD3OD) δ: 6.64 (1H, s, H-9), 6.41 (1H, s, H-13), 6.27 (1H, s, H-3), 5.97 (2H, d, J =2.04 Hz, H-2", Phlototannins from brown algae have up to eight H-6"), 5.94 (1H, m, H-4'), 5.92 (1H, m, H-4"), 5.89 (2H, d, interconnected rings. So, they are more potent free 13 J = 2.04 Hz, H-2', H-6'), C-NMR (100 MHz, CD3OD) radical scavenger than other polyphenolics derived δ:161.6 (C-1), 161.5 (C-1"), 160.0 (C-5"), 159.9 (C-3', C-5', from terrestrial plants, including green tea catechins, C-3"), 152.9 (C-12a), 151.5 (C-10), 150.9 (C-11a), 148.1 which only have three to four rings [34]. (C-2, C-8), 145.7 (C-14), 143.7 (C-4), 138.1 (C-15a), 135.1

(C-5a), 127.9 (C-14a), 124.8 (C-4a), 124.5 (C-1'), 122.1 Table 2. The IC50 values of New Phlorotannin 1 [Peak 36 (C-11), 105.1 (C-6, C-7), 99.8 (C-9), 99.2 (C-3), 97.6 (974 B)], New Phlorotannin 2 [Peak 37 (974 A)], dieckol, (C-4"), 97.4 (C-4'), 96.0 (C-13), 95.2 (C-2", C-6"), 95.2 and phlorofucofuroeckol-A for DPPH free radical (C-2', C-6'). scavenging activity. The composition of four phlorotannins in E. cava IC Phlorotannins 50 IC (µM) was determined by HPLC analysis (Table 1). Among (µg/mL) 50 the four phlorotannins highest amount was New New Phlorotannin 1 12.25 ± 12.58 ± Phlorotannin 1 [Peak 36 (974 B)] (24.47%) and the lowest [Peak 36 (974 B)] 0.54b 0.55a amount was New Phlorotannin 2[Peak 37 (974 A)] (8.88%). New Phlorotannin 2 12.92 ± 13.26 ± respectively. The amount order of phlorotannins in E. [Peak 37 (974 A)] 0.36bc 0.37a 10.57 ± 14.24 ± cava was 974B, dieckol, phlorofucofuroeckol-A and Dieckol 974A respectively. Shibata et al [33] also determined 0.30a 0.41a 11.15 ± 18.51 ± the phlorotannins composition in E. cava where Phlorofucofuroeckol-A a b dieckol, phlorofucofuroeckol-A and unknown 0.18 0.31 28.14 ± 127.85 ± BHT compounds were 22.2%, 6.6% and 37% respectively, 0.32d 1.46d which were similar to our results. 13.87 ± 78.74 ± L-Ascorbic acid 0.32c 1.79c Table.1 Phlorotannins composition in brown seaweed E. *Results are mean ± SE. Letters of a, b, c, and d within the same cava by RP-HPLC. column indicate significant differences by Duncan’s multiple test at Phlorotannins Amount of p <0.05. phlorotannins (%) New Phlorotannin 1 [Peak 36 (974 B)] 24.47 CONCLUSION New Phlorotannin 2[Peak 37 (974 A)] 8.84 Two new and novel phlorotannins compounds Dieckol 19.56 matching the molecular weight and formula to 974 Phlorofucofuroeckol-A 14.72 and C48H30O23 were first time isolated from brown Unknown compounds 32.39 seaweed E. cava in very simple and easy way and *Unknown compounds were also polyphenol. *HPLC conditions were described in Materials and methods section. their antioxidant activity was also determined. They *All the analytical data in the table are presented as the mean of six exhibit stronger antioxidant activity compared with determinations. already known phlorotannins dieckol and B. DPPH Free Radical Scavenging Activity. phorofucofuroeckol-A, and are more potent than commercial antioxidant BHT and L-Ascorbic acid. In this study DPPH radical scavenging assay were Therefore, the four phlorotannins isolated in this chosen as one of methods to evaluate in vitro study can be used as natural antioxidant in functional antioxidant activities of the isolated phlorotannins. food industry. In addition, our current method offers DPPH is a free radical compound that has been an easy and high-throughput isolation technique for widely used to evaluate the free radical scavenging phlorotannins from other similar natural resources. activity of natural antioxidant. The degree of reduction in absorbance is indicative of the radical ACKNOWLEDGEMENT scavenging power of the extract and compound. The This work was supported by the National Research DPPH radical scavenging activities of isolated Foundation of Korea Grant funded by the Korean phlorotannins compounds were determined and Government (MEST) (NRF-M1A5A1-2013-044447). compared with L–Ascorbic acid and BHT. The concentration of new phlorotannin 1 [peak 36 REFERENCES (974B)] producing 50% inhibition (IC50) was 12.25 [1] BN Ames. 1983. Dietary carcinogens and ± 0.54 µg/mL or 12.58 ± 0.55 for DPPH free radical anticarcinogens: oxygen radicals and degenerative scavenging activity. The IC50 of new phlorotannin 2 diseases. Science 221: 1256-1264. (peak 37 (974A) was 12.92 ± 0.36 µg/mL or 13.26 ± [2] ER Stadtman.1992. Protein oxidation and aging. 0.37 µM/mL for scavenging activity. Thus, the new Science 257: 1220-1224. phlorotannins 1 and 2 showed almost ten-fold

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Isolation and identification of phlorotannins from Ecklonia stolonifera with

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E07

Estimation & Possible Reduction Techniques of CO2 Emission from the Residential Building Construction of Bangladesh Sushanta Roy, Md. Shahrior Alam, Syed Ishtiaq Ahmad* Department of Civil Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh e-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]* Abstract

The effect of CO2 is enormous in unpredictable climate changes as it absorbs heat from the atmosphere and increases the temperature of the earth. The impact of global warming due to climate change is adverse for a river surrounded country like Bangladesh. A lot of research has been conducted so far to identify the reasons of excess CO2 emission in the industrial arena throughout the world. The basic intent of this paper is to estimate the CO2 emission from the construction process of two typical 06 storey residential building projects of Bangladesh. It has been found that, CO2 emissions from these buildings are 7139 and 8920 Ton respectively based on the construction materials used. This research also focuses on the comparison of CO2 emission from different construction materials of same quantity and comes out with a conclusion that use of bricks produces 3 times more emission than stones. This necessitates the using of alternate materials to achieve environment friendly green building with lesser emission of greenhouse gas like CO2.

INTRODUCTION used in Building-2 is of brick chips. Table 2 shows a Concrete is the main ingredient of ever growing brief summary of both the project with actual construction industry of Bangladesh. The life cycle materials required for construction. Standard values assessment of concrete constituents like cement, [2, 3] for computing CO2 emission and energy brick chips, stone chips, sand etc. shows that the consumption for building materials is contained in production or use of these materials involve emission Table 2. Using these standard values and the actual of CO2. Moreover production and use of essential quantity of materials used, a quick estimation is building materials like deformed rebar and some prepared for the energy requirement and emission of decorative elements like tiles, glasses; false ceiling harmful greenhouse gases which is contained in elements etc. also require energy and result in Table 2 listed below. emission of greenhouse gasses [1]. OUTCOMES AND DISCUSSION Keeping the above as background, the present The last four column of Table 2 represents the scope of this paper is to estimate CO2 emission and energy requirement for each type of building research outcomes. The CO2 emission for building 1 and building 2 is 7139 Ton and 8920 Ton which is materials. Furthermore, estimation of CO2 in maintenance and operation phase is also required to 1.32 and 1.65 Tons/sft respectively. The energy be added to the estimation of total energy consumption for building 1 and building 2 is 34,407 requirement and emission. GJ and 42,993 GJ which is 6.37 and 7.96 GJ/sft With these data in hand one can easily detect the respectively. construction ingredient that requires more energy and Using these data computation of CO2 emission causes more emission. The prime objective is to and energy consumption can be done based on the suggest feasible alternative so that overall total area of the buildings to be constructed construction industry becomes sustainable, energy depending on the materials used. efficient and environment friendly. It is apparent from the outcomes that both CO2 emission and energy consumption is lesser for RESEARCH METHODS building 1 than those for building 2. Approximately In this research, detail construction data are 30% of the emission is due to the operation and collected and analyzed from two different residential maintenance of the project when natural gas and building projects situated in Dhaka, Bangladesh. electricity were mostly used. Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 shows the detail contribution of The life cycle analysis (LCA) of building materials construction materials in CO2 emission for building show that the energy requirement and CO2 emission 1 and building 2 respectively. happens mainly by two ways: active & passive. For building 1, in terms of building materials are Table 1 shows the summary of LCA of building used, the most CO2 emission and energy materials with the reasons of CO2 emission & energy consumption is due to the use of steel rebar (36%) consumption from the preparation, transportation to whereas for building 2, the significant emission is the site and uses of these materials. due to the use of bricks (39%). The buildings under research are approximately Emission of CO2 due to the use of brick chips in 5,400 sft in plan and each of them is six storeys high. place of stone chips for concrete production is found Concrete used in Building-1 is of stone chips and that 3 times higher.

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Table 1. Reasons of CO2 Emission & Energy Consumption

Sl. Description of Construction Items Sources of CO2 Emission & Energy Consumption No. Wood Burning Electricity Plant Fuel Burning Cutting of Wood/ for Machine Operation for Gas/Coal Operation Transportation 1 Cement i) Clinker Import √ ii) Gypsum Import √ iii) Mixing of Ingredients √ iv) Packing & Processing for Sale √ v) Transportation of Cement bags √ 2 Brick i) Cutting, Carrying & Mixing of Earth √ √ ii) Molding Works √ iii) Burning Sources: Wood √ √ Gas √ Coal √ iv) Kiln Operation & Maintenance √ v) Brick Transportation to Construction √ Site 3 Stone i) Collection of Boulder/Stone Sources √ ii) Crushing of Boulder √ iii) Transportation to Construction Site √ 4 Sand i) Collection of Sand from River Side √ ii) Transportation to Construction Site √ 5 Rebar i) Collection of Billets/ Raw Materials √ ii) Melting with proper Chemical √ √ Composition iii) Molding of Rebar √ iv) Transportation to Construction Site √ 6 Glass i) Collection of Silica √ ii) Melting and Molding of Glasses √ √ √ iii) Transportation to Construction Site √

Fig. 1. Role of construction materials in CO2 emission Fig. 2. Role of construction materials in CO2 emission

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Table 2. CO2 Emission & Energy Consumption for 02 Residential Buildings at Dhaka, Bangladesh

Sl. Item Description Collected Data Standard Value per Unit CO2 Emission Energy Consumption No. [2,3] (Ton) (GJ)

Building Building CO2 Energy Building Building Building Building 1 2 Emission Consumption 1 2 1 2 (Ton) (GJ) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (3) x (5) (4) x (5) (3) x (6) (4) x (6) 1 Construction Materials i) Cement (bags) 12440 11335 0.0194 0.0935 241.34 219.90 1,163.14 1,059.82 ii) Brick (nos.) 25530 177030 0.00054[4] 0.00575 495.28 3,434.38 2,387.06 16,552.31 iii) Stone (cft) 57258 0.00356 0.00483 1,110.81 - 5,353.62 - iv) Sand (cft) 28580 26779 0.00138 0.02346 554.45 519.51 2,672.23 2,503.84 v) Rebar (kg) 131586 132079 0.0000624 1.365 2,552.77 2,562.33 12,303.29 12,349.39 vi) Glass (kg) 3500 3500 0.0013 0.0184 67.90 67.90 327.25 327.25 2 Operation & Maintenance i) Natural Gas (days) 1100 1100 0.1336 0.01152 21.34 21.34 102.85 102.85 ii) Electricity (kWH) 108000 108000 0.000619 0.01128 2,095.20 2,095.20 10,098.00 10,098.00 Total = 7,139.08 8,920.57 34,407.44 42,993.45

Since bricks are the major producer of CO2 in its life cycle, it is a concern for the construction industry to find alternative of using bricks. For concrete production, stones can be used as they are more environment friendly, though their prices are higher than bricks. In the overall scenario considering the effect of brick in environment, use of stone would be feasible. For external façade and internal partition wall, use of hollow blocks would be the suitable alternative. CONCLUSION For a developing country like Bangladesh construction of buildings, bridges and other infrastructures are common. The construction should go in such a way that it eliminates the items of materials i.e. bricks which cause more CO2 emission and requires more energy during its production. It is the call of the time to go with green technology which in turn will be sustainable, feasible and safer for the earth we live in.

REFERENCES [1] Brown, H. “Energy Analysis of 108 Industrial Processes", the Fairmont Press, Lilburn, GA, USA, 1996. [2] Heijungs, R. et al., "Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Products, Guide-October 1992", Centre of Environmental Science, Leiden, Netherlands, 1992 [3] Boustead, I., Hancock, G.F., “Handbook of Industrial Energy Analysis”, Ellis Horwood Publishers, Chichester, UK, 1979 [4] Norsker, H., 1994. ‘‘Energy saving brick kilns’’, Swiss Development Cooperation, Bangladesh.

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E08 Major Role of Biological Processes on the Dissolution of Calcium carbonate under Ocean Acidification MN Islam*, BE Casareto, and Y Suzuki Graduate School of Science and Technology, Biogeochemistry Laboratory, Shizuoka University, Japan *e-mail: [email protected] Abstract To test the effects of biological processes on the dissolution of calcium carbonate under ocean acidification, we carried out incubation experiments using coral rubble at Sesoko Island, Okinawa, Japan. Short incubations (24h under natural illumination) and long incubations (4 days under dark condition) were carried out using white coral skeleton (no attachment of living organism), natural rubble (with associated epilithic and endolithic communities) and natural rubble with addition of organic matter (glucose and coral mucus) under elevated pCO2. During dark incubation experiment when photosynthesis is inhibited, the respiration of coral rubble associated communities contributed around 80% of carbonate dissolution. Conversely, very small amount of dissolution was observed from the control. In the short incubation experiment, addition of bioavailable organic matter further increased carbonate dissolution by enhancing bacterial activity under ambient and high pCO2 condition. These suggest that biological processes play a significant role in determining calcification and dissolution.

INTRODUCTION matters to seawater. How will the prevailing The acidification of the oceans is the ongoing biological processes and the organic matters in such decrease in pH of the oceans, caused by the uptake of ecosystems affect carbonate dissolution? In the anthropogenic CO2 from the atmosphere [1]. Since present study we investigate the importance of the beginning of the industrial revolution, about biological processes (especially respiration) to the 30–40% of the carbon dioxide approximately 79 dissolution of calcium carbonate by examining the million tons per day released in the atmosphere by response of coral rubble and its associated microbial human activities has been absorbed by the oceans communities with addition of organic matter under [2-4]. The concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in elevated pCO2. the atmosphere is 396 ppm [5] and increased 2.1 ppm MATERIALS AND METHOD per year during past decade (2003-2012). However, increase in atmospheric CO2 has decreased the A. Study area and collection of samples world’s ocean pH about 0.001 to 0.002 pH units per The study area is located in a shallow fringing year over the past several decades [6]. coral reef at Sesoko Island, Okinawa, Japan between Ocean acidification induces fundamental changes 26°38′ N and 127°51′ E (Fig. 1). Coral rubble in seawater chemistry that could have dramatic effect samples were collected in the lagoon at about 1~2 m on biological ecosystems as well as marine life [7, 8]. depth, and coral mucus was collected from Acropora However, many studies have shown that a more acidic digitifera species using air exposure method [18]. environment has a devastating impact on some Seawater was collected by using Nalgene bottle and calcifying organisms, such as corals [9, 10], oysters filtered by 0.2 μm isopore membrane cartridge filter [11], sea urchins [12], foraminiferans [13] and also before incubation. photosynthetic plankton coccolithophorids [14-16] that have shells or plates of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and leads to dissolution of CaCO3 sediments in reef flats [15]. The acidification of the oceans could affect the dissolution of carbonate skeleton of calcifying organisms as well as coral rubble [17]. Dissolution of carbonate based on the solubility (Ω) of calcite or aragonite and the rate of dissolution is influenced by the physico-chemical processes in the systems. However, biological processes in the systems affect the dissolution rate as well. Our understanding about how the biological processes will contribute to the dissolution rate of carbonate in the future acidic oceans is not well developed. Particularly, coral reefs Fig. 1. Map showing the study area and the location of have so much diversity, large variation of CO2 sample collection (○) at Sesoko Island, Okinawa, Japan concentrations and also corals release lots of organic (Source: using Google map)

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-2 -1 B. Preparation of incubation experiment mmol m d in different level of pCO2 respectively. Incubation experiments were carried out in natural In case of white coral skeleton (control) which has illumination (24h short) and dark (4 day’s long) no any associated communities followed the effects under different level of pCO2 (Ambient, 520, 720 and of increase CO2 (r=+0.95; p=0.04) and consequent 1120 ppm) conditions using natural rubble (NR: with dissolution of calcium carbonate due to low pH associated epilithic and endolithic communities); (chemical effect). We observed very small amount -2 -1 natural rubble with addition of different level of (0.00~0.03±0.5 mmol m d ) of dissolution from the glucose (NR+G) and natural rubble with coral mucus control (WCSk). Conversely, natural rubble did not (NR+M) as source of organic matter to assess its role follow the effects of increasing pCO2 (r=+0.83; on carbonate dissolution. Two small branches of p>0.05) and the resultant dissolution due to coral rubble were placed into 1L Nalgene bottles respiration of rubble associated communities. which were filled with filtered seawater. As control, Therefore, if compared white skeleton to natural white coral skeleton (WCSk) was incubated in the rubble, it is possible to assess that 80% of dissolution same manner. Different levels of pCO2 in the was due to the contribution of biological processes incubation bottles were adjusted by injecting CO2 (Table 1). saturated seawater into the bottles at different volumes until pH values equivalent to the desired pCO2 levels were obtained. CO2 saturated seawater was prepared by bubbling pure CO2 gas into natural seawater until pH was stable. Glucose stock solution was prepared as 1.8 g l-1 and 1ml of this solution were added to the incubation bottles (1L) to make final concentration of 10µM. In case of coral mucus, 10% mucus solution was added to the incubation bottles. Temperature and light intensity were monitored during the experiments using in situ Fig. 2. Photograph of natural coral rubble (left) and a transverse section of it (right) showing the endolithic (green sensors (MDS-MkV/T and MDS-MkV/L, Alec band) and epilithic algae [17] electronics). C. Measurement and analysis Measurement of short incubation (natural illumination) experiment was done 24 times per day (1h interval) and 4 times per day (6h interval) for long incubation experiment under dark condition. pH and DO were measured using a pH meter ORION 4 STAR calibrated with NIST (NBS) scaled buffer solutions (Mettler pH 9.228 and 6.880 buffers at 20°C). Alkalinity (AT) was measured by the total alkalinity titrator (KIMOTO ATT-05). Reproducibility of the AT measurement was ± 2 µmol -1 kg (1σ; n = 10). Heterotrophic bacterial abundance Fig. 3. Photographs of epilithic microbial communities (a) was assessed by counting bacteria cells (stained with coccoid green algae; (b) green algae; (c) red calcareous DAPI) under an epifluorescence microscope (Nikon; algae; (d) algal colony; (e, f) diatoms; (g) nematode; (h, i) ECLIPSE/E600), using a UV-filter. Carbonate foraminifers; (j) cyanobacteria [17]. dissolution rates were analyzed using the alkalinity anomaly technique [19] and saturation state of aragonite (Ωarg) were calculated with the program CO2SYS [20]. RESULTS A. Introducing third sector organizations Natural rubble (NR) are colonized by epilithic and endolithic algal communities and by other heterotrophic organisms as bacteria, foraminifera, nematodes, copepods, etc (Fig. 2, 3, 4). During 4 day’s long incubation experiment under dark condition; the bacterial abundance, net respiration and dissolution rates varied from 1.82 to 6 –1 2.39×10 cells ml , 56~95 ppm CO2 and 0.07~0.08 Fig. 4. Heterotrophic bacterial communities in coral rubble

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Table 1. Summary result of 4 day’s long incubation dissolution rates gradually decreased with experiment under dark condition decreasing level of CO2 concentration. In addition Bac. Net Res. Dis. Rate Sat. of organic matter, this effect was more noticeable. -2 -1 Abundance [∆CO2 ppm] [mmol m d ] State There were strong negative correlation between 3 -1 [Cells×10 ml ] [Ωarg] carbonate dissolution rate and saturation state WCSk (r=–0.99; p=0.0002)(Fig. 5). Ambient 1.08 ± 0.014 03 ± 0.0 0.00 ± 0.0 1.53 520 ppm 1.17 ± 0.011 07 ± 0.0 0.01 ± 0.4 1.28 720 ppm 1.25 ± 0.015 12 ± 1.0 0.02 ± 0.4 1.06 1120 ppm 1.37 ± 0.010 16 ± 1.0 0.03 ± 0.5 0.88 NR Ambient 1816 ± 0.001 56 ± 1.5 0.07 ± 0.2 1.82 520 ppm 2092 ± 0.002 80 ± 2.0 0.07 ± 0.1 1.53 720 ppm 2185 ± 0.001 84 ± 1.0 0.08 ± 0.1 1.34 1120 ppm 2391 ± 0.001 95 ± 1.0 0.08 ± 0.1 1.12 WCSk: White coral skeleton; NR: Natural rubbles with associated epilithic and endolithic communities; Bac. Abundance: Bacterial abundance; Net Res.: Net respiration [ΔCO2 = CO2 final – CO2 initial]; Dis. Rate: Dissolution rate; Sat. State: Saturation state; Fig. 5. Relationship between aragonite saturation state Mean ± SD (Ωarg) and carbonate dissolution rates B. Addition of bioavailable organic matter DISCUSSION Bioavailable organic matter (glucose and coral mucus), was added to the incubation bottles to Dissolution of calcium carbonate of calcifying organisms and their skeletons occurs due to reduction enhance bacterial growth and their physiological 2– activities accelerates carbonate dissolution (Table 2). in CO3 saturation state by ocean acidification During 24h natural illumination experiment, the [21-23]. It has been shown that carbonate dissolution bacterial abundance (t-test; p=0.01) and net increases at 800~1000 ppm levels of pCO2 [24]. In respiration (t-test; p=0.0001) increased significantly the dark experiment where photosynthesis was with addition of bioavailable organic matter and also inhibited, dissolution of calcium carbonate increased with increasing pCO2 levels in both of WCSk and with increasing pCO2 levels (p<0.05). Consistent with increase in respiration, dissolution rates also NR. In case of NR, the effect was more noticeable increased (r=+0.99; t-test; p=0.0001). In the organic due to the contribution (respiration) of associated matter addition incubation bottles, bacterial communities. Therefore, experimental CO2 abundance and dissolution rates increased 5~6 times conditions did not have much contribution to more than the control (NR) (Table 2). carbonate dissolution. But high CO2 enhanced growth of primary producers and microbial Table 2. Summary result of 24h natural illumination short communities, and their respiration (CO2) induced incubation experiment carbonate dissolution. This suggests that CO2 Bac. Net Dis. Sat. produced by microbial respiration intensified Abundance Res. Rate State carbonate dissolution. Moreover, when the 5 -1 -2 -1 -2 -1 [Cells×10 ml ] [mgCm d ] [mmol m d ] [Ωarg] abundance of bacteria was enhanced with addition of Ambient condition bioavailable organic matter (glucose and coral NR 4.5 ± 0.01 316 ± 1.5 0.14 ± 0.0 2.87 mucus), the rate of dissolution was further increased NR+G 16.4 ± 0.01 527 ± 0.8 0.50 ± 0.0 1.54 (Table 2). Bacterial respiration can induce rapid NR+M 22.3 ± 0.02 612 ± 1.6 0.60 ± 0.1 1.22 dissolution of carbonate in the sediments [25]. High pCO2 (1120 ppm) condition Therefore, these results suggest that the availability NR 5.2 ± 0.02 354 ± 0.8 0.18 ± 0.1 2.42 of organic matter accelerates carbonate dissolution NR+G 18.2 ± 0.00 564 ± 1.0 0.54 ± 0.0 1.32 by increasing bacterial respiration. In the high pCO2 NR+M 25.3 ± 0.01 683 ± 1.0 0.65 ± 0.1 1.13 conditions, photosynthesis of microalgae and NR: Natural rubbles with associated epilithic and endolithic cyanobacteria is enhanced as well as primary communities; NR+G: Natural rubbles with addition of organic production [26, 27]. Photosynthesis plays an matter (Glucose); NR+M: Natural rubbles with addition of organic matter (10% Coral mucus); Bac. Abundance: Bacterial abundance; important role in calcification [28, 15]. Therefore, Net Res.: Net respiration; Dis. Rate: Dissolution rate; Sat. state: calcification and dissolution of calcium carbonate is Saturation state; Mean ± SD not only governed by chemical parameters but also biological processes play an important role as C. Carbonate dissolution vs. saturation state demonstrated in the “Bio-Chemical Dissolution Calcium carbonate dissolution rates increased Processes (BCDP)” [17] (Fig. 6). and saturation states (Ωarg) decreased with Carbonate dissolution occurs when saturation state increasing pCO2 levels. But due to time series, with respect to carbonate minerals is less than one [9,

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10, 29, 30]. However, in coral reefs, large variation [2] RA Feely, CL Sabine, K Lee, W Berelson, J Kleypas, in CO2 concentration and Ω occur due to their high VJ Fabry, and FJ Millero. 2004. Impact of anthropogenic CO on the CaCO system in the diversity and productivity. The value of Ωarg < 1 2 3 (undersaturated) promotes dissolution [21, 22]. oceans. Science, 305(5682): 362–366. Conversely, others have shown that in coral reefs [3] CL Sabine, RA Feely, N Gruber, RM Key, K Lee, JL Bullister, R Wanninkhof, CS Wong, DWR Wallace, dissolution occurred even when Ωarg remained at B Tilbrook, FJ Millero, T-H Peng, A Kozyr, T Ono supersaturated state 3~4 for aragonite in coral reefs and AF Rios. 2004. The oceanic sink for [21, 22]. In our experiment, dissolution occurred anthropogenic CO2. Science, 305: 367-371. when the saturation state (Ωarg) ranged from 2.87 to [4] IPCC. 2007. Contribution of working group I to the 0.88 in coral rubble. Fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Summary for policymakers. [5] PP Tans. 2013. Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide. Global Monitoring Division, NOAA/ESRL, Mauna Loa, Hawaii. (http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ ccgg/trends/) [6] AE West. 2011. Turning tides on ocean acidification. MBARI (Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute) [7] SC Doney, WM Balch, VJ Fabry and RA Feely. 2009. Ocean acidification: A critical emerging problem for the ocean sciences. Oceanography, 22(4): 18–27. [8] RA Feely, SC Doney and SR Cooley. 2009. Ocean acidification: Present conditions and future changes in a high-CO2 world. Oceanography, 22(4): 36–47. [9] J-P Gattuso, M Frankignoulle, I Bourge, S Romaine Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of “Bio-Chemical Dissolution and RW Buddemeier. 1998. Effect of calcium Processes” (BCDP) showing the relative importance of carbonate saturation of seawater on coral calcification. biological vs. chemical processes to the dissolution of Global Planet Change, 18: 37–46. calcium carbonate. Dotted arrow indicates minor [10] C Langdon. 2000. Review of experimental evidence contribution for dissolution and solid arrow indicates major for effects of CO2 on calcification of reef-builders. contribution for dissolution [17] Proc 9th Int Coral Reef Symp Bali, Indonesia, pp 1091–1098. CONCLUSION [11] H Kurihara, S Kato, and A Ishimatsu. 2007. Effects Ocean acidification plays fundamental changes in of increased seawater pCO2 on early development of seawater chemistry and has devastating impacts on the oyster Crassostrea gigas. Aquat. Biol., 1: 91–98. some calcifying organisms. However, in coral rubble [12] H Kurihara and Y Shirayama. 2004. Effects of microbial communities seems to play a crucial role as increased atmospheric CO2 on sea urchin early primary producers and control mild dissolution of development. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 274: 161–169. calcium carbonate. Furthermore, bioavailable organic [13] ER Ricketts, JP Kennett, and TM Hill. 2009. Effects matter has also important role for promoting of carbon dioxide sequestration on California margin deep-sea foraminiferal assemblages. Mar. carbonate dissolution by enhancing heterotrophic Micropaleontol, 72: 165–175. bacterial communities and their biological activities. [14] U Riebesell, I Zondervan, B Rost, PD Tortell, RE ACKNOWLEDGMENT Zeebe, and FM Morel. 2000. Reduced calcification of marine plankton in response to increased atmospheric We would like to thank to Environmental Leader CO2. Nature, 407: 364–367. Program of Shizuoka University and the support of [15] KK Yates and RB Halley. 2006. CO 2– concentration Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Innovative 3 and pCO2 thresholds for calcification and dissolution Areas for “Coral reef science for symbiosis and on the Molokai reef flat, Hawaii. Biogeosciences, 3: coexistence of human and ecosystem under 357–369. combined stresses” (20121003) of the Ministry of [16] BE Casareto, MP Niraula, H Fujimura, and Y Suzuki. Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology 2009. Effects of carbon dioxide on the (MEXT), Japan. Special thanks to Global Coral Reef coccolithophorid Pleurochrysis carterae in Conservation Project of Mitsubishi Corporation, incubation experiments. Aquat Biol., 7: 59-70. Japan for supporting research work. We are also [17] MN Islam, BE Casareto, T Higuchi, MP Niraula, and thankful to Tropical Biosphere Research Center of Y Suzuki. 2012. Contribution of coral rubble the University of Ryukyus at Sesoko Island, Okinawa, associated microbial community to the dissolution of Japan for providing laboratory facilities. calcium carbonate under high pCO2. Galaxea, Journal of Coral Reef Studies, 14(1): 119–131. REFERENCES [18] C Wild, M Huettel, A Klueter, SG Kremb, MYM [1] K Caldeira and ME Wickett. 2003. Anthropogenic Rasheed, and BB Jørgensen. 2004. Coral mucus carbon and ocean pH. Nature, 425 (6956): 365–365. functions as an energy carrier and particle trap in the reef ecosystem. Nature, 428: 66-70.

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[19] H Fujimura, T Oomori, T Maehira, and K Miyahira. 2001. Change of coral carbon metabolism influenced by coral bleaching. Galaxea, 3: 41–50. [20] E Lewis and DWR Wallace. 1998. CO2SYS–Program developed for the CO2 system calculations, edited by: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Report ORNL/CDIAC-105, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee [21] JP Gattuso, D Allemand, and M Frankignoulle. 1999. Photosynthesis and calcification at cellular, organismal and community levels in coral reefs: a review on interactions and control by carbonate chemistry. Amer Zool., 39: 160–183. [22] JA Kleypas, RW Buddemeier, D Archer, JP Gattuso, C Langdon, and BN Opdyke. 1999. Geochemical consequences of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide on coral reefs. Science, 284: 118–120. [23] AJ Andersson, FT Mackenzie, and LM Ver. 2003. Solution of shallow-water carbonates: an insignificant buffer against rising atmospheric CO2. Geology, 31: 513–516. [24] RB Halley, KK Yates, and JC Brock. 2005. South Florida coral-reef sediment dissolution in response to th elevated CO2. Proc 10 Int Coral Reef Symp, p 178. [25] E Moulin, A Jordens, and R Wollast. 1985. Influence of the aerobic bacterial respiration on the early dissolution of carbonates in coastal sediments. Proc Prog Belgian Oceanogr Res Brussels, pp 196-208. [26] U Riebesell, Wolf-Gladrow, and V Smetacek. 1993. Carbon dioxide limitation of marine phytoplankton growth rates. Nature, 361: 249–251. [27] DA Wolf-Gladrow, U Riebesell, S Burkhardt, and J Bijma. 1998. Direct effects of CO2 concentration on growth and isotopic composition of marine plankton. Tellus B, 51: 461–476. [28] RF Schmalz and FJ Swanson. 1969. Diurnal variations in the carbonate saturation of seawater. J. Sediment Petrol, 39: 255–267. [29] N Leclercq, JP Gattuso, and J Jaubert. 2002. Primary production, respiration, and calcification of a coral reef mesocosm under increased CO2 partial pressure. Limnol. Oceanogr., 47: 558–564. [30] S Yamamoto, H Kayanne, M Terai, A Watanabe, K Kato, A Negishi, and K Nozaki. 2012. Threshold of carbonate saturation state determined by a CO2 control experiment. Biogeosciences, 9: 1441–1450.

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E09 Influence of Enclosed Atriums in the Energy Consumption of Retail Shopping Environments of Dhaka City: a Comparative Study between Eastern Plaza and Basundhara City Kumar Biswajit Debnath Student of M. Arch Program, Department of Architecture, Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh; e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Dhaka city is expanding day by day. With the increase in the population, the numbers of retail shopping environments are increasing. But these shopping environments are developing into high consumption areas of electricity. From previous studies, it was found that the energy consumption is rising because of the minimum or no use of natural daylight and ventilation. Most of the shopping environments are using large amount of energy for artificial lighting and ventilation. All most all the recent developed shopping environments are introvert in design which is resulting in higher consumption of electricity. Some of the retail shopping environments are designed with atriums. All of them are enclosed. This study intends to investigate the influence of enclosed atriums in electricity consumptions of a retail shopping environment. For this study two different retail shopping environments were selected. These are Basundhara city and the Eastern Plaza. Basundhara City has a large atrium with a stained glass roof on it. On the other hand Eastern Plaza has no atrium. In the study the electricity consumption is being analyzed thoroughly. The impact of atrium on cooling load and lighting condition is being analyzed. The energy needed for lighting and artificial ventilation of the two shopping environments is going to be compared to project the influence of enclosed atriums on the energy consumption. The comparison shows the adverse influence of the enclosed atriums on the indoor air temperature, which contributes in the augmentation of the cooling load. Thus influencing the energy consumption.

INTRODUCTION environments to gather some experience. But the Dhaka city has an approximate 400 year old design approach in the development of shopping history. The retail shopping environments of Dhaka environments does not acknowledge the priority of city evolved along the whole time period. Before urban public space. The shopping environments are 1950 ‘Chawk Bazar’, ‘Babu bazar’ etc were the developing as an introvert high energy consuming central place for retail shopping activities in Dhaka area due to the ignorance in utilizing the daylight and city. Between 1950- 1960, to be specific in 1953 natural ventilation. ‘New market’ was established as a retail shopping After oil embargo in 1973 energy crisis a global market to serve the Dhanmondi area. After this the issue was first brought to light. It grew concern among government established some market in some parts professionals about the need to conserve fuel and of the Dhaka city. Almost all of them were single or save energy and creating energy efficient systems [1]. double storied. In 1981- 1990 some multistoried Energy expended in building is about 30-40 percent markets started to emerge. ‘Sharif Market’ is an of total energy consumption in many countries. example of that period. Between 1990- 2000 more The utilization of daylight will decrease the use of multistoried retail markets were established with the energy during daytime in retail shopping amenities like escalator and air conditioning. environment. As the shopping facilities are open until ‘Eastern Plaza’, ‘ garden city shopping 8pm the use of electricity for the lighting would be complex’, ‘Russel Square’ etc are some of the necessary for only 3-4 hours. But the use of enclosed examples of that period. After 2000 the construction atriums in the context of Dhaka city has dual effect. of retail markets boost up, between 2001-2010 lots of It not only increases the daylight use, on the other such kind of markets were established throughout the hand it can elevate the energy consumption. Dhaka city. ‘Plaza A R’, ‘Bosundhara City’, ‘Anam In the current stream of design approach of Rangs Plaza’ etc are some of the example of this time. shopping environments are not sustainable from the These retail shopping environments has much more point of view of the efficient usage of natural other functions in them, for example- Cineplex, resources. These types of designs are increasing the Departmental store and Convention center etc. It is use of excessive amount of electricity for lighting found that in the evolution of retail shopping and air conditioning. The architects are designing environments the bazaar were turned into market more shopping environments with enclosed atriums place. In the later period it is turned into plaza or to ensure daylight. But the main questions arises square or city. So the shopping environments are from this situation are, - Are the enclosed atriums of more like an urban public space. Due to the lack of retail shopping environments in Dhaka reinforcing public urban spaces these spaces are becoming more the energy consumption? than just a place of purchasing goods, these are The main objective of this study is to find out the evolving into center of public activities of urban influence of enclosed atriums in the energy population. People are coming to the shopping consumption of a shopping environment.

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From this study the positive or negative influence south-west monsoon originates over the Indian of the enclosed atriums in the energy consumption of Ocean and carries warm, moist, and unstable air. The a shopping environment in the context of Dhaka city monsoon has its onset during the first week of June are going to be analyzed. This analysis is going to be and ends in the first week of October, with some helpful for the future design of retail shopping inter-annual variability in dates. Besides monsoon, environments in Dhaka City. the easterly trade winds are also active, providing MATERIALS AND METHOD warm and relatively drier circulation. In Bangladesh there are four prominent seasons, namely, winter In this study, two retail shopping environments are (December to February), Pre-monsoon (March to going to be analyzed. One is Eastern Plaza which has May), Monsoon (June to early-October), Post- no atrium. The other is Basundhara City which has a monsoon (late-October to November). large enclosed central atrium with a stain glass roof. First the energy consumption of these two buildings MICRO-CLIMATE OF DHAKA CITY is going to be analyzed in watt/sft unit. The lighting Dhaka experiences a hot, wet and humid tropical level and the air condition are the two main factors climate. Under the Koppen climate classification, which influence energy consumption mostly. Dhaka has a tropical savanna climate. The city has a That’s why, the lighting levels of the shopping areas distinct monsoonal season, with an annual average in both shopping environments are going to be temperature of 27.5 °C (81.5 °F) and monthly means analyzed and compared. As well as the air varying between 19.5 °C (67 °F) in January and 32 °C temperature of the different levels of shopping areas (90 °F) in April.[5] Approximately 87% of the annual are going to be analyzed and compared in both of the average rainfall of 2,121 millimeters (83.5 in) occurs shopping environments. The air temperature in the between May and October [5]. Increasing air and levels of atrium and the shopping areas are going to emanating from traffic congestion be compared to find out the influence of atriums in and industrial waste are serious problems affecting cooling load. Due to time limitation the shopping public health and the quality of life in the city [6]. areas are monitored in November 2012 only. Water bodies and wetlands around Dhaka are RELATIVE TERMINOLOGY facing destruction as these are being filled up to Shopping generally refers to the act of buying construct multi-storied buildings and other real estate products. Sometimes this is done to obtain necessities developments. Coupled with pollution, such erosion such as food and clothing; sometimes it is done as a of natural habitats threatens to destroy much of the recreational activity. Recreational shopping often regional biodiversity [6]. involves window shopping (just looking, not buying) ENERGY CONSUMPTION REVIEW and browsing and does not always result in a purchase. OF EASTERN PLAZA Shopping environments specially refers to the places Eastern plaza was established in the time period of where shopping is conducted. In this study the shopping 1998. It is 10 storied, but the one to sixth floors were environment refers to the retail shopping environments. used as retail shopping areas. It starts in at 9 am and Atria: Historically, atria were uncovered, continues up to 8 pm. There is no atrium in the internal patios within dwellings in southern Europe building. The energy consumption of Eastern plaza is [2]. With the emergence of new technologies for the 211.73 Watt/sft in the month of November, 2012. production of metal and glass in the 19th century, glass covered atria were adopted for public building. Today an atrium is a glazed courtyard on the side of or within a building and considered as a commercial amenity in offices, shopping malls and hotels. “…an atrium (plural atria) is a large open space, often several stories high and having a glazed roof and/or large windows”[3].The most acceptable definition of atrium is as follows- “An atrium is an enclosed courtyard with a glazed roof structure for maximizing daylight while controlling the indoor climate.”

CLIMATE OF BANGLADESH In terms of ecological region or biomes described Fig.1: Eastern plaza (Second floor plan) by UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) [4] Bangladesh, lying RESULTS AND DISCUSSION between 20º34′ N to 26º33′ N and 88º 01′E to 92º A. Road junctions: General Description 41′E, is in the Indo-Malayan Realm. Bangladesh has The selected three roads are: a humid, warm, tropical climate. Its climate is 1) Kaji Najrul Islam Road () influenced primarily by monsoon and partly by 2) Shat Masjid Road (Dhanmondi) pre-monsoon and post-monsoon circulations. The 3) Gulshan 2 Road (Gulshan-2)

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The central atrium serves as a source of day light in the central circulation areas adjacent to the atrium, but does not affect the shops. The energy consumption of Basundhara City is 445 watt/sft in the month of November, 2012. The graph in Fig. 5 is showing the air temperature level at different floor levels. The average air temperature is 24.2○C when the outside temperature was 30.3○C. The graph in Fig. 6 is showing the average lighting level at different floor levels of Eastern Plaza. The average lighting level is 309.21 lux in corridor areas and 795 lux in shops. The Fig. 2. Temperature in Eastern plaza (In different floors) daylight level is also increasing with the number of floors in the central atrium. The graph in Fig. 2 is showing the air temperature at different floors of Eastern plaza. The average temperature is 24.6 ○C when the outside temperature was 31.2○C. The graph in Fig. 3 is showing the average lighting level at different floor levels of Eastern Plaza. The average lighting level is 330 lux in corridor areas and 820 lux in shops.

Fig. 5. Average Temperature in Basundhara City (In different floors floor)

Fig. 3. Average Light Level in Eastern plaza (In different floors)

Fig. 6. Average Light level in Basundhara City (In different floors floor)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION It is clear that there is a big jump in the energy consumption from Eastern plaza to Basundhara city. The energy consumption of Basundhara City is almost twice than that of in Eastern plaza in Watt/sft unit. (Fig.7) The comparison between the lighting level and the air temperature level can reveal the main factor of this difference. The graph in Fig. 8 is showing the average temperature level in shopping areas of the two Fig. 4. Basundhara City (second floor plan) studied shopping environments. The difference of air temperature is only 0.4 ○C. So the air temperature is ENERGY CONSUMPTION REVIEW OF almost same in the shopping areas. BASUNDHARA CITY The graph in Fig. 9 is showing the light level in In the time period of 2001-2011 Basundhara city shops and corridor areas of the shopping areas. It is was established. It has a shopping area of 8 floors also showing almost the same level of light. So it is with recreational facilities on the 8th floor. The clear that the air condition and the light level are central atrium has a stained glass enclosed roof. The almost equal. They are not responsible for the huge other 4 atriums are covered with translucent sheets. energy consumption jump.

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CONCLUSION From this study it is clear that in spite of its high urban value enclosed atriums are elevating the energy consumption in the shopping areas. Although it is not clear to which extend this atriums are contributing in the high energy consumption. It requires detail study and research. The papers outlined here is only the beginning of this complex but indispensable approach. It is important to be clear

Fig.7: Comparison of Energy Consumption about the purpose of designing of an atrium building in a temperate climate like Bangladesh. It is of course an incorrect assumption that an atrium building works well at some latitude will always work well at others. In cold climatic region, extensive use of glazing for atrium fenestration increases the possibility of warm and comfortable indoor climate. But the scenario is totally opposite for temperate climate. As atria become commercially popular, this fact frequently dominates other considerations of energy use and location with their architectural potential often ill considered. Fig. 8. Comparison of Average air temperature ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My special thanks go to Professor Dr. Zebun Nasreen Ahmed for her care, comments and inspiration. REFERENCES [1] Ahmed, Z. N. (1994), Assessment of residential sites in Dhaka with respect to solar radiation gain, PhD. Thesis (unpublished), Demontfort University in collaboration with University of Sheffield, UK. [2] Energy in Architecture: The European Passive Solar Fig. 9. Comparison of Average Light level Handbook (1994) BT Batsford limited, London, 137 pp. [3] www.wikipedia.com, [Accessed 10 November 2012]. [4] Lean, G. (1990), Atlas of the Environment, Arrow books Ltd., London [5] "Weatherbase: Historical Weather for Dhaka, Bangladesh". Available at: www. weatherbase. com [Accessed 15 December 2008] [6] Mondal, M. Abdul Latif (2006-09-27). "Our Cities: 15th Anniversary Special". The Daily Star. http://www.thedailystar.net/suppliments/2006/15thann iv/ourcities/ourcities28.htm [Accessed: 27 September, 2006] Fig. 10. Comparison of Temperature in atrium and [7] Energy in Architecture: The European Passive Solar Shopping areas in Basundhara City Handbook (1994) BT Batsford limited, London, 137pp. Now, according to the graph in Fig. 10, the [8] Lean, G. (1990), Atlas of the Environment, Arrow temperature in the atrium and in the shopping areas is books Ltd., London showing a difference. The stained glass roof is not [9] Ahmed, Z. N. (1994), Assessment of residential sites in Dhaka with respect to solar radiation gain, PhD. only ensuring daylight but also rising the temperature Thesis (unpublished), Demontfort University in th th in the atrium area. The air temperature in 4 and 5 collaboration with University of Sheffield, UK. floor level is almost near to the shopping areas. But [10] Anniversary Special". The Daily Star. Available in the upper and lower floors of the atrium has much at:http://www.thedailystar.net/suppliments/2006/15tha higher air temperature. The lower floors have high nniv/ourcities/ourcities28.htm [Accessed: 27 temperature for the occupants. On the other hand the September, 2006]. temperatures in the upper levels are high because of the heat trapped in the enclosed roof areas. This high temperature is elevating the cooling load. This can easily increase the energy consumption.

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E10 Distribution Choice for Flood Frequency Analysis In Bangladesh Context Samiran Das1 and Dipa Awale2 1Assistant Professor, Environmental Sciences Program, Asian University for Women, Chittagong, Bangladesh, e-mail: [email protected] 2Undergraduate Research Student, Environmental Sciences Program, Asian University for Women, Chittagong, Bangladesh, e-mail: [email protected] Abstract A suitable probability distribution is required in the establishment of flood frequency curves (flood magnitude- return period relationship) for a region. In Bangladesh there is no standard distribution for use in flood frequency analysis. Thus a consistent approach is needed for design purposes at the national level. This study investigates potential utility of Generalized Logistic (GLO) distribution for use in flood frequency analysis for Bangladesh. The GLO is compared with four widely used distributions namely Gumbel (EV1), Log Normal 2 (LN2), Log Pearson 3 (LP3) and Generalized Extreme Value (GEV) distributions. Seven data sets of annual maximum discharge with length of 26-36 years from six major rivers in Bangladesh were used for statistical analysis. The parameters of each distribution were estimated using L-moments. Several goodness-fit-tests and L-moment ratio diagram were used for comparison among distributions. All results point that GLO seems to be the best choice for the use with discharge data considered in this study.

INTRODUCTION In all the previous studies conducted on Flood frequency analysis concerned with the Bangladesh context, Generalized Logistic (GLO) estimation of flood magnitude return period (T) distribution was not included in the analysis. GLO is relationship. The relationship based on annual recommended distribution for the flood data in UK maximum (AM) flood data can be determined by: 1 [5] and recently several flood frequency studies [6] –F(QT)=1/T where F() is the cumulative frequency use GLO in their flood frequency analysis. distribution of flood magnitude Q. This relationship The objective of this study is to investigate is needed when analyzing flood risk. potential utility of GLO distribution for use in flood Selection of a suitable distribution for a particular frequency analysis for Bangladesh. The GLO is region is a common problem in flood frequency compared using several goodness of fit tests with analysis. An enormous amount of literature has been four widely used distributions namely EV1, LN2, published on the selection of distributions for flood LP3, GEV. EV1 and LN2 are considered as they are frequency analysis. For example, a study conducted the most widely used distributions for the flood in [1] summarizes the worldwide use of probability frequency analysis worldwide [7] while GEV and distribution functions based on the survey of 55 LP3 are considered as it is suggested by the previous agencies from 28 countries. EV1, GEV and LN2 studies conducted on Bangladesh Rivers. were found to be most widely used distributions. METHODOLOGY However, very few studies have been done in Bangladesh context. Among them, the studies carried A. Statistical Model out in [2] and [3] are notable. In [2], the authors The statistical approach associated with frequency compared four distributions, GEV, LP3, EV1 analysis is focused on finding an appropriate form to (Gumbel) and LN2, using data sets from 31 gauging model the underlying distribution of flood data and stations at different rivers in Bangladesh. They then estimate the parameters of this underlying advocated the basis for using GEV distribution based distribution. In this study, two 2-parameter on several goodness-of-fit analyses. They also distributions: EV1 and LN2, and three 3-parameter suggested that EV1 is not a suitable distribution for distributions: LP3, GEV and GLO are considered. flood frequency analysis as at-site flood data sets are This study uses the method of L-moments to estimate skewed. However, the Flood Protection Action in distribution parameters. L-moments are analogous to 1992 suggested using EV1 for flood frequency conventional moments defined as linear analysis of the major rivers of Bangladesh [4]. In [3], combinations of the probability weighted moments the authors compared four widely used distributions: [8]. Theoretical formulation in terms of the basic LN2, LN3, EV1 and LP3 for the study of flood population quantities can be obtained from [9]. frequency analysis. They used five flood data sets for Procedure for the calculation of these statistics from the major rivers of Bangladesh. The parameters of the distributions were estimated by using the method the sample data can be obtained from [10]. The of moments and the method of maximum likelihood. theoretical expressions and the formulae of parameter Their results suggested that LP3 gives better results estimation using L-moments of the distributions than other distributions. considered in this study are given in [9].

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B. Goodness – of – Fit Test each. It is to be mentioned that AD test is the most In this study, goodness of fit tests based on powerful and preferred test available at present [15], chi-square statistic [11],[12] and empirical [19], [21]. Compared to KS test, it gives more weight distribution function (EDF) statistics such as to the tails, where outliers are located. The goodness Kolmogorov- Smirnov (KS) [12] and Anderson- of fit test results show that in comparison to LN2, GEV Darling (AD) [14],[15][12] are used for evaluating and LP3, the GLO and EV1 distribution are more the suitability of different probability distributions. acceptable fit for data used in this study. It can be Although the chi-square test is generally less mentioned that in general, three or more parameter powerful than EDF tests [15], it is still the most distributions are able to model the input data more practical test on the basis of flexibility and ease of accurately than a distribution with two parameters [7]. use [16]. However two parameter distributions have lower Since the tests are performed in cases where the standard error in estimating design flood values, but concerned distribution is specified by fitting to the larger bias than three parameter distributions, sample, appropriate percentage (critical) points especially in small sample sizes [1]. The three should then be used. The critical values for parameter distributions often have negligible bias. chi-square tests are documented in [16]. The critical Table 1. Number of rejections at the 10% significance level points of SK and AD for EV1 and LN2 distributions for the three goodness of fit tests. are given in [17]. The critical points of SK for the GEV distribution are given in [13] while for GEV GLO GEV LP3 EV1 LN2 and GLO distributions the critical points of AD are Korlmorgorov-Smirnov 0 0 0 0 0 given in [14]. Critical values of SK for Pearson Type Andearson-Darling 0 1 1 0 1 3 distributions are provided in [18]. Critical values of Chi-square 3 5 4 3 4 AD for Pearson Type 3 are given in [17] and discussed, among others, in [19]. Plots of dimensionless L moment ratios are shown C. L – Moment ratio diagram in Fig. 1 which compares the observed and the The suitability of different probability distributions theoretical relations between L-skewness and L- can be also explored with the help of L-moment ratio kurtosis for the annual maximum flood discharges at diagrams [9]. The L-moment ratio diagram is a 7 sites. The average data point is quite far from the graph between L-kurtosis and L-skewness. Usually a population L-moments of EV1 and LN2 distribution 2-parameter distribution with a location and a scale indicating that EV1 and LN2 are not capable of parameter plots as a single point on such a diagram describing the data very well. The average data point while a 3-parameter distribution with location, scale lies between GLO and GEV and the average point is and shape plots as a line or a curve on the diagram. very close to GLO. This shows that the GLO Generally the distribution selection process involves distribution has the best fit when analyzing L- plotting the sample L-moment ratios as a scatter plot moment ratio diagrams for the datasets considered in and comparing them with theoretical L-moment ratio this study. points or curves of candidate distributions [9]. D. Study area and datasets The annual maximum discharges of six major rivers (Brahmaputra, Padhma, Meghna, Jamuna, Ganga and Surma) from seven stations collected from Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) are used for the statistical analysis described above. The discharge data record covers from 1971 to 2006 with length of 36 to 26 years. After careful examination of the data series, some data points are removed as they are found to be outliers.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The test results were calculated using the methods Fig. 1. L-moment ratio diagram for 7 annual maximum discharge datasets described in methodology section of the paper. Table 1 summarizes the number of times out of 7 datasets The results from goodness of fit tests and the that distributions are rejected by these three tests at L-moment ratio diagram reveal that the annual the 10% significance level. maximum Bangladesh flood data can be well Out of the 7 datasets, the KS test results did not described by the GLO distribution. The reason for its reject any distributions. The chi-square method best fit may be because GLO is capable of rejected GLO and EV1 least frequently out of the reproducing almost the same degree of skewness four distributions, with a total of 3 rejections (37%). typically present in observed flood data and is more The AD test also did not reject GLO and EV1 at all. robust to the presence of extreme outliers in the The AD test rejected LP3, GEV and LN2 one time upper tail of the distribution [20]. It is to be noted

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that the L-skewness values of seven data sets used in Available at http://yonsei.emagination.co.kr/data_ this study varied from -0.24 to 0.236, which is typical files/Uncertaintyanalysisoftheriskoffailureforgenerali for many observed flood datasets [1,2,5]. zedlogisticdistribution.pdf [Accessed 2 April 2013] The major limitation of the study is that the study [7] N Millington, S Das and SP Simonovic. 2011. The comparison of GEV, Log-Pearson Type 3 and only used seven stations with data record of Gumbel distributions in the upper Thames River maximum 36 years. For better results more stations watershed under global climate models. Department with longer records should be used. This is the of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The recommendation of the study for future work. University of Western Ontario. [online]. Available at CONCLUSION http://www.eng.uwo.ca/research/iclr/fids/publications /products/77.pdf [Accessed 20 February 2013]. This study was conducted to find potential utility [8] JA Greenwood, JM Landwehr, NC Matalas and JR of GLO probability distribution function for the use Wallis. 1979. Probability-weighted moments: in flood frequency analysis in Bangladesh context. definition and relation to parameters of several Annual maximum discharge data from 7 gauging distributions expressable in inverse form. Water stations at major rivers of Bangladesh were used for Resources Research, 15 (5):1049–1054. statistical analysis. The GLO distribution was [9] JRM Hoskings and JR Walis. 1997. Regional Flood Frequency Analysis: An Approach Based on compared with the four distributions: EV1, LN2, LP3 L-Moments.UK: Cambridge University press. and GEV. The method of L-moments was used to [10] S Das. 2010. Examination of Flood Estimation estimate the parameters of the distributions. Goodness Techniques in the Irish Context. PhD thesis. of fit tests such as chi-square, Kolmogorov-Smirnov, Department of Engineering Hydrology, National Anderson-Darling and graphical test such as University of Ireland Galway. 260p L-moment ratio diagram were used to determine [11] NERC. 1975. Flood studies report. Nat. Environ. Res. which distribution was an acceptable fit to the Council, Vol. I, London, U.K. datasets. The overall results show that the GLO [12] S Das, N Millingtong and SP Simonovic. 2013. Distribution choice for the assessment of design distribution provides the best fit according to the tests rainfall for the city of London (Ontario, Canada) performed in this study. Gumbel (EV1) also provides under climate change. Can J. Civ. Eng., 40:121-129. similar results to GLO when test results are based on [13] JU Chowdhury,JR Stedinger and LH Lu. 1991. only goodness of fit tests. Goodness-of-fit tests for regional generalized The overall results from the study reveal that there extreme value flood distributions. Water Resources is a need for more studies with more datasets from Research, 27(7):1765–1776. other rivers to perform the validity of the GLO [14] MI Ahmad, CD Sinclair and BD Spurr. 1988. distribution use in Bangladesh conditions. We would Assessment of Flood Frequency Models Using Empirical Distribution Function Statistics. Water like to use the results of this study and open the Resources Research, 24(8):1323-1328. discussion on the choice of the most appropriate [15] F Laio. 2004. Cramer–von Mises and Anderson- distribution for the development of frequency curves Darling goodness of fit tests for extreme value for use in Bangladesh. distributions with unknown parameters. Water Resour. Res., 40, W09308. ACKNOWLEDGMENT [16] DS Moore. 1986. Tests of Chi-Square type. In The authors would like to acknowledge the Goodness-of-fit techniques. Edited by RB financial support made available by the Asian D'Agostino and M.A. Stephens. Marcel Dekker, Inc., University for Women. New York. [17] A Stephens.1986. Tests based on EDF Statistics. In REFERENCES D'Agostino, RB and Stephens, MA Goodness-of-Fit [1] C Cunnane. 1989. Statistical distribution for flood Techniques. New York: Marcel Dekker. frequency analysis. Operational Hydro. Rep. no. 33, [18] HL Crutcher. 1975. A note on the possible misuse of World Meteorological Organization. Geneva, the Kolmogorov–Smirnov tests. Journal of Applied Switzerland. Meteorology, 14(8): 1600–1603. [2] A Karim and JK Chowdhury. 1995. A comparison of [19] E Firuzan. 2008. Statistical Earthquake Frequency four distributions used in flood frequency analysis in Analysis for Western Anatolia. Turkish Journal of Bangladesh. Hydrological sciences, 40(1): 55-66. Earth Science, 17:741-762. [3] M Ferdows and M Hossain. 2005. Flood frequency [20] NZ Abidin, MB Adam and H Midi. 2012. The analysis at different rivers in bangaldesh: a Goodness-of-fit Test for Gumbel Distribution: A comparative study on probability distribution. Comparative Study. Matematika. 28(1):35-58. Thammasat Int. J. Sc., 10(3):53-62. [21] DJ Best, JJC Rayner and O Thas. 2007. Comparison [4] MMQ Mirza. 2003. Three recent extreme floods in of Five tests of fit for the extreme value distribution. Bangladesh: a hydro-meteorological analysis. Natural J. of Statistical Theory and Practice, 1(1): 89 - 97 Hazards, 28(1): 35-64. [22] MI Ahmad. 1989. Application of Statistics in Flood [5] FEH. 1999. Flood Estimation Handbook, vols 1-5. Frequency Analysis. PhD thesis, Department of Wallingford, UK: Institute of Hydrology. Mathematical Science, University of St. [6] S Hongjoon, J Younghung, K Taesoon and H Andrews.193p. Jun-Haeng. 2007. Uncertainty analysis of the risk of failure for generalized logistic distribution. [online]. World Environment and Water Resources Congress.

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E11 Time Series Analysis and Forecasting of Temperatures in the Sylhet Division of Bangladesh AH Nury1*, M Koch2 and MJB Alam3 1Department of Civil Engineering, Leading University, Sylhet-3100, Bangladesh 2Department of Geohydraulics and Engineering Hydrology, Kassel University, Kassel, Germany 3Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Shahjalal University, Sylhet, Bangladesh *e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Time series analysis and forecasting has become a major tool in numerous applications in meteorology and other environmental areas to understand phenomena, like rainfall, humidity, temperature, draught etc. Here ARIMA (Auto Regressive Integrated Moving Average) models have been set-up and used to carry out short-term predictions of monthly maximum and minimum temperatures in the Sylhet and Moulvibazar districts in north-east Bangladesh. Using the classical Box-Jenkins methodology, stationary, seasonal ARIMA models for the temperatures recorded at two stations in Sylhet division between 1977 and 2011 are set up. Verification of the models has been done for the 2010-2012 time period. Based on the inspection of the ACF, PACF autocorrelation plots, the most appropriate orders of the ARIMA models are determined and evaluated using the AIC-criterion. For the maximum and minimum temperatures at Sylhet station ARIMA (1,1,1) (1,1,1)12 and ARIMA (1,1,1) (0,1,1)12, respectively, are obtained, whereas the respective models for the Moulvibazar station are ARIMA (1,1,0) (1,1,1)12 and ARIMA (0,1,1) (1,1,1)12 . Using these ARIMA-models one-month-ahead forecasts of the temperatures at the two stations for years 2010 and 2011 are carried out.

INTRODUCTION models, and c) to carry out short-term prediction for Climate change is for many countries in the world the temperatures at these stations. one of the biggest environmental threats to food SITE AND METHODS production, water availability, forest biodiversity and livelihoods [1]. Moreover, it is widely believed that A. Climate data developing countries in tropical regions of the world, Monthly temperature data covering the Sylhet and e.g. Bangladesh, will be impacted more severely than the neighboring Maulvibazar district has been developed ones [2, 3]. collected from the Bangladesh Meteorological Understanding the nature and scale of possible Department (BMD) which is the principal climate changes in north-eastern Bangladesh is of organization gathering meteorological data in importance to the policy makers and people who are Bangladesh. Temperature station of Sylhet district is 0 working there as it gives them a chance to be situated in Sylhet at latitude 24 53'40", longitude prepared for better mitigation and adaptation 91052'61"and Moulvibazar district is situated in measures. For that purpose time series analysis of Sreemongal upazila at latitude 24018'31", longitude 0 weather data can be a very valuable tool to 91 43'49". The temperature data covers a period of investigate its variability pattern and, maybe, even to 34 years, from 1977 to 2011. The study area is shown predict short- and long-term changes in the time in the Fig. 1. series. Although any individual extreme climate event cannot be attributed unequivocally to climate change, the probability of high temperature events will increase if there is an underlying trend of rising mean temperature. In fact, according to data from the reinsurance industry, the number of climate-related disasters has increased significantly the 1970’s [4]. Time series analysis and forecasting has become a major tool in numerous hydro-meteorological applications to study trends and variations in variables like rainfall, humidity, temperature, Fig. 2. Study area streamflow and many other environmental parameters [2-5]. A number of classical time series studies have B. ARIMA model been conducted in recent years to assess the nature of The acronym ARIMA stands for ‘autoregressive the climate change [1-3], as it has occurred over the integrated moving average’ and they are sometimes world as well as in Bangladesh [4] in the recent past also called Box-Jenkins models [6]. An and as it will more in likely do so in the future. autoregressive model of order p is conventionally The objectives of the present study are, a) to build classified as AR (p) and a moving average model ARIMA models for the two temperature stations in with q terms is known as MA (q). A combined model the Sylhet division, b) to verify the selected ARIMA that contains p AR-terms and q MA-terms is called

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an ARMA (p, q) model [6]. To make a generally examination of the partial autocorrelation plot and non-stationary time-series stationary time-shifted (by the partial autocorrelation plot of the time series, d-lags, whereby in most cases d=1) differences are respectively. ACF- and PACF- autocorrelation plots computed before further processing. Such a model of the monthly maximum temperatures of Sylhet is then classified as ARIMA (p, d, q), where the after differencing are shown in Fig. 2 and give an symbol “I” signifies “integrated”. indication of the significant orders p and q to be used Assuming that the original data Xt has been made in model-setup. stationary by taking d nonseasonal differences Once the most appropriate order of the ARMA- or (whereby in most cases d=1), an ARMA (p, q) model ARIMA model is specified, the AR- and for this new, stationary time series Yt is as follows: MA-coefficients in Eq. (1) are estimated in step ii) of the Box-Jenkins process by linear least-squares. The goodness of the best models is evaluated using the AIC (Akaike Information Criterion). Table 1 lists the ARIMA models obtained for the maximum and minimum temperatures time series at Sylhet and Sreemongal stations, together with their corresponding AIC –values. where, c = constant term, = autoregressive parameter, = moving average parameter, = the Table 1. ARIMA models for the monthly temperatures error term at time t. Variable Station Name ARIMA Model AIC For climate data which usually follows a seasonal, Max. Sylhet (1, 1, 1) (1, 1,1)12 1211.30 i.e. an annual cycle, it is more appropriate to use a Temp. seasonal ARIMA (p, d, q) (P, D, Q)S model, whereby Min. Sylhet (1, 1, 1) (0, 1,1)12 1810.38 P is the order of the seasonal AR-model; D is the Temp. order of the seasonal differencing (for monthly data, Max. Moulvibazar (1, 1, 0) (1, 1,1)12 1836.66 usually, D= 12) and Q is the order of the seasonal Temp. MA-model and s is the number of periods in the Min. Moulvibazar (0, 1, 1) (1, 1,1)12 914.27 season (s=12, for an annual cycle) [7]. Temp. The general form of such a seasonal ARIMA (p, d, q) (P, D, Q)S model, can be written in backshift notation as

where = non-seasonal AR- parameter, = non-seasonal MA- parameter, = seasonal AR-parameter, = seasonal moving average parameter, B= backward shift operator. To identify a perfect ARIMA model for a particular time series, Box and Jenkins [6] proposed a methodology that consists of four phases, namely, i) model identification; ii) estimation of the model parameters; iii) diagnostic checking for the identified model appropriateness and iv) application of the final model, i.e. forecasting. Further details on the various procedures involved in these four steps are provided in [6, 8]. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION As the original monthly temperature time series analyzed here are non-stationary, and have a 12-month seasonality, they are all differenced non-seasonally at lag d=1 and differenced seasonally at lag D=12. The next step in the Box and Jenkins methodology Fig. 2. ACF (top panel) and PACF (bottom panel) of [6] consists then in the determination of the orders p monthly maximum temperatures at Sylhet station after and q in ARMA(p,q) model. This is done by seasonal differencing.

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Fig. 4 and 5 show one-month-ahead predictions for the monthly maximum temperatures for years 2010 and 2011 at Sylhet and Moulvibazar station, respectively. From the visual inspection of these graphs one may note that the predicted time series is very close to the other three time series investigated which indicates that the ARIMA-model is a valuable tool for short-term forecasting of the two meteorological variables max. and min. temperature.

Fig. 5. Observed and ARIMA-predicted monthly maximum Fig. 3. ACF (top panel) and PACF (bottom panel) of temperatures at Moulvibazar station. residuals of monthly maximum temperatures at Sylhet station. CONCLUSION The temperature time series fitted by the ARIMA As prescribed by step iii) Box-Jenkins model for the two selected stations can be used for methodology, the identified ARIMA model must be estimating missing temperature values and for diagnostically checked for its appropriateness, by forecasting. Thus, the Box-Jenkins methodology can looking at the ACF and PACF of the model residuals. help decision makers to establish better strategies and These are shown for the monthly maximum to set up priorities for arming themselves against temperatures at Sylhet station in Fig. 3. As the spikes upcoming weather changes which may have effects at the different lags in the ACF and PACF plots in last, but not to the least, on the water resources in the the figure are within the statistical confidence bands, Sylhet division. the ARIMA (1,1,1) (1,1,1)12 model for this time series is adequate. Similarly good results have been ACKNOWLEDGMENT obtained for the other time series analyzed. This study is in part supported by JSPS grant for The final step (iv) and ultimate goal of ARIMA scientific research to the senior author (#24401040). modeling is then the forecasting of the time series for one or more future time steps ahead [9], using Eq. 1, REFERENCES with the coefficients determined in step (ii) and [1] ES Chung, K Park and KS Lee. 2011. The relative values of the time series from previous months. impacts of climate change and urbanization on the hydrological response of a Korean urban watershed. Hydrological Processes, 25:544-560. [2] D Machiwal and MK Jha. 2006. Time Series Analysis of Hydrologic Data For Water Resources Planning and Management: A Review. J. Hydrol. Hydromech., 54(3): 237–257 [3] SA Shamsnia, N Shahidi, A Liaghat, A Sarraf and SF Vahdat. 2011. Modeling Of Weather Parameters (Temperature, Rainfall And Humidity) Using Stochastic Methods. Internat. Conference on Environment and Industrial Innovation, IPCBEE, Singapore, 282-285. [4] SB Cheema, G Rasul, G Ali and DH Kazmi. 2011. A comparison of minimum temperature trends with model projections. Pakistan Journal of Meteorology, Fig. 4. Observed and ARIMA-predicted monthly 8:39-52. maximum temperatures at Sylhet station. [5] S Soltani, R Modarres and SS Eslamian. 2007. The use of time series modeling for the determination of

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rainfall climates of Iran. International Journal of Climatology, 27: 819–829. [6] GEP Box and GM Jenkins. 1976. Time Series Analysis: Forecasting and Control. Revised Edn., Holden-Day, San Francisco, CA. [7] BC Monsell. 2002. An Update on the Development of the X-12-ARIMA Seasonal Adjustment Program. Proceedings of the 3rd Internat. Symposium on Frontiers of Time Series Modeling, Tokyo: Institute of Statistical Mathematics, Japan, pp. 1–11. [8] M Koch and H Sun. 1999. Tidal and non-tidal characteristics of water levels and flow in the Appalachicola Bay, Florida. In: Coastal Engineering and Marina Developments, C.A. Brebbia and P. Anagnostpolous (eds), WIT Press , Southampton, UK, pp. 357-366. [9] RJ Hyndman and Y Khandakar. 2008. Automatic Time Series Forecasting: The forecast Package for R, J. of Envir. Resources, 27(3): 1-22.

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E12 Policy Recommendation to Change the Social Structure for the Environmental Conservation of River Buriganga in Bangladesh Banani Biswas and Takeshi Hamada Graduate School of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology. e-mail: [email protected], [email protected] Abstract Bangladesh is a least developed country, where industrial growth has been achieved without attention to environmental degradation and conservation. From past decades, Bangladesh has been facing the problem of severe environmental degradation of Buriganga and linked rivers, around the capital city Dhaka because of indiscriminate discharge of industrial effluents, especially toxic effluents from Hazaribagh tanneries. The adverse impacts of Buriganga pollution are going to spread upon the overall socio-economic conditions and make the city unsuitable for human habitation and biodiversity. Now it is emergency for the country to protect and conserve Buriganga through environmental management actions. The Government of Bangladesh (GOB) has created different organizations and agencies to ensure the process of environmental management and conservation, but unfortunately the efforts by the government have turned in vain because of social structural problems. Improved policies to change the social structure for the conservation of Buriganga, are needed to be considered urgently.

INTRODUCTION creating social problems on the way of the struggles Environment comprises everything in the nature of environment conservation. So it is vital for the around human habitant with combined impacts either country to change this social structure or solve the positive or negative way. As a matter of fact, our social problems for the protection and conservation very existence depends upon environmental quality. of the natural environment of Buriganga through We exploit the environment as human being in environmental management actions. various activities for living. Such exploitations, over GOB has created different organizations and the centuries, have been irrespective of carrying the agencies to ensure the process of sustainable capacity of the nature and as such, have resulted in development through conservation and management serious threat to the environment itself. of natural environment. There are also some The countries belonging to the South Asian region non-government and volunteer organizations, rank first in the global run toward attaining higher and working for environmental conservation. Henceforth, sustainable economic growth and Bangladesh has all organizations and agencies entrusted with attained growth in the industrial sector at a rate, fastest environment management responsibilities like among these countries [1]. In Bangladesh the growth regulation, planning, construction, operation and of industries has been unplanned and without careful maintenance will have to enhance environmental consideration on environmental protection and amenities and ensure the environmental resources conservation. Tanneries at Hazaribagh are such kind being protected and restored in executing their tasks. of industries, causing serious water pollution in Environmental and economic development Buriganga, the main river flowing beside Dhaka and concepts and realities are interrelated and inseparable. make it unsuitable for human habitation and There is an unavoidable conflict between economic biodiversity. Ministry of Environment (MoE) reports development and environmental protection [3]. A that the tanneries collectively dump 22,000 liters of study conducted by N Islam indicates that for both including cancer-causing chromium into economic growth and social justice, Bangladesh has Buriganga every day [2]. As a result the environment to give priority to environmental protection [4]. A of Dhaka is deteriorating rapidly and becoming an Khorshed and M Dora proposed government- alarming problem for the country. The policy community-private sector partnerships for restoring development for the improvement of water quality of the ecological health of the river as well as eliminating Buriganga and the conservation of its watershed or abating the potential sources of pollution [5]. environment are now the nation’s important problem. Our study is conducted to mitigate the social But unfortunately, the efforts by the government are problem structure for reviving the natural not adequate to face the threat. In fact, ill-conceived environment and the water quality of Buriganga and and ill implemented government projects, corruption recommend a policy framework to solve it. The study and poor governance are very often aggravating the is designed to collect information from both primary situation. On the other hand, isolated efforts by and secondary sources. Primary data and information various non-government and volunteer organizations were collected mainly through survey and direct are also insufficient to meet the crisis. Mindset of the interviews with key informants with useful industrialists, traders and other factor groups in knowledge about the particular areas that fall under market system are also very important obstacles the scope of the study. On the other hand secondary information was collected from various concerned

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government, non-government and volunteer water resources of the country, BWDB was inherited organizations and a thorough review was hold on the total responsibility for developing country’s vast different studies, reports, newspaper articles, books water resources. BIWTA was created in 1958 for and websites to make this study potential and maintaining the river ports, based on the East consequential. Literature review is another important Pakistan Inland Water Transport Authority part of this research work. Ordinance 1958. An advisory committee has subsequently been constituted to advise the authority ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT in respect of all matters related to development, ORGANIZATIONS IN BANGLADESH maintenance and operation of inland water transport For sustainable development, protection and and of inland waterways in Bangladesh. BIWTA, conservation of natural environment is essential. To under the Ministry of Shipping, maintains and ensure the process of sustainable development, GOB supervises 22 river ports [10]. BIWTA performs has created different organizations, departments and statutory functions of development, maintenance and agencies. There are also some non-government and regulatory nature which include river conservancy, volunteer organizations, working to meet the hydrographic survey, dredging navigational channels, environmental problems. Our study focuses on 4 providing towage, landing and terminal facilities. major organizations of Bangladesh, which are From this study, it is observed that most of these directly or indirectly responsible for ensuring the organizations are handicapped with a bunch of environmental management and preservation of problems and barriers. Political influence, corruption and its watershed environment. The and bad governance are the main problems organizations are Department of Environment (DOE), constraining the development and management Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority activities of these organizations. Fund shortage, (DWASA), Bangladesh Water Development Board authoritative prolongation, no magistracy power, lack (BWDB) and Bangladesh Inland Water Transport of public awareness, etc. are the very common barriers Authority (BIWTA). Our study also emphasizes for these government organizations. about the most renowned civil movement There is also a number of non-government and organization, called BAPA, which is playing a very voluntary organizations and environmental groups, significant role to protect and conserve the natural performing active roles in conserving the natural environment of Bangladesh, specially the environment of Bangladesh. Among them, biodiversity of Buriganga. Bangladesh Paribesh Andolon (BAPA) is most DOE has started its journey as a department in well-known civil movement organization. A 1989 under the Ministry of Environment and Forest, community based group, called POROSH, was set up with a mandate to ensure a safe and healthy to concentrate on Dhaka only in 1997. This has environment for the present and future generations, virtually been transformed into BAPA in June 2000 through the prevention and control of pollution and with nationwide coverage and expanded dimension. through strategic environmental management for Formulation of BAPA was a direct result of the 1st protection of ecosystem. It was established with a International Conference of Bangladesh Environment new hope and aspiration. DOE is an authority for (ICEAB) held in January 2000. BAPA, acting as a controlling pollution of the water bodies, caused by pressure group against any kind of environment different industries [6]. The main objective of DOE degradation, is trying to create a broad based is to solve environmental problems with public citizen’s movement for protection and betterment of involvement and support through enforcement of the environment in Bangladesh [11]. BAPA is a environmental laws and regulations and their volunteer organization, which runs without financial compliance. DWASA was established in 1963, support from national or foreign governments. entrusted with the responsibility of providing water Subscription of members and philanthropy of supply, sewerage disposal (wastewater), and storm individual citizens and national organizations are the water drainage services to the urban dwellers of the main source of income for meeting its routine fast-growing metropolitan Dhaka [7]. In 1990, Water, expenditure. The main responsibility of BAPA is to Drainage & Sanitation service of Narayangonj city motivate and aware the citizen regarding also handed over to DWASA [8]. The objective of environmental crisis and to achieve the goal by the DWASA is to improve the life standards of the mega government through social and environment city Dhaka and by supplying safe and movement. BAPA has set a wonderful example of potable water and improving the sewerage and raising awareness, suggesting policies and mobilizing drainage system. BWDB started its operation as the the people for protection of Bangladesh environment water wing of the erstwhile ‘ Water and [12]. BAPA’s dedicated work has earned positive Power Development Authority’ in 1959. It was changes in several areas of country environment. But created under the Bangladesh Water and Power still it could not accomplish any positive change in Development Boards Order 1972 (P.O. No. 59 of protecting Buriganga and its watershed environment 1972) as a fully autonomous organization [9]. Being though working on it from the beginning of its birth. the principal agency of the government for managing

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The effectiveness of BAPA is being hindered by the B. Constituting a special monitoring and structural problem of the whole systems of enforcement taskforce (including civil society) government and the factory owners, which can be A special taskforce may be established to monitor defined as a vicious circle consisting of political and enforce the rules and regulations to save the leaders, factory owners and the government. The Buriganga from pollution and encroachment. The main aim of the owners is to make profit without taskforce will be formed and guided by the paying heed to the degradation of the environment of government and the intellectual environmental the Buriganga. They are making collusion with the activists, who will participate as the representatives political leaders by bribery to manipulate the of the civil society. Moreover two thirds of the government not to impose the environment acts. members should be from civil society so that the BAPA, though trying to put pressure on the polluters and encroacher cannot control the whole government concerning the Buriganga pollution, its taskforce by bribing or using political power. The almost all efforts have turned in vain for this social taskforce may also have the power to monitor and structural problem. As BAPA have not enough report on the development and management activities materials and power, it cannot break the vicious of different environment management organizations. circle to keep the movement of implementing the C. Providing financial support laws and acts. Fund shortage is a very common barrier for any POLICY CONSIDERATION TO CHANGE developing activities. Government should take much THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE more initiatives for giving financial support to these Improvement of environment is not possible environment management organizations timely and without change in government policies and actions. properly. Government may create development and From this study, it is revealed that the social welfare fund for these organizations. Government structural or political economic problem is the key can create fund in many ways, such as by increasing barrier for all environmental activities. So it is vital luxury tax and imposing progressive and inheritance for the country to change this structure to face the tax, like developed countries and solve the problem environmental challenges. In this situation the of fund shortage. following policies may be considered to diminish the D. Strict enforcement of industrial and overall problems of environment management environmental rules and policies organizations for the conservation of Buriganga: Lack of strict enforcement is the key barrier to control the pollution. It may be possible to curb A. Introducing third sector organizations pollution by the policies. The existing rules should be Government may take initiatives of third sector amended to ensure strict enforcement. Under this with social enterprises for maximizing the social and policy, all tanneries have to clean their effluents environmental improvements. These initiatives before disposal and install environmentally friendly generally derive their impetus from voluntary technologies. Those who are unable to obey the rules organizations and operate under a wide variety of have to close their tanneries and governments have to legal structures. BAPA is the most renowned support them to switch in other sectors. voluntary organization in Bangladesh and ‘Save the E. Creating public awareness Buriganga’ has now become the well-known slogan According to the information, collected through to the Dhaka dwellers due to the active performance this study [13], it is revealed that lack of public of BAPA. BAPA’s dedication is to protect and awareness is a key barrier for environmental conserve the natural environment and motivate the conservation. Most of the tannery owners are civil society about it. Moreover, most of the illiterate and they are not care enough about the environmental specialists and activists in Bangladesh environment. They do not feel the necessity to clean are the active members of BAPA. Though there are the tannery wastes for saving the environment. Their also some other non-government and volunteer only aim is to earn profit. Besides, the low-income organizations, most of them are non-profitable people, who are living besides the Buriganga, are organizations (NPO) and their activities are not as fully ignorant about the environmental pollution. broad-based as BAPA. In this situation, as BAPA is They dump their household wastes even human the most active and fully voluntary organization, the excreta directly to the river. So creating public government may make BAPA more effective by awareness toward environmental conservation and providing proper financial support and initiatives. prevention of activities that vitiate and pollute the Then BAPA will operate as a development partner of environment may be the important part of the overall the government based on the legal structure of third approach to conserve the Buriganga. All the government, non-government, voluntary and civil sector. It may be applicable for any other voluntary movement organizations should have to work to organizations like BAPA and the government should make the general citizens aware of the importance of take proper initiatives about it. environment and motivate them for protecting and conserving it.

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F. Developing efficient management system our own interest, work together and cooperate each Efficient management system is very important other. The recommended policies may be a part for any organization to achieve their objectives. significant policy framework in this regard. The concerned organizations should give much ACKNOWLEDGMENT importance to create efficient and active management system by arranging training, workshops, research This research was supported in part by a grant programs, etc. to their employees. from the Yuasa International Foundation. G. Reviving self-realization and honesty REFERENCES Poverty is the root cause of all corruption and [1] Department of Environment, Ministry of dishonesty. The tannery owners make collusion with Environment and Forests, Government of the the political leaders by bribery to manipulate the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. 2007. Environment government not to impose the environment acts. for Sustainable Development. Annual Report. p. 4. Their target is to earn money easily and quickly [2] C Barton. 2011. Bangladesh's deadly leather industry. A news report. [Online]. Available at: without thinking of environment [13]. But we all http://thestar.com.my/lifestyle/story.asp?file=/2011/3 have our own judgment and clarity. We have to /8/lifefocus/8094926&sec=lifefo [Accessed 20 sacrifice our smaller interest for the greater interest March 2013]. of the country. All should try to cooperate the [3] R William E. 2003. Economic Development and concerned organizations to protect and preserve our Environmental Protection: An Ecological Economics natural resources for the well-being of the perspective. Environmental Monitoring and environment. Assessment, 86: 29-45, 2003. [4] N Islam. 2000. Protecting Bangladesh’s H. Giving achievement award Environment: The Role of the Civil Society. The Achievement should be rewarded for related Journal of Social Studies, 88: 34-63. organizations, departments, agencies, groups, [5] A Khorshed and M Dora. 2003. Ecological health of individuals, etc. according to their contribution in rivers: a case for integrating government, community environmental activities and this will inspire all to be and private sector towards regional sustainability. A more active for saving our environment. conference paper, International Sustainability Conference: Regional Governance for Sustainability. CONCLUSION Perth, Western Australia. [6] MI Haque. 2008. Water Resources Management in Dhaka is experiencing serious environmental Banglagesh. Anushilan, Chuadanga & Dhaka. p. 337. degradation due to the alarming Buriganga pollution [7] TA Khan. 2012. Dhaka Water Supply Sewerage for several decades. There are multiple Authority: Performance and Challenges. [Online] environmental and economic factors behind Available at: http://www.dwasa.org.bd/admin/news/ environmental deterioration of Buriganga but the Dhaka%20WASA%20Article-for%20BOOK.pdf social structural problem is the key factor [Accessed 21 March 2013]. constraining the environmental management [8] Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority. 2013 [Online]. Available at: http://www.dwasa.org.bd/ activities. So all the government, private and index.php?type_name=visitor&page_name=history& individual development partners, environment panel_index=1019 [Accessed 21 March 2013]. activists and the general citizen have to work [9] Bangladesh Water Development Board. 2013 together and cooperate each other to change this [Online]. Available at: http://www.bwdb.gov.bd/ social structure for maintaining the ecological index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1 balance of Buriganga. In this situation, the &Itemid=2 [Accessed 22 March 2013]. government should work for the introduction of third [10] Bangladesh Inland Water Transport Authority. 2013 sector with social enterprises for maximizing social [Online]. Available at: http://www.biwta.gov.bd/ about_us.htm [Accessed 22 March 2013]. and environmental improvements. It may be a [11] Bangladesh Poribesh Andolon (BAPA). 2013 mistake to think that the government will by itself do [Online]. http://www.bapa.org.bd/Default.aspx all that is necessary to conserve Buriganga. The [Accessed 22 March 2013]. government need much help from citizens in this [12] N Islam. TEN YEARS OF BAPA: Some Reflections regard. As the main organization representing on the past and future of Bangladesh Environment citizen’s environment movement, BAPA therefore Movement. p. 11. has important responsibility. But as BAPA is a [13] Personal Interviews with the General Secretary of voluntary organization, it has no legal power to put BAPA ‘‘Dr. Abdul Matin’’ (3 June 2012, 10:00 AM) and Some Officers of DOE, BWDB, DWASA, pressure to the government for solving this social BIWTA and DWASA. structural problem. So the government should take proper initiatives of third sector to make BAPA more effective and stronger. Finally, it may be concluded that in order to ensure a safe and healthy environment for the present and future generation of Dhaka, and also overcoming the political economic implications of Bangladesh, we all have to sacrifice

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E13 Assessments of Hearing Quality of Traffic Police Personnel of Dhaka City: A Self Reported Noise Pollution Study Ahmad Kamruzzaman Majumder*, Nur Alam Mistri Department of Environmental Science, Stamford University Bangladesh, 44, Satmosjid Road, Dhanmondi, Dhaka-1209, Bangladesh, e-mail: [email protected]*, [email protected] Abstract This study aims to assess the perception, knowledge, attitude and practices of traffic policemen towards the physiological and psychological health effects caused by traffic noise pollution that they are exposed to. Present self reported questionnaire-based study was carried out among 110 traffic policemen randomly selected in DMP .The questionnaire was filled up by the subjects themselves. 40.9% respondents are in age group of 20- 24. The self-assessment of hearing ability has describes by the traffic policemen as 11.8% of the subjects felt that their hearing ability was below average, while the remaining believed that their hearing ability was above average to excellent. 15.5% subjects reported that they usually missed a lot when conversing with someone on phone, while 25.5% reported similar condition while talking to someone in a crowd. 33.6% reported that while watching television they usually kept the sound louder to hear properly. 08.2% complained of regular tinnitus was found.

INTRODUCTION transportation, mining, construction, agriculture and Physically, there is no difference between sound the military. and noise. Sound is a sensory perception and noise The situation is improving in developed countries, corresponds to undesired sound (WHO, 2004). By as more widespread appreciation of the hazard has extension, noise is any unwarranted disturbance led to the introduction of protective measures. Data within a useful frequency band. The automobiles are for developing countries are scarce, but available an important source of not only air pollution but also evidence suggests that average noise levels are well of a significant proportion of noise pollution [1]. The above the occupational level recommended in many traffic police engaged in controlling traffic, developed nations [14-16]. particularly at heavy traffic junctions, belong to the Health effects of noise include both the auditory as high-risk group to be affected by the health hazards well as non-auditory effects. Many studies have been of noise and air pollution [2-9]. Because the irritation carried out to study these effects in different of upper respiratory tract resulting in cough is a categories of population exposed to high intensity somewhat acute phenomenon, most of the traffic and frequencies of sound in their workplaces [17-21]. policemen use a mask to prevent the ill effects of air However, the auditory effects of noise generated by pollution. However, a majority of them remains automobiles among the traffic policemen have never unaware about the health effects of noise on their been explored, particularly in India [22]. The hearing ability as this is an insidious process and situation in Dhaka City Traffic Policemen is takes long time to become overt. The World Health somehow same. This may be one of the reasons for Organization (WHO) carried out an assessment of not providing hearing protection devices to this the global disease burden from occupational noise group of work force. However, the need should be and identified 25 risk factors in a standardized felt by the traffic policemen themselves and this can manner [10]. Occupational hearing loss includes happen only when they have adequate knowledge acoustic traumatic injury and Noise Induced Hearing about the associated health hazards. With this Loss (NIHL), and can be defined as a partial or background, the present study has been carried out to complete hearing loss in one or both ears as the result assess the hearing ability, knowledge, attitude and of one’s employments [11]. High levels of occupational practices of traffic policemen with respect to the noise remain a problem in all regions of the world. In health effects caused by noise pollution. the United States of America (USA), for example, MATERIALS AND METHODS more than 30 million workers are exposed to hazardous noise [12]. In Germany, 4-5 million people (12-15% The present questionnaire-based study was carried of the workforce) are exposed to noise levels defined out among 110 traffic policemen randomly selected as hazardous by WHO [13]. Although noise is in DMP from June 2010 to August 2010. The associated with almost every work activity, some questionnaire included questions regarding the activities are associated with particularly high levels self-assessment of the traffic policemen about their of noise, the most important of which are working hearing ability, past and present exposure to loud with impact processes, handling certain types of traffic sound and the use of personal protective materials, and flying commercial jets. devices such as earplugs and earmuffs. The Occupations at highest risk for Noise Induced questionnaire was filled up by the subject themselves. Hearing Loss (NIHL) include those in manufacturing, Close supervision was followed so as to avoid the influence of one's result by the other subject. The

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data analysis was carried out using SPSS 16 and More than 65.6% of them reported that they have a included calculation of percentages and proportions duty hour of 8-10 in 6 days in a week. Their duties and application of the test of significance. were not fixed at one station and they had to give duties in any site at any time in the city. From the RESULTS study it has found that, the respondent has the habits The general profile of the subjects according to of smoking and tobacco chewing. Since only demographic characteristics is shown in Table 1. non-smokers were included in this study, all of the Table 1. Demographic and occupational characteristics of subjects had no habit of smoking. the study subject. Table 2. The study subject according to their perception on Characteristics Number Percentage noise pollution. Sex Composition Perception Number Percentage Male 82 74.55 Did you know that noise affects human health? Female 28 25.45 Yes 103 93.6 Age (in Years) No 6 05.5 20- 24 45 40.9 Don't Know 1 00.9 25-29 35 31.8 Do you think noise can be considered as an occupational 30-34 22 20.0 hazard? 35-39 8 07.3 Yes 86 78.2 Educational Qualification No 23 20.9 Test 6 05.5 Don't Know 1 00.9 SSC 68 61.8 How do you classify your present working environment Intermediate 31 28.2 in terms of noise quality? Bachelors 5 04.5 Quiet 6 05.5 Occupational profile Tolerable 39 35.5 Police Constable 74 67.3 Noisy 30 27.3 Head Constable 36 32.7 Extremely Noisy 35 31.8 Duration of exposure (in years) Did you visit the doctor, in the past 12 months, regarding 2-5 65 59.1 any ear injury complaint or auditory problem 6-10 31 28.2 Yes 39 35.5 11-15 13 11.8 No 71 64.5 ≥ 15 1 00.9 Duration of exposure (in day) Table 2 illustrates the general perception of the < 4 7 06.4 subjects regarding noise pollution and their effects 5-7 22 20.0 on human health. The table shows that most of the 8-10 71 65.6 ≥ 11 10 09.0 subjects (93.6%) believe that noise affects on their heath. 78.2% considered noise pollution as one of A total of 82 males and 28 females were included the occupational hazard for them. 59.1% traffic in the study, which constitute 74.55 and 25.45% of policemen reported that their work environment is the total sample size, respectively. The age of the noisy to extremely noisy which caused a number of subjects lies in the range of 20-39. Most of the hearing problems and which lead to make them to go subjects (40.9%) belong to the age group of 20-24 to doctors. 35.5% subjects had visited the doctors in years. Most of them had recently joined the police the past 12 months regarding ear injury complaint or service. The mean age of the subjects was found to auditory problem. So, more efforts should be given be 26.6 years. All the subjects had minimum of towards raising awareness regarding noise pollution secondary level of school education. Majority of and its health impacts among the traffic policemen. them (61.8%) had passed SSC whereas the number The self-assessment of hearing ability has of subjects who had passed Intermediate was lesser describes by the traffic policemen in Table 3. Only (28.2%) and those with bachelors’ degree were very 11.8% of the subjects felt that their hearing ability few (4.5%). Out of the total subjects, majority was below average, while 57.3% believed that their (67.3%) worked as a police constable and 32.7% hearing ability was above average to excellent, the worked as head constable. The years of service in remaining 30.9% said their hearing ability was traffic police is also consider as the years exposure average. However, the supplementary questions to which is not so high. The duration of service of the assess the hearing ability revealed a slightly different subjects as traffic police ranges between 2 to more picture. 15.5% subjects reported that they usually than 15 years. Most of the subjects (59.1%) had missed a lot when conversing with someone on served as a traffic police for less than 5 years. 28.2% phone, while 25.5% reported similar condition while had worked for 6-10 years, 11.8% for 11-15 years talking to someone in a crowd. 19.1% reported that and 0.9% for more than 15 years. The distribution of while watching television they usually kept the the subjects according to year of exposure showed a sound louder to hear properly. 29.1% mentioned that decline from 2 to more than 15 years. Again in others often indicated to them that they (traffic Dhaka City traffic police has long working hours. police) were talking louder, while 33.6% felt that

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people usually talked louder with them so as to life. Fortunately, their duration of exposure was less enable them to hear. 8.2% complained of regular and so not much could have been lost and if effective tinnitus, while 57.3% had work-related tinnitus and measures could be taken at that stage, health hazards experienced it during working hours only. could be well prevented. Only 11.8% of the policemen felt that their hearing ability was below average. This Table 3. Distribution of study subject according to the perception on noise pollution stimulated hearing quality. could be due to ignorance about the hazards caused by continuous exposure to noise and non-usage of Perception Number Percentage PPEs. In a similar study among the traffic police in How is the Quality of your hearing? Excellent 43 39.1 India out of 86 subjects only 2.3% felt that their Above average 20 18.2 hearing quality is below average [23]. An study Average 34 30.9 conducted in 2001 showed that health effects of Below average 13 11.8 vehicular noise pollution on traffic police personnel How do you hear over the phone in Kathmandu is very alarming[24]. Another study Without difficulty 71 64.5 among the rock concert attendees, only 36.3% of the Do miss some conversation 22 20.0 subjects felt that noise is likely to cause health hazards Miss a lot of what is said 17 15.5 [25]. In a study in Nepal it is found that, 39.34% of How do you hear in a crowd the total sample surveyed had the NIHL which is Without difficulty 45 40.9 Do miss some conversation 37 33.6 quite a high in number [26]. The self-assessed Miss a lot of what is said 28 25.5 prevalence of reduced hearing was found only in 11.8% How do you hear to the sound of TV/Radio? subjects. However, the supplementary questions to Usually louder 21 19.1 assess hearing ability suggested that it was higher Usually with same 29 26.4 though not felt by the subjects. Exact figures can be loudness calculated by doing Audiometry of these subjects. Usually a little softer 60 54.5 Thus on the basis of the findings of this study, it is Do people often indicate that you are talking too loudly? recommended that the periodic medical examination Yes 32 29.1 should be done for the traffic policemen and it should No 78 70.9 Do people have to talk to you louder? include Audiometry to assess the health effects of Yes 37 33.6 exposure to noise along with the investigations to No 73 66.4 measure the health effects of air pollution. It is Tinnitus suggested that not only should these PPEs be made Almost all the time 9 08.2 available, but also periodic workshops should be More than once a day 12 10.9 carried out to motivate the subjects for their correct About once a day 5 04.5 and regular usage. The effectiveness of the PPEs About once a week 14 12.7 over other methods to reduce noise exposure should More than once a year 7 06.4 Work related or 63 57.3 also be demonstrated [27]. recreational Table 4. Distribution of study subject according to use of PPEs. Table 4 represents the distribution of the study subjects according to the usage of earplugs/earmuffs. Perception Number Percentage Only 7.3% used earplugs and that too, very seldom. Have you ever used Ear Plugs or Ear Muffs Again only 1.8% traffic police of the city are being Yes 8 07.3 using ear plugs regularly during the duty period. No 102 92.7 Non-availability of these personal protective Regularity of usage of Ear Plugs or Ear Muffs Only during duty period 2 01.8 equipments (PPEs) was the common reason for its Seldom 6 05.5 non-usage as reported by 49.1% of the subjects. Never 102 92.7 However, other reasons for non-usage included Reason for non-usage of Ear Plugs or Ear Muffs personal dislike (22.2%), uncomfortable (13.9%), Uncomfortable 15 13.9 headache caused by its use (8.3%), bad fit (6.5%), Not available 53 49.1 and 77.3% subjects did not use any method to reduce Bad fit 7 06.5 exposure to noise, while the remaining used fingers Dislike 24 22.2 (2.7%), hands (8.2%) and cotton (11.8%) to avoid Cause of headache 9 08.3 noise exposure. However, out of these subjects using Use of other PPE Hands 9 08.2 other methods, only 24.0% felt that these methods Cotton 13 11.8 were good or better than the earplugs. Fingers 3 02.7 DISCUSSION Don’t use anything 85 77.3 How effective are these methods The present study revealed that the study subjects Average 19 76.0 were in the economically productive age groups and Good 3 12.0 if they suffer from hearing disability at this age, they Better than plugs 3 12.0 would have to live with that disability throughout their

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CONCLUSION [11] Nandi, S.S., Dhatrak, V. S. 2008. Occupational noise The questionnaire survey revealed that most of the induced hearing loss in India. Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Vol. 12, subjects are aware about the health effects of noise Issue 2, August, 2008, India pollution and three forth of the subjects think that [12] NIOSH, 1998. Criteria for a recommended standard: noise pollution can be considered as occupational occupational noise exposure. Revised criteria 1998. hazard. The use of these PPEs can ensure the best Cincinnati, OH, National Institute for Occupational protection only by their proper use. For the proper Safety and Health. Available at (http://www.cdc.gov/ use of PPEs and to disseminate more knowledge niosh/98-126.html). regarding noise pollution and its health effects, [13] WHO. 2001. Occupational and community noise. awareness programs should be conducted for the Geneva. World Health Organization (Fact Sheet 258). traffic police. The long work hours of traffic police [14] Suter, A. 2000. Standards and regulations. In: Berger personnel and no holiday in weekends has been made EH, Royster LH, Rozster JD, Driscoll DP, Layne M, necessary by manpower crunch. Such long duty eds. The noise manual, 5th ed. American Industrial hours are against the international norms. So, the Hygiene Association, Fairfax, VA. recruitment of more traffic police should be done. [15] WHO/FIOSH. 2001. In: Goelzer B, Hansen CH, Further research and follow-up studies using the Sehrndt GA, eds. Occupational exposure to noise: same subjects should be done as it could give a better evaluation, prevention and control. Geneva, World picture on the occupational health status of the traffic Health Organization, and Dortmund/Berlin, the Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. police working in Bangladesh and reveal more [16] VK Murthy, AK Majumder, SN Khanal and DP significant results related with their health. Subedi. 2007. Assessment of Traffic Noise Pollution REFERENCES in Banepa; A Semi Urban Town of Nepal. Kathmandu University Journal of Science, Engineering and [1] AK Majumder and S Bhochhibhoya. 2007. Noise Technology, 1(IV), http://www.ku.edu.np/kuset/ pollution in Kavre, Nepal, The Kathmandu Post, index.php?go=vol1no4 (accessed on 16 January, 2013) (National Daily, page 4), 5th August, 2007, [17] G Bluhm, E Nordling, N Berglind. 2004. Road traffic Kathmandu, Nepal http://www.kantipuronline.com/ noise and annoyance-An increasing environmental kolnews.php?& nid =118153 health problem. Noise Health, 6:43-9 [2] P Wongsurakiat, KN Maranetra, A Nana, C Naruman, [18] H Meijer, P Knipschild, H Salle. 1985. Road traffic M Aksornint, T Chalermsanyakorn. 1999. noise annoyance in Amsterdam. Int Arch Occup Respiratory symptoms and pulmonary function of Environ Health, 56:285-97. traffic policemen in Thonburi. J. Med Assoc Thai; [19] D Ouis. 2002. Annoyance caused by exposure to road 82:435-43. traffic noise: An update. Noise Health, 4:69-79. [3] K Karita, E Yano, W Jinsart, D Boudoung, K Tamura. [20] E Ohrstrom. 2004. Longitudinal surveys on effects of 2001. Respiratory symptoms and pulmonary function changes in road traffic noise-annoyance, activity among traffic police in Bangkok, Thailand. Arch disturbances and psychosocial well-being. J Acoust Environ Health, 56:467-70. Soc Am, 115:719-29. [4] I Shrestha. 2001. Health Effects of Vehicular Noise [21] AEM de Hollander, EEMM van Kempen, DJM Pollution on Traffic Police Personnel in Kathmandu. Houthuijs, I vanKamp, RT Hoogenveen, BAM Bachelor of Science Dissertation, Department of Staatsen. 2004. Environmental noise: an approach for Environment Science, St. Xavier’s College. estimating health impacts at national and local level. [5] S Shakya. 2001. Health Problems Prevalent in the Geneva, World Health Organization (Environmental Traffic Police Personnel due to Vehicular Air Burden of Disease series). Pollution in Kathmandu. BSc Dissertation, submitted [22] SR Tripathi, RR Tiwari. 2006. Self-reported hearing St. Xavier’s College, Kathmandu. quality of traffic policemen: A questionnaire-based [6] K Tamura, W Jinsart, E Yano, K Karita, D Boudoung. study. Indian J Occup Environ Med, 10:82-4 2003. Particulate air pollution and chronic respiratory [23] SR Tripathi, RR Tiwari. 2006. Self-reported hearing symptoms among traffic policemen in Bangkok. quality of traffic policemen: A questionnaire-based Arch Environ Health, 58:201-7. study. Indian J Occup Environ Med, 10:82-4 [7] A DeToni, F Larese Filon, L Finotto. 2005. [24] I Shrestha. 2001. Health Effects of Vehicular Noise Respiratory diseases in a group of traffic police Pollution on Traffic Police Personnel in Kathmandu officers: Results of a 5-year follow-up. G Ital Med Dissertation of Bachelor of Science, Department of Lav Ergon, 27:380-2. Environment Science, St. Xavier’s College [8] SR Tripathi, RR Tiwari. 2006. Self-reported hearing [25] II Bogoch, RA House, I Kudla. 2005. Perceptions quality of traffic policemen: A questionnaire-based about hearing protection and noise-induced hearing study. Indian J Occup Environ Med, 10:82-4 loss of attendees of rock concerts. Can J Public [9] AK Majumder. 2007. Hazy welcome in Kathmandu, Health, 96: 69-72. The Kathmandu Post, (National Daily, page 5), 9th [26] SK Joshi, S Devkota, S Chamling and S Shrestha. December, 2007, Kathmandu, Nepal, http://www. 2003. Environmental noise induced hearing loss in kantipuronline.com/kolnews.php?&nid=130665 (Last Nepal. Kathmandu University Medical Journal. Vol.1, accessed on 27 February, 2010) No. 3, 177-183, Nepal [10] WHO, 2002. World Health Report 2002 – reducing [27] SL Lusk. 1997. Noise exposures. Effects on hearing risks, promoting health life. Geneva, World Health and prevention of noise induced hearing loss. Organization. AAOHN J, 45:397-408.

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E14 Physical Environment Adaptation due to Climate change: in the context of Bangladesh Jubaida Gulshan Ara Student, M. Arch Program, Department of Architecture, Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh; e-mail: [email protected] Abstract At this time Climate change is a burning issue and it is often mentioned as human-specific impacts. The thermal inertia of the oceans and slow responses of other indirect effects indicate that climate can take centuries or longer time to adjust to changes. It will bring adverse effects on nature, ecology and human settlement. Overall, it is predictable that climate change will result in the extinction of many species through different disasters. In Bangladesh, Climate change is an extremely critical matter as Bangladesh lives perilously close to the risks of disasters like cyclones, floods and droughts and the impacts may be devastating. For this, people have to be aware of climate change immediately, its effects and be prepared to combat all adverse situations. This particular paper will deal with the issue of climate change, its worst impacts and the way to overcome climate change shock through physical environment adaptation.

INTRODUCTION unpredictable heavy rainfall [11]. So, this is the time In the World Risk Index 2011, jointly carried out to set in motion through both visions and actions for by United Nations University (UNU), Germany and a better and sustainable world for us. We are to take the Institute of Environment and Human Security the challenge to share the knowledge and adaptation said that, Bangladesh ranked sixth among the most strategies of local communities on a wide scale [12]. vulnerable nations to natural disasters and second The people and the communities in the rural areas among the Asian countries [1]. From1991 to 2009 need to be given the information and knowledge more than 259 extreme natural events hit Bangladesh about the impacts of climate change, the mitigation among which more than 80% died in 1991 and the technique, adaptation knowledge, and how successful number was 1,40,000 people [2]. The villagers of practices can be imagined so that, they can develop flood-prone southwest Bangladesh are considering resilience to combat odd situation and adapt leaving their place for good and matters become themselves [2]. Community vulnerability towards more complicated when devastating storms like the climate change may exacerbate ongoing social and ‘Sidr’ demolish the last hope for living. More than economic challenges, particularly for those whose 3,000 people died in that cyclone [3]. According to resources are sensitive to climate change. Such risks International Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) 2007 are apparent in agriculture, fisheries and many other findings, storms and cyclones became more powerful components that make up the livelihood of rural over the last 30 years [4]. Thus, Climate change is people in developing countries [13]. The objective of increasing inequities through utmost impact on the this paper is to explore the nature of risk and poorest people of the poorest countries [5]. Dhaka, vulnerability of climate change in the context of the capital of Bangladesh is overcrowded, and daily Bangladesh and review the evidence of present thousands of people enter into Dhaka, fleeing river adaptation by local people and required action on flooding in the north and cyclones in the south. future adaptation by the individuals. Though Majorities’ destination is slums, where thousands previous evidences of adaptation by the community such migrants already colonized [6]. Almost 90% of in climate change and similar risk argue that all the rural migrant people are immersed in the four societies are fundamentally adaptive, we need to main cities -- Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna and improve our physical adaptive capacity to face both of Bangladesh [7]. Outcome of this present and future climate change. migration is unbearable pressure on urban utilities CLIMATE CHANGE like water and sanitation services [8]. According to a What is Climate change? statistics, since 1970 till 2009, about 39 million United Nations Framework Convention on people in the country have been displaced by major Climate Change (UNFCC) defines climate change as natural catastrophe like flood and cyclone and the change resulting from long term direct and experts warn that by 2050 about 6-8 million people indirect activities that induce changes in the more might be displaced due to the effect of climate compared time which are much more than the change like global temperature increase and sea-level natural change [14]. rise [9]. In northern Bangladesh millions of people Why the Climate is changing? are threatened by riverbank erosion and severe A recent review, published in Nature Geosciences, droughts [10]. In the 21st century, climate change is support that greenhouse gas emissions is elevating estimated to increase the risk of more frequent and atmospheric carbon dioxide levels leading to more severe floods through higher river flows and warming [15, Fig. 1, Fig. 2]. Hasnain (2000) and

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WWF (2005) mentioned in their studies that, since A recent report of the Arctic Monitoring and the mid 1970s, the measured average air temperature Assessment Programme (AMAP), mentioned that by at 49 stations of the Himalayan region rose by 10°C. the end of this century global sea-level may rise 1 m The high elevation sites are warming the most and or more as a result of faster melting of the Greenland leading to melting of ice which causing sea level rise ice sheets [4]. A World Bank study has estimated [16]. Thus the atmosphere is under increasing that, 1m sea-level rise would affect 84 developing pressure of green house gases that directly or countries at a time. So, without solving climate indirectly enhance climate change [17]. The fourth change problem, poverty eradication, food security, assessment report of the IPCC in 2007 concluded that access to water cannot be solved [16]. According to it was "unequivocal" that human activities playing a the United Nations High Commission for Refugees role in climate change and global warming. It also (UNHCR) in 2010, almost 42 million people around identified that, if there is no action to cut emissions, the world were forced to escape their homes because there is a possibility for temperature rise up to 7°C of natural disasters. What is alarming is that, this by 2100. Rises may be 2 to 3°C by 2090 at higher number was almost doubled between 2009 and 2010 latitudes, and 4 to 5°C rises in northern Canada, and UNHCR pointed out that climate change is the Greenland, and Siberia [18]. most important contributing factor to natural disasters [22]. In 21st century, Climate change is the biggest threat for global health [23, 5, 24]. Ecological niches of tree species and their distribution patterns depend on Climatic variables [24, 25]. Species-distribution models (SDMs) and forecasted global climate data indicated that up to 43% of tree species in Amazonia could become incapable by 2095 [24, 26 ]. EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN BANGLADESH Geographically, Bangladesh is located in the tropical region [27]. Natural disaster is a common phenomenon and Bangladesh is facing several Fig. 1. (Source: NASA GISS) disasters frequently, and climate change might be the main reason behind it [28]. Bangladesh is a deltaic plain with five major rivers to drain out upstream waters. The average elevations are less than 10 m above sea level which feature makes Bangladesh vulnerable to natural disasters, such as floods and cyclones [29]. Bangladesh Water Development Board mentioned in 2008 report that, water level rises by at least 5.6 mm a year at Hiron point, 1.4 mm at Cox's Bazar and 2.9 mm at Khepupara [30]. The Healthy Centre for Climate Prediction and Research (HCCPR) estimated that, sea level of Bangladesh will rise about 40 cm (15 inches) by 2080 [31]. IPCC predicted that by 2050, Bangladesh is on way to lose 17% of its land and 30% of its food production [32]. Fig. 2. (Source: Dana Nuccitelli, vectorized The climate model hints that, temperature will increase by User: Dcoetzee) in Bangladesh approximately 1.0 to 15°C by 2030 [33, Table 2]. The country has already started to feel the Effect of Climate change effects of the climate change because of long term Global climate is warming at an incomparable rate flood, recurrent cyclones, droughts and earth quakes in the past 1000 years [19]. According to the IPCC’s that cause massive devastation and adverse effect to 2007 findings the average global temperature rise agriculture, land, water resources, occupational will make changes in precipitation, atmospheric dislocations, food, health, energy and urban planning moisture and increases in evaporation, and water [34]. It has also been shown that, unmitigated climate vapour [20]. Thus extreme precipitation is increasing change, will decrease 8% rice and 32% wheat over many northern mid-latitude regions, excessive production by the year 2050 [15]. Climate change summer heat often combined with high humidity, would also create increased frequency of diseases, have increased in world’s most regions and southern such as cholera, dengue, cardiovascular, respiratory oscillation episodes have been prolonged over the diseases, and malnutrition due to food scarcity and last two decades [21]. reduction in food production [35].

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Table 1. Changes in climate parameters with respect to base adapt and have been adapting to climate change over year 1990. the period of human history as climate is a part of the 2030 2070 wider environmental landscape of human habitation

[39]. Parameters In November 2002, the Delhi Declaration from the

Winter Winter Eighth Conference of the Parties reinforced the

Monsoon Monsoon importance of adaptation for the developing nations Temperature (oc) 2 0.65 3 1.5 [39]. Bangladesh government can take preparation Evaporation (%) 10 20 16 5 for a warmer earth. This includes limited Precipitation (%) -3 11 -37 28 construction along low-lying coastal areas, building Discharge (%) -5 20 -67 51 dykes to protect the coastal areas from flooding, FAP completion 60 60 100 100 protecting wildlife and developing water storage to continue farming in drought condition [40]. In Sea level rise (cm) 30 30 70 70 addition to that, it is the duty of the agronomists to Source: Kafiluddin (2005). help the farmers at field level and guide the policy makers to achieve the desired crops [35]. The IPCC Prolonged flooding will also create shortage of state that all societies need to learn to cope with the space available for residential building construction changes that are predicted like warmer temperatures, or crops cultivation or animal farming, which drier soils, changes in weather extremes and rising eventually leads humans and animals in migration to sea levels. urban areas, and beyond. These phenomena “Let me tell you about ," says Zakir accelerate urbanization, which, in turn, will result in Kibria; "We may be poor and appear disorganized, strong competition between urban people for access but we are not victims. And when things get tough, to social and economic opportunities [35, 36] and people here do what they've always done-they find a will make social instability by increasing crime [37]. way to adapt and survive. We are masters of climate Millions of people in northern Bangladesh are resilience" [6]. Thus when individuals and societies threatened by riverbank erosion and severe droughts are exposed to climate, act as a driver for adaptive [10]. resource management. Some adaptation by A formal report has predicted that a decline in individuals is undertaken in response to climate population increase will start at mid-century and a threats [41]. In this way, the poor people of prominent chunk of landmass could be permanently Bangladesh are constantly adjusting to climate underwater [35]. That scenario is based on two change by raising their houses above the flood level projections. One is population growth and another is or changing crop types [42]. The people of Goalbari, possible sea level rise by 2100 as a result of climate a low-lying area of Gopalgunj district of central change. This mean as IPPC warned that 35 million Bangladesh is dotted with raised areas of inhabited people along the southern coast would be displaced land connected by roads built on embankments. [37] and would be climate refugees [6]. During monsoon frequent rains and intense flood NECESSITY AND WAY TO PHYSICAL submerges most the area and stays for half of the ADAPTATION year due to embankments and climate change [43]. A poor villager of Noakhali, Munni Aktar said This situation also persists in the wetlands of “Our lands and homes are flooded every full moon. Bangladesh disrupting agriculture, mobility, and Villagers have to shift their homes very often. I want create inaccessible to basic facilities like drinking justice” [38]. Vulnerability is a socially made fact water and healthcare [42]. In these area people raised which is influenced by institutional and economic the foundational platform, or plinth, of their houses dynamics. The vulnerability of a society to climate by four feet which intervention has protected them change is determined by its exposure, by its physical from the flood waters. Sometimes they build their setting and sensitivity, and by its ability and house around a pond that gives fresh water during opportunity to adapt to climate change [39]. To show flood [42]. As agricultural lands remain inundated for these categories, sensitivity will be high where the months, many households in the area of Goalbari are system in question, for example, settlements built on using the technique of a floating bed of compacted flood plains, hill slopes or low-lying coastal areas water hyacinths where they are growing vegetables. should be given special priority. Adaptation might be This bed is locally known as ‘baira’ and these a way of reducing dependency on vulnerable systems floating gardens fall and rise with water level. BCAS like diversifying food production away from a (Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies) limited number of drought-prone crops or by Researchers have invented the ways to improve the avoiding building settlements and infrastructure in design of such bairas to make them lighter and stay high-risk locations, or by strengthening existing afloat for long periods of time which has allowed the systems so that they may not be damaged by unusual households to grow vegetables for eating when the events [39]. So, the individual and society should flood waters are high [43].

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CONCLUSION anet-can-best-adapt-to-rising-sea-levels/. [Accessed August 25, 2011]. Even after applying many adaptive measures [7] Daily Star. 2011. Edge of the abyss: Population and people have the problems to keep schools open even climate. [online]. Available: during floods, health facilities, power supply, http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details. sanitation, mobility and other types of income php?nid=204614. [Accessed Sep 24, 2011]. generating activities. In this regard researches should [8] Daily Star. 2011. Climate change: Pressure on be carried out by architect, engineers and scientist. urbanization. [online]. Available: For example like the floating beds a floating house http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details. concept can solve most of the problems. A floating php?nid=193545. [Accessed July 10, 2011] [9] Daily Star. 2011. Dhaka to stress climate house flexibly attached to a particular ground like an compensation for LDCs. [online]. Available: anchored boat can solve the problem of secure tenure http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details. rights, access and ownership over resources and also php?nid=209899. [Accessed Nov 13, 2011]. can solve the problem of mobility. Same type of [10] Daily Star. 2011. Climate change: Threat to construction can be useful for making education and international peace and security. [online]. Available: health facility available. Engineers can research for a http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details. portable and user friendly power generating php?nid=198040. [Accessed August 11, 2011]. accessory from sun, air and water. A scientific [11] New Age. 2011. River bank erosion, displacement and consequences. [online]. Available: intervention is necessary to decompose human waste http://newagebd.com/newspaper1/op-ed/33554.html. rapidly to make them fertilizers and food for aquatic [Accessed September 19, 2011]. species. Though Raising the plinths of the houses and [12] Costello, Abbas M, Allen A, Ball S, Bell S, Bellamy R, developing floating beds was helping the poorer Sharon F, Groce N, Jhonson A, Maria Kett, Lee Maria, households of these communities to cope with some Levy C, Maslin M, McCoy David, McGuire B, of the challenges coupled with higher and more Montgomery H, Napier D, Pagel, C, Patel J, de Olivira severe levels of flooding and water logging these J A Puppim, Redclift N, Rees H, Rogger D, Scott J, kinds of technical interventions can only go so far in Stephenson J, Twigg J, Wolff J, C Patterson, 2011. Managing the health effects of climate change. The helping poor families address the serious climatic Lancet. 373: 1693-1733. challenges they face. It was clear that diversifying [13] Adger, W.N, S Huq, Brown K, Conway D, Hulme the ways people could make a living when the area is M.2003. Adaptation to climate change in the under water is fundamental to their long-term developing world. Progress in Development Studies adaptation. So, by improving access to the basic 3, 3: 179–195. services is mandatory to improve people’s resilience [14] Daily Star. 2011. Contextually effective steps needed. to these climate related challenges. Climate change [online]. Available: and other weather related events present unique http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details. php?nid=207464. [Accessed Oct, 23 2011]. challenges that require us to be more innovative. [15] Global Change. 2011. Planet under pressure. Editorial. Technologies do have the potential to help us to Vol. 76: 3. adapt to changes in climate. But these technologies [16] New Nation. 2011. Climate change and glacial retreat. have to be developed by means of greater research [online]. Available: http://nation.ittefaq.com. investments into climate change science [5]. [Accessed 05 August, 2011]. [17] The Nation Health. 2001. Global Air Pollution more REFERENCES deadly than traffic crashes. 15 p. [1] Daily Star. 2011. Vulnerable women, children need [18] Mahmood A S. 2012. Impact of Climate Change in special attention. [online]. Available: Bangladesh: The Role of Public Administration and http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details. Government’s Integrity. Journal of Ecology and the php?nid=208648. [Accessed Oct, 31, 2011] Natural Environment, 4(8): 223-240. [2] Daily Star. 2010. Climate change may increase deaths [19] IPCC 2001.Climate change 2001: the scientific basis. from HIV/AIDS. [online]. Available: Contribution of Working Group I to The Third http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details. Assessment Report of the IPCC. Cambridge: php?nid=137465. [Accessed July 11, 2011]. Cambridge University Press. [3] Friedman E. 2009. Flooding, Food and Climate [20] New Age. 2011. Climate change and Poverty. [online]. Change in Bangladesh. [online]. Available: Available: http://www.nytimes.com/cwire/2009/03/09/09climate http://newagebd.com/newspaper1/editorial/23687.ht wire-the-road-from-growing-rice-to-raising-shrimp-1 ml. [Accessed June 14, 2011]. 0034.html?pagewanted=all[Accessed 11 April 2013]. [21] Trenberth K.E, Hoar T.J. 1997. El Niño and climate [4] New Nation. 2011. Impact of climate change on peace change. Geophysical Research Letters, 24: 3057–60. and security- Achim Steiner. [online]. Available: [22] New Age. 2011. Sustained neglect of poor. [online]. http://nation.ittefaq.com. [Accessed 05 August, 2011] Available: [5] The Lancet 2011. Editorial: A commission on Climate http://newagebd.com/newspaper1/editorial/25942.ht Change. Vol: 373: 1659. ml. [Accessed July 14, 2011]. [6] Envoinfo. 2010. Much crowded planet can best adapt [23] WHO 2008. Climate change and health: Resolution of to rising sea levels. [online]. Available: the 61st World Health Assembly. [online]. 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[24] Yongyut T, Rob A, Eric A .2009.Projecting forest vulnerability in the semi-arid Tropics. Cambridge: tree distributions and adaptation to climate change in Cambridge University Press. northern Thailand. JENE, 1(3): 055-063. [42] Ara J G. 2009. Architecture for Living with Flood. [25] Avise JC. 2000. Phylogeography: the history and Unpublished B. Arch Thesis, BUET. formation of species. Harvard University Press, [43] Dixit A.2011. Adapting to Climate Change In Cambridge, Mass. USA. Bangladesh. [online]. Available: [26] Peralvo MF. 2004. Identification of Biodiversity http://www.wri.org/stories/2011/04/adapting-climate- Conservation Priorities Using Predictive Modeling: change-bangladesh [Accessed 11 April 2013]. An Application for the Tropical Dry Forests of Western Ecuador and northern Peru. M.Sc. Thesis. University of Texas. Austin. [27] FAO. 2011. State of forest genetic resources conservation and management in Bangladesh. [online]. Available: http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/ad870e/ad870e01.ht m. [Accessed: June 14, 2011]. [28] Daily Star.2011. Major disasters and management issues. [online]. Available: http://www.thedailystar.net/suppliments/2011/annive rsary/part6/pg10.htm. [Accessed June 14, 2011]. [29] ICDDRB. 2011. Our Strategy. [online]. Available: http://www.icddrb.org/what-we-do/publications/cat_ view/52-publications/10043-icddrb-documents/10055 -annual-report/10056 annual-report-2009/10063-our-strategy-. [Accessed June 14, 2011]. [30] ANN 2010. Food production in Bangladesh to feel climate heat. [online]. Available: http://www.asianewsnet.net/home/news.php?id=1482 2&sec=1. [Accessed June 14, 2011). [31] Streatfield K (2008). Population Challenges for Bangladesh in the Coming Decades. J Health Popul Nutr; 26(3): 261–272. [32] Planetizen. 2008. Bangla-Doomed? [online]. Available: http://www.planetizen.com/node/33615. [Accessed June 14, 2011]. [33] Kafiluddin A K M. 2005. Human Health, Disease and the Environment. [Accessed July 13, 2011] [34] Chimalaya. 2011. Adapting agriculture to climate change. [online]. Available: http://chimalaya.org/2011/01/02/adapting-agriculture -to-climate-change/. [Accessed June 14, 2011). [35] ICDDRB. 2011. Centre scientific forum on global population growth. 5:12. [36] New Age. 2011. River bank erosion, displacement and Dhaka should pursue joint basin management of . [online]. Available: http://newagebd.com/newspaper1/op-ed/33195.html. [Accessed September 19, 2011) [37] Daily Star. 2011. Water salinity and maternal health. [online]. Available: http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details. php?nid=188591. [Accessed June 14, 2011]. [38] Daily Star. 2011. Hasina invites bigger German investment.. [online]. Available: http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details. php?nid=207945.[Accessed Oct, 26, 2011). [39] Adger, W.N, S Huq, Brown K, Conway D, Hulme M.2003. Adaptation to climate change in the developing world. Progress in Development Studies 3,3: 179–195. [40] Daily Star. 2011. Combating climate change. [online]. Available: http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details. php?nid=193673. [Accessed July 13, 2011]. [41] Ribot, J.C., Magalhães, A.R. Panagides, S.S., editors, 1996: Climate variability, climate change and social

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E15 Diffraction of Sound as a Side Effect of Noise Pollution at Road Junctions of Dhaka City

Kumar Biswajit Debnath1 and SM Najmul Imam2 1Student of M. Arch Program, Department of Architecture, Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh; e-mail: [email protected] 2Associate Professor, Department of Architecture, Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh; e-mail: [email protected] Abstract A good number of buildings are located very close to road junctions in Dhaka City. Due to poor setback, building edges hinder visibility. Traffic noise travelling from a main road to a secondary road and vice versa, diffracts at building edges creating virtual images of noise source. This may cause confusion and lead to accidents. It is established that noise threatens human health. But it is not much explored how this unique phenomenon of sound diffraction at road junctions, as a side effect of noise pollution, may create confusion and cause accidents. From instrumental measurements and practical observations, this study identifies evidences of sound diffraction, virtual position of noise source and its effect on erroneous perception at road junctions. This paper suggests proper setbacks of buildings, appropriate geometry of building edge and suitable acoustical properties of finish materials to eliminate diffraction of sound at road junctions of Dhaka city.

INTRODUCTION Studies have established the fact that noise has Noise pollution in Dhaka city is increasing with adverse effect on human wellbeing, both physical the growing number of vehicles [1]. Road noise in and psychological [6, 7]. People of Dhaka city are Dhaka city comprises of a wide range of sound levels very much susceptible to this effect. Sound and frequencies. These are mainly due to vehicular diffraction at the road junctions is putting on another horns and movements [2]. Different studies show dimension to the problem by adding the risks of that the level of noise pollution in Dhaka city far erroneous perception and accidents. exceeds the acceptable limits set by the Department In prevailing situation, this study explores answers of Environment, Bangladesh [2-5]. to following questions: a) Is the position of buildings adjacent to road junctions creating diffraction of sound? b) Can diffraction affect our perception of sound source and cause accidents? c) What might be Generated the possible options addressing the problem? noise

Actual MATERIALS AND METHODS source Three main roads of three different parts of Dhaka city was selected as samples for field study, namely,  Kazi Nazrul Islam Road (Old Dhaka) Virtual source  Shat Masjid Road (Dhanmondi) Edge of Receiver diffraction  Gulshan 2 Road (Gulshan-2) Widths of sample main roads vary from 30.5 m to Diffracted noise 36.6 m and those of secondary roads vary from 4.6 m to 7.6 m at different locations. The sound pressure level (SPL) of these main roads and respective secondary roads were measured Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the effect of sound diffraction with a data logger type sound level meter (Lutron at a road junction SL-4023SD). At Kazi Nazrul Islam Road (Old Dhaka), a noise sample was digitally recorded using In addition to the burden of high population a high-fidelity microphone (Sony ECM PC-50) and a density, Dhaka city suffers from haphazard and laptop computer. To find prevalent frequency spectra, uncontrolled growth of built environment. National the noise sample was digitally analysed with open Building Code and Building Construction Acts are source software (Audacity Ver. 2.0.2). violated very often. As a result, a good number of The effect of diffraction was observed practically buildings are constructed at road junctions without comparing actual and virtual positions of noise proper setbacks from road edges. In this situation, the sources, which were mainly moving vehicles. phenomenon of sound diffraction and its effect of Subsequently, the change in type and magnitude of creating virtual and shifted image of noise source diffraction due to change of levels and frequencies of may create confusions for pedestrian and vehicular noise was also observed from secondary roads. movement and may cause accidents [Fig. 1].

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. Road junctions: General Description The selected three roads are: 1) Kaji Najrul Islam Road (Old Dhaka) 2) Shat Masjid Road (Dhanmondi) 3) Gulshan 2 Road (Gulshan-2) At Kazi Nazrul Islam Road (Old Dhaka), two road junctions were considered [Fig. 2]. At Junction 1, the main road width is 30.5 m and the secondary road width is 4.6 m. On the other hand, the main road width at the junction is 30.5 m and the secondary road width is 7.6 m. Shat Masjid Road (Dhanmondi) has width of 30.5 m [Fig. 3]. As it is a designed area, secondary roads are of same width of 6.1 m. So, Sound level of point A was only compared with other selected roads, as diffraction will depend on the wavelength of sound waves, size of the obstacle and also on the size of the gap the waves are travelling through [8]. Fig. 4 Gulshan 2 Road (Gulshan-2)

B. Sound pressure levels Sound pressure level (SPL) was measured at Kazi Nazrul Islam Road. For Road Junction 1, SPL are shown for main road and in secondary road respectively [Fig. 5.1-2]. The average SPL at main road is higher than that at secondary road. At main road, the SPL Sometimes increases up to 100 dBA, while in secondary road, it remains within 92 dBA. At the junction, the surface of the building was cement plaster.

Fig. 2 Kazi Nazrul Islam Road (Old Dhaka)

Fig. 5.1 Kazi Nazrul Islam Road (Old Dhaka) - Main road Junction 1

Fig. 3 Shat Masjid Road (Dhanmondi)

At Gulshan 2, the main road has a width of 36.6 m [Fig. 4]. It is also a designed urban area and widths of secondary roads are of same width of 4.9 m. So, sound level of point B was only compared with other Fig. 5.2 Kazi Nazrul Islam Road (Old Dhaka)- Secondary selected roads. Road, Junction 1

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For Road Junction 2 of Kazi Nazrul Islam Road, The data shown in Fig. 6.1 and Fig. 6.2 were Fig. 5.3 and Fig. 5.4 are showing the SPL measured collected at Shat Masjid Road (Dhanmondi). Graphs at main road and at secondary road respectively. The are showing the SPL at main road and secondary SPL in main road is higher than that at secondary road respectively at Road Junction A [Fig. 6.1-2]. road. The average SPL at main road is higher than that at secondary road. At the junction, the surface of the building was cement plaster. SPL is measured at Road Junction B of Gulshan 2 Road. Fig. 7.1 and Fig. 7.2 are showing the SPL in main road and in secondary road respectively. The SPL at main road is higher than that at secondary road. The surface of the building was cement plaster at the junction.

Fig. 5.3 Kazi Nazrul Islam Road (Old Dhaka)- Main Road, Junction 2

Fig. 7.1 Gulshan 2 Road (Gulshan 2)- Main Road

Fig. 5.4 Kazi Nazrul Islam Road (Old Dhaka)- Secondary Road, Junction 2

Fig. 7.2 Gulshan 2 Road (Gulshan 2)- Secondary Road

C. Comparison of SPL at road junctions The main roads have a constant source of high and low level of sound. At Shat Masjid Road and Gulshan-2 Road, the overall sound level is lower than that at Kazi Nazrul Islam Road. At Kazi Nazrul Fig. 6.1 Shat Masjid Road (Dhanmondi)- Main Road Islam Road, the highest sound level was 130 dBA, mainly due to loud horns of heavy vehicles. Among these three roads, Kazi Nazrul Islam Road is the noisiest. It is also found that the lowest SPL at these road junctions never goes below 60 dBA. From measured SPL, it can be concluded that noise at secondary roads are lower than that at main roads. D. Sound frequencies In Road Junction 2 of Kazi Nazrul Islam Road, a sample sound clip was digitally recorded and analyzed to derive frequency content. The Fig. 6.2 Shat Masjid Road (Dhanmondi)- Secondary Road frequency-SPL graphs [Fig. 8.1-3] demonstrate three situations.

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First situation [Fig. 8.1] contains usual noise in the second situations. These lower frequencies diffracts road without any noise from traffic horn or vehicle more than that of higher frequencies [8]. As the engine. There was no specific noise source. Only a percentage of lower frequencies is greater, diffraction regular background noise was present due to people is expected to be higher. and vehicles at a far distance. It is found that SPL is E. Effects of diffraction low and higher frequency is less in percentage. Second situation [Fig. 8.2] shows existence of It was clear from observations that a high level noise from a vehicle engine, in addition to the horn of a bus at main road was easily heard and its previous situation. It demonstrates an increase of location was relatively easier to perceive from a percentage in the lower frequencies. secondary road. But it was very difficult to perceive Third situation [Fig. 8.2] includes loud horns in the location of a low level noise source. Most of the addition to the previous two situations and graph motorized vehicles on the road produce noise of shows the increase in both high and low frequencies. lower level at about 60 dBA. For example, the The surface of the building was cement plaster at position of a bus at the main road cannot be this junction. determined from the secondary road from its low Relationship of frequency and SPL [Fig. 8.1-3] level engine noise. shows presence of both lower and higher frequencies Similarly, it was found that sources of lower of noise at the road junction. Noise clip contains frequency noise were more difficult to locate due to greater percentage of lower frequencies, which are greater diffraction. Thus, the presence of diffraction more effective for causing diffraction [8]. was noticeable at the road junctions and it was more apparent for low SPL and low frequency noise. F. Suggestions To address the problem of diffraction and subsequent risks of accidents at road junctions, following suggestions may be considered:  The development of built environment should follow building codes. Keeping adequate setbacks and round curbs at road junctions are two significant parameters. This will decrease effect of diffraction and as well as increase visibility. This Fig. 8.1 The frequency-SPL graph for first situation option may substantially mitigate risk of accident.  Selection of appropriate geometry for building edges can control the effect of diffraction [9]. A chamfered or filleted edge may redirect diffracted sound waves to a desired direction.  Choice of proper building and finish materials, particularly those with necessary acoustical absorption quality, may be used at building edges to reduce the effect of diffraction.  The boundary walls of the buildings at road Fig. 8.2 The frequency-SPL graph for second situation junctions may spare enough pedestrian space that can ensure sufficient offset of the right angle corners from road junctions. CONCLUSION It is evident that the diffraction of sound exists in the road junctions of Dhaka city. This may increase the risk of accident as the position of the noise source cannot be perceived correctly. It is also observed that noise of lower SPL and lower frequencies are more susceptible for greater diffraction. Fig. 8.3 The frequency-SPL graph for third situation Exact type and magnitude of diffraction in relation to different road widths, positions of the building edges, different sound levels and frequencies are not The frequency-SPL graphs are showing the spike clearly identified due to the limited scope of this in the lower sound frequencies both in first and study. second situation [Fig. 8.1 and Fig. 8.2]. In third This study bears prospects for further research on situation [Fig. 8.3], there is a spike in higher traffic identification of type and magnitude of diffraction; frequencies, when the loud horns reinforced first and its interactions with different factors. On this regard,

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computer based advanced numerical analysis including Boundary Element Method and simulation techniques may be helpful. REFERENCES [1] Roy, R., Rahman, M. A., and Uddin, M. J. 2006. Noise Induced Hearing Loss Assessment of the Road-Noise Affected People of Dhaka City. Undergraduate Thesis, Department of Environmental Sciences, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka. 1 pp. [2] Department of Environment, United Nations Environment Programme Regional Resource Centre for Asia and the Pacific (UNEP RRC.AP) and Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS). 2005. Dhaka City State of Environment 2005. [Online]. 55 p. Available at: http://www.ekh.unep.org/?q=node /2319 [Accessed 18 July 2013]. [3] Alam, J. B., Rauf. A.F.M.A., Ahmed, M. F. (2001). Traffic Induced Noise Pollution in Dhaka City. Journal of Civil Engineering, the Institution of Engineers, Bangladesh, 29(1): 55-63. [4] Hassan A., Alam, J.B. 2013. Traffic Noise Levels at Different Locations in Dhaka City and Noise Modelling for Construction Equipments, International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications, 3(2): 1032-1040. [5] Haq, M. A., Islam, M. M., Ali, M. S., Haque, M. F. and Akhand, M. M. R. 2012. Status of Noise Pollution in Mixed Areas of Dhaka City: a GIS Approach, Journal of Environmental Science & Natural Resources, 5(1): 09-17. [6] Stansfeld S., Haines, M. and Brown B. 2000. Noise and Health in the Urban Environment, Reviews on Environmental Health, 15(1-2): 43-82. [7] Ising, H., Kruppa, B. 2004. Health Effects Caused by Noise: Evidence in the Literature from the Past 25 Years. Noise and Health, 6(22): 5-13. [8] Everest, F. A., Pohlmann, K. C. 2009. Master Handbook of Acoustics. New York: Mc Graw Hill. pp.107-115. [9] Ishizuka T., Fujiwara K. 2013. Full-scale Tests of Reflective Noise-reducing Devices for Balconies on High-rise Buildings. J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 134(2): EL185-EL190

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E16 The Consequences of Landuse Changes and Impact on Groundwater Aquifer in and around Cox’s Bazar Town, Bangladesh Ashraf Ali Seddique1*, S.K. Sabbir Hossain1, M.R Shaibur2, M. Ashraful Haque3 K. Matin Ahmed4, Nur Alam5, Moklesur Rahman1 1Dept. of Petroleum & Mining Engineering, Jessore Science & Technology University, Jessore7408, 2Dept. of Environmental Science & Technology, Jessore Science & Technology University, Jessore 3Marine Fisheries & Technology Station, Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute, Cox’s Bazar 4Dept. of Geology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000 5Dept. of Chemical Engineering, Jessore Science & Technology University, Jessore7408 *e-mail: [email protected] Abstract In recent years, landuse pattern of the Cox’s Bazar town has changed significantly where with the rapid expansion of settlement area. To explore the environmental consequences of landuse changes were assessed in the Cox’s Bazar town and its adjoining area at south-eastern part of Bangladesh. Archived remotely sensed images of Landsat 4 & 5 TM during the period of 1989-2010 and QuickBard QB1 of 2011 were interpreted using ERDAS Imagine image processing software along with ArcGIS 9.3.1 to produce landuse maps of the area. Due to rapid expansion of urbanization, the impact on groundwater aquifer was also assessed by the changes of groundwater level (GWL), and electrical conductivity (EC). Landuse maps derived from Landsat imageries for 1989 to 2010 shows that landuse change pattern has increased substantially over the last 21 years. Due to the rapid urban sprawl, the agricultural land has a net decrease of 61.46%, settlement has increased by 245.64% and water bodies have decreased 63.41%. Detailed landuse map based on QuickBird image of 2011 shows that the main landuse was settlement (49.25%), agricultural (21.30%), and water bodies (5.03%). High EC values ranged from 300-2200µS/cm (in dry season) to 200-1800µS/cm (in wet season) showed a general trend parallel to coastline and values indicated that saline water moves towards land. Groundwater salinization has also been arising from isolated areas were also assessed by high EC. GWL hydrograph shows a declining trend which is conducive for saline water intrusion. This study have significant implications for urban planning and decision making in an effort to protect the groundwater resource in the area studied, and the techniques described here can be used in other areas as a base line for projections of alternative future landscapes.

INTRODUCTION patterns certainly provide many social and economic The Cox’s Bazar town is rapidly growing coastal benefits, but inappropriate landuse and urbanization modern city and located along the in may result in serious environmental degradation, [2, South-Eastern Bangladesh. The study area lies 3] including increased water pollution and decreased between 21022/ to 21030/ N latitudes and between water supply [4-6], can alter the natural hydrologic 91058/ to 9202/ E longitudes (Fig. 1) covering an area condition within a watershed [7, 8]. A number of of about 7km2 and the population on about 0.6 studies stated that the outcome of this alteration is million (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 2011). The typically reflected in increases in the volume and rate area is bounded in north and east by Bakkhali River of surface runoff and decreases in groundwater and in the west by Bay of Bengal and Jhilwangja recharge and base flow [9-12]. Other impacts union in the south. It is well known as a tourist place associated with change of discharge behavior due to and famous for its plenty of natural resources. Due to urbanization include modified watershed water the rapid expansion of tourism with increasing balance [13], and increased erosion of river channel population, numerous tourism related infrastructures beds and banks [14]. Effective land assessment, such as multistoried hotel, motel, guest house etc. planning and management at local and regional scales have been built and still now construction is going on. are dependent on a sound knowledge of the distribution For meeting demand of fresh water for thousands of and variability of landuse within the basin area. tourists along with domestic, aquaculture, and Compared to aerial photography or ground surveys, agricultural purposes, these areas have been satellite imagery is an excellent tool for accurate and extensively utilizing pumped water from the cost-effective assessment of multi-temporal landuse underlying aquifers. As a result, risk of saline water change at a regional scale. To date, however, long- intrusion has been increasing significantly over the term (spanning both pre and post-urbanization last few years in the prime tourist resort of periods) and spatially explicit monitoring of the Bangladesh and there are some anecdotal evidences urbanization of the study area, together with of sea water intrusions in Cox’s Bazar town [1]. For comprehensive studies of the groundwater quality meeting demand of increasing population urbanizations problems have not been conducted. It is of great rapidly grab Cox’s Bazar’s natural land and it affects importance to study on the landuse change and water and environment. The changes of landuse identify groundwater pollution sources and predict

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their future status in an effort to restore the water processing and preparation of landuse maps of the quality of Cox’s Bazar town at local scale is of study area. Landsat 4 & 5 TM satellite images were significance for decision making on the optimized analyzed to produce the time series landuse maps. allocation and rational exploitation of land resources. Whereas the current detailed landuse map of the The aim of this study is to detect the processes and study area was produced from the QuickBard QB1 characteristics of landuse changes in Cox’s Bazar that is available in Google earth. A GIS layer with town, based on the historical archived remotely 100 X100 m (1 ha) grid cells was created based on sensed images of Landsat 4 & 5 TM during the the landuse data sets. The Iterative Self–Organizing period of 1989-2010 and QuickBard QB1 of 2011, Data Analysis (ISODATA) clustering algorithm has and to assess the impact of rapid urbanization and been used to derive Agriculture, Airport, Forest, landuse changes pattern over the period on ground Harb-Shrubs, Mangrove, Moist land, Settlement and water aquifers by the measurements of groundwater Water class. The “Vegetative” classes have been level and electrical conductivity. derived using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI).

Table 1. Characteristics of the Landsat4 & 5 TM sensor systems Item name Parameters Satellite Landsat 4 & 5 Sensor TM (Thematic Mapper) Spatial Resolution 30 meters Spectral Bands 7 Bands Nominal orbital altitude (km) 705 Orbital Type Polar Sun Synchronous Inclination (degree) 98.2 Receptivity 16 days

Table 2. Characteristics of Projection System Item name Parameters Bangladesh Transverse Projection Name Mercator (BTM) Projection Type Transverse Mercator Spheroid Name Everest Datum name Everest Scale factor at central meridian 0.999600 Longitude of central meridian 90:00:00.000000E Latitude of origin of projection 0:00:00.000000N Fig. 1. Location map of the study area False easting 500000.000000m False northing -2000000.000000m MATERIALS AND METHODS C. Groundwater level and electrical conductivity A. Archived remotely sensed images (EC) The historical archive of Landsat imagery Groundwater levels were continuously monitored provided a unique and valuable data source for and measured by Bangladesh Water Development tracking changes in the landscape. Landsat 4 & 5 TM Board (BWDB) with the help of piezometer network. (30m resolution) during the period of February 22, Long term groundwater level data were taken from 1989 – February 24, 2010 and QuickBard QB1 (0.6m the station of CT002 (Cox’s Bazar Sadar) and surface resolution) of May10, 2011 were classified to derive contours were constructed and interpreted with help land-use data-sets at scale of 1:100,000 after being of ArcGIS 9.3.1. For assessing the saline water radiantly corrected and geo-referenced. Since the intrusion and for evaluating overall dissolved solids contemporaneous ground truth data were not in the wells of the research area, EC data were available, an unsupervised classification method was collected from different types of water wells i.e., employed (ERMapper 6.3). Detailed characteristics shallow (<50m depth), intermediate (50-100m depth) of Landsat 4 & 5 satellite image and projection and deep (>100m depth) wells using portable parameters are given in Table 1 & 2 respectively. instruments (D-55, Horiba Techno Service, Ltd. and B. Satellite image analysis SC82, Yokogawa Electric Co.). EC of 148 water supply wells were measured twice in April (dry ERDAS Imagine image processing software along season) and September (wet season) of 2012. with ArcGIS 9.3.1 software was used for the

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Fig. 5 shows the landuse dynamics in the region in A. Landuse changes based on Landsat imagery terms of aerial extent for each class. Statistics of landuse changes during the 2011 are presented in Due to rapid urban expansion and economic Table 4. It is noted that the main landuse was development, Cox’s Bazar has experienced one of settlement, covering an area of 49.25%; agricultural the greatest rates of change in landuse during the last ranked second (21.30%); water bodies (5.03%), 21 years. Figs. 2a & b show the landuse maps marshy land (4.91%), forest including hill and derived from Landsat imagery for 1989 and 2010, mangrove forest (8.38%). The remaining areas were respectively. Fig. 3 shows the landuse dynamics in shared by airport, road, gher, salt pan, barren hill and the region from 1989 to 2010 in terms of aerial extent others (11.14%). for each class. Statistics of landuse changes during the 1989 to 2010 are presented in Table 3. In 1989, Table 3. Statistics of landuse change derived from Landsat the dominant landuse was harb-shrubs, covering one 4 & 5 TM satellite images during 1989 and 2010 third of the area (29.58%); water bodies ranked respectively. second (27.29%); agricultural (12.89%), settlement Sl. Class Area (ha) Covering Area (ha) Covering (12.69%), sandbar (9.9%), forest (6.44%). The Name 1989 Area (%) 2010 Area (%) remaining areas were shared by airport and moist 1989 2010 land (1.16%). On the other hand, in 2010, the 1 Water 1315.98 27.29 834.48 17.31 dominant landuse was settlement, covering a major Bodies part of the area (31.39%); harb-shrubs ranked second 2 Moist land 3.78 0.08 255.33 5.30 (23.60%), water bodies (17.31%), agricultural 3 Agriculture (7.92%), sandbar (7.27%), forest (5%), moist land 621.27 12.89 381.87 7.92 (5.30%). The remaining areas were shared by airport land 4 and mangrove (2.21%). In the past 21 years results Mangrove 0 0.00 34.11 0.71 shows that the rapid urban sprawl has resulted in a 5 large amount of agricultural land being replaced with Harb-Shrub 1426.32 29.58 1137.78 23.60 settlements and indicates that agricultural land has a 6 net decrease of 61.46%, and i.e., settlement has Forest 310.5 6.44 240.84 5.00 7 increased by 245.64%. Results also show that the Sand bar 479.61 9.95 350.64 7.27 water bodies have been decreased 63.41%. 8 B. Landuse changes based on QuickBird image Airport 52.29 1.08 72.72 1.51 9 Fig. 4 shows the detailed landuse map based on the Settlement 611.73 12.69 1513.65 31.39 analysis of QuickBird image of 2011 and evident that landuse changes have been rapid in recent history. Total 4821.48 4821.42

Fig. 2. (a) Landuse maps of 22 Feb.1989 Landsat 4 TM satellite, (b) 24 Feb. 2010 derived from Landsat 5 TM satellite image

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Fig. 3. Landuse changes during last 21 years (1989-2010) Fig. 5. Landuse dynamics based on QuickBird-QB1 image based on Landsat 4 & 5 TM images

Table 4. Statistics of detailed landuse derived from Quickbird QB1satellite image. Area (ha) Covering Area Sl. Class Name 2011 (%), 2011 1 Water 71 5.03 2 Road 5.69 0.40 3 Mangrove forest 47.12 3.34 4 Sand bars 14.3 1.01 5 Marshy land 69.29 4.91 6 Agriculture land 300.83 21.30 7 Gher 72.49 5.13 8 Airport 6.93 0.49 9 Settlements 695.61 49.25 10 Salt pan 13.05 0.92 11 Barren hill 29.25 2.07 12 Hill forest 71.11 5.04

Fig. 4. Detailed landuse map of May 2011 derived from 13 Others 15.64 1.11 QuickBird QB1 satellite image Total 1412.31

Fig. 6. Spatial distribution of EC in shallow tubewells (<50m depth) water to compare the saline condition between the (a) dry, and (b) wet seasons

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C. Groundwater EC and groundwater levels in the alteration of dry and wet season is obvious from the area Fig, 8 and long term groundwater level hydrograph Groundwater EC values in the study area vary with exhibits a declining trend indicating over exploitation location and depth. Most of the sampled wells was of groundwater and conducive for saline water found at shallow depth (<50m) and fluctuation of EC intrusion in the study area. value was observed at this depth. In wet season, lower range (200-1800µS/cm) of EC was noticed than dry season (300-2200µS/cm) in shallow depth and shows spatial variation over the study area. EC distribution map (Fig. 6 a & b) for shallow wells (< 50m in depth) shows the fluctuation of EC values and a zone of higher EC (>200μS/cm with a maximum of 2200μS/cm) is located in western and northern part of the town, covering the Laboni, Suganda, Kalatoli, Jauitola, Nuniar chara and Khurushkul areas and some isolated parts at the center of the town. High EC value indicates saline water and shows a general trend parallel to coastline and values indicate saline water moves towards land. Fig. 7 also exhibits higher EC values fluctuation both in dry and wet are restricted to shallow depth wells (<50m). No significant change occurs between dry and wet season at the wells having depth of 50-100m, and deeper (>100m) depth of well. But, deeper wells Fig. 7. Depth profiles distribution of EC for both dry and having relatively higher EC values than the wet seasons to assess the salinity in terms of well intermediate depth of wells indicate that excessive abstraction technology. abstraction of groundwater is assumed to be main cause of the saline water intrusion. The period

Fig. 8. Long-term groundwater level hydrograph of the study area recorded from BWDB well No. CT002.

CONCLUSION in paleobeach (backdune) area along the coast line is Urban expansion is a major driving force altering a greater threat to the groundwater quality than that local and regional hydrology and non-point source in other areas. The results of this study have (NPS) pollution. The Cox’s Bazar town, one of the significant implications for urban planning and rapidly growing eastern modern coastal city of decision making in an effort to protect and remediate Bangladesh, has undergone urbanization in recent water and habitat quality of Cox’s Bazar town, and decades and landuse pattern of the area has changed the techniques described here can be used in other significantly. As a result, water body and wet lands areas as a base line for projections of alternative are being diminished and natural recharge potential is future landscapes. decreasing. This study also demonstrated that a ACKNOWLEDGMENT landuse change together with groundwater pollution i.e., saline water intrusion will be capable of The authors thank to HEQEP (Higher Education generating useful information about future Quality Enhancement Project) and the World Bank urbanization and its possible environmental impact. for financial support. Special thanks to Mr. Suzon However, this study implies that current development CGIS, Dhaka for his technical support.

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REFERENCES [1] Risalat, 2013. Delineation of Fresh-Saline Water Interface in and around Cox’s Bazar Town, Bangladesh, Dept. of Geology, Dhaka University, 2012, (unpublished M.S thesis). [2] YH Kim and JJ Baik. 2005. Spatial and temporal structure of the urban heat island in Seoul. Journal of Applied Meteorology 44. [3] SQ Zhao, LJ Da, ZY Tang, HJ Fang, K Song, JY Fang. 2006. Ecological consequences of rapid urban expansion: Shanghai, China. Frontier in Ecology and Environment 4 (7): 341–346. [4] JG Liu, J Diamond. 2005. China’s environment in a globalizing world. Nature 435: 1179–1186. [5] M Shao, XY Tang, YH Zhang, WJ Li. 2006. Environmental pollution of city clusters in China: current situation and challenges. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 4 (7): 353–361. [6] USEPA. 2001. Our Built and Natural Environments: A Technical Review of the Interactions between Landuse, Transportation, and Environ-mental Quality 2001 p. 4. [7] Brain L Morris, Adrian R. Lawrence, and Stephen SD Foster. 1997. Sustainable groundwater management for fast-growing cities: Mission achievable or mission impossible? Groundwater in the urban Environment: Problems, Processes and Management, Chilton et al. (eds) [8] WJ Young, FM Marston, JR Davis, 1996. Nutrient export and landuse in Australian catchments. Journal of Environmental Management, 47: 165–183. [9] WR Carter. 1961. Magnitude and frequency of floods in suburban areas. US Geological Survey Professional Paper 424-B: B9-11. [10] DG Andersen. 1970. Effects of urban development of floods in Northern Virginia. US Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 2001-C: 26. [11] TR Lazaro. 1990. Urban Hydrology, a Multidisciplinary Perspective. Technomic publishing company, Lancaster. [12] AL Moscrip and DR Montgomery. 1997. Urbanization flood, frequency and salmon abundance in Puget Lowlan Streams. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 33 (6), 1289–1297. [13] N Fohrer, S Haverkamp, K Eckhardt, HG Frede. 2001. Hydrologic response to landuse changes on the watershed scale. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Part B: Hydrology, Oceans and Atmosphere 26 (7–8): 577–582. [14] M Doyle, J Harbor, C Rich, A Spacie. 2000. Examining the effects of urbanization on streams using indicators of geomorphic stability. Physical Geography 21: 155–181.

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E17 Model Analysis and its Evidence for Particle Removability of Pressed Non-woven Fabric Membrane *T. Oike, *S. Manabe, **M. Kim, ***K. Yoshimura, ***K. Shuzenji *Sepa-Sigma Inc., **MK-Sigma Inc., ***Fukuoka Industrial Technology Center, Japan Abstract Low cost membranes for water treatment using a pressed non-woven fabric membrane are proposed. The pressed non-woven fabric membranes are applied in the novel separation technologies of the pore diffusion separation under the flow fractionation. The particle removal was evaluated by both computer simulation and experimental method. The simulation demonstrated that when the particle size increased the probability of the particle ejection through the membrane pores decreased and when the particle located far from the membrane surface the above probability decreased also. The experimental results showed the similar tendency to the model computer analysis.

INTRODUCTION fractionation effect that occurs by quickened flow Due to the increase in the world population and the rate [5]. The flow fractionation effect is observed in economic development, the water shortage has blood flow [6]. By the use of this effect we may become a serious problem. To solve the water maintain a stable long-term filtration performance. shortage, many technologies of water treatment have For example, red blood cells move to the center of been developed. The water treatment required for the blood vessel by the effect resulting the stable developing countries must be small size, easy to filtration [7, 8]. When we use this effect in the handle and low cost, since it is not easy to build filtration process of aqueous solution, it is possible to large-scale infrastructure. A problem of a centralized remove particles by low pressure filtration. The flow city is also needed to concern. Due to old facilities of fractionation effect is observed only in the case of the domestic infrastructure, it will be good chance to shear stress to the particles exceed over the critical convert them to such small size equipments. value that originates the rotational motion of the In the case of installing small equipments, the particles in a flow stream. This indicates that the flow operation system must be simple. A membrane stream of a given aqueous solution must be the separation may be the most effective for these laminar flow and the flow should give the shear rate demands. The current membrane separation is known to the particles. The shear rate, τ, is given by the to be very expensive due to the high production cost following equation (1). of the membrane. τ = V / t … … … … … (1) In the previous paper, the pressed non-woven Where V is the flow rate (mm/s), t is the width of fabric membrane for water treatment has been the flow path (mm). When the particles size are a proposed as the low cost membranes [1], and the sub-micron, more than 20 sec-1 shear rate works novel low cost separation technology such as the effectively on the rotational motion of the particles. pore diffusion and the flow fractionation has been Even in the case of the pressed non-woven fabric evaluated. membrane, the flow fractionation and also the pore The pore diffusion, defined as the diffusion of a diffusion may be applicable since the surface of the substance in a pore of a membrane, is the separation membrane is smooth[1] although its mean pore size technique under no plugging [2]. Water molecule exceeds over 1 μm. We can expect the development passes through pores in the membrane by diffusion of the novel low cost and small scale equipment for and also is filtered through a bulk flow under the low water treatment. trans membrane pressure such as less than 0.1 atm. In this paper, we will evaluate the particle The particles shift their position to the place where removability using both methods of the computer shows the higher flow rate. This shift has been simulation and experimental filtration with the named as the flow fractionation [3, 4] originated membrane. The wastewater containing particles may from the σ effect [3]. The particles cannot pass be employed and the separation performances through pores of the membrane, and then, is including particle removability may be evaluated. separated from water. One of the features of the pore We intend to show (1)the separation mechanism for diffusion is high level of particle removability. On the novel separation technology including the pore the other hand, slow filtration rate is a disadvantage. diffusion and the flow fractionation, and The flow fractionation separation has been (2)confirmation of the effectiveness of the no-woven proposed for the porous membrane [4]. The fabric membrane to the solution treated with the separation mechanism is based on the flow nucleating reagent.

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C. Computer simulation of particle ejection A computerized simulating software, STREAM ver.8 (CRADLE Inc.), was used for the estimation of the location of the particle in the laminar flow as the function of time and of the position of the particle in generation. The ejection means that the particle goes through out from primary side(original waste water side) to secondary side(filtrate side) via membrane. The flow pass had the orthogonal cross section of 2 Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the flow fractionation mm x 2 mm x 200 mm (Fig.2). The flow rate in the mechanism: The lengths of arrows stand for the amount of primary side, Vin, was 92 mm/s. The particle size flow rate and are represented by a parabolic curve. was selected 3 sizes of 1, 10, 100 μm. The distance from particles to membrane surface, h, was 250-750 METHODS μm. The filtrate speed condition, Vyout, was 0.022-0.33 mm/s. A. Pressed non-woven fabric membrane Regenerated cellulose filament non-woven fabric (The non-woven fabric membrane) was prepared by copper ammonium process (100g / m² basis weight, 390 μm thickness, Ra=21.1 μm surface roughness), and roller pressed to more than 50 % of the compression rate in a wet condition by a mechanical roller press machine. The average pore size of the original non-woven fabric was about 100 μm including support mesh pore size. Average pore size of the membrane 2rf was calculated by putting the filtration rate of distilled Fig.2: Model analysis condition water J into the following formula (2). D. Experimental tevaluation of filtration performance The filtration performance was evaluated by filtering waste water through the pressed non-woven Where J is the observed value in (mL / min), d is the fabric membrane using the filtration equipment membrane thickness (μm), ⊿ P is pressure designed for the pore diffusion and the flow difference (mmHg), A is the membrane area (m2). fractionation. The waste water includes the nucleated Prρ is porosity of the membrane and in calculated particle of toxic materials. The particles were filtered though the eq. of "1 - (cellulose density / membrane through the pressed non-woven fabric membrane. density)". η is the viscosity of water. The Filtration performance was evaluated by The compression ratio was calculated with the measuring the particle size and the quantity of the thickness of the membrane before and after pressing. particles in the raw water and the filtrate Compression ratio is given by the following equation RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (2). A. Pressed non-woven fabric membrane Compression ratio = (T1-T2)/T1×100 (2) The pressed non-woven fabric membrane was Where T1 is the thickness of non-woven fabric prepared under the same condition in the previous membrane before pressing, T2 is the thickness after paper [1]. The compression rate was 52.6%. The pressing. average pore size was about 8 μm after the B. Nucleation of particles in raw water compression. A waste water was employed as a raw B. Nucleation of particles in raw water water where the particles were generated. The The particle size in the raw water was 17 μm as a sewage was sampled from a sewage farm of the city peak in the distribution curve vs log (particle size) of Kitakyushu in Japan. Original COD of the solution and 31 μm as average size (Fig.3). There were two was 185 ppm. peaks located at 17 μm and 1 gentle curve of After, 40 ppm of sodium hypochlorite and 50 ppm 0.1-1μm. It might be occurred by stirring of a of ferric chloride added to the sewage waste water circulation pump of the filtration equipment. for oxidation and mixed by aeration in 30 minutes, 500 ppm of Ca(OH)2 was added for nucleation and C. Model analysis of particle ejection mixed by aeration in 30 minutes. The size and The simulation results are summarized in Fig.4. quantity of particles were measured by Laser particle The figure shows the area, expressed by the size analyzer LS 230 (Beckman Coulter inc.). co-ordinates of Vyout (y-axis) and particles size

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(x-axis), where the particles at the heights of 250 μm, Fig. 6 is the particle size distributions of raw water 500 μm and 750 μmfrom the membrane surface and two filtrates. Filtrate 1 indicates the filtrate retain in the flow without ejection through pores. In obtained under 0.33mm/s of Vyout, and the Filtrate 2 the case of further distance between a particle and indicates the filtrate obtained under 0.091mm/s. The membrane surface, the particle ejection was decreased. Filtrate of 0.022mm/s could not be evaluated through In the case of bigger particle, the ejection probability a light scattering method because of too clear. A of the particle at the same position is decreased. comparison between the solution before treatment and the filtrate 1 indicates that particles over 40 μm were removed by the filtration, and the filtrate 2 indicates that particles over 3 μm were removed.

Fig.3: Particle size distribution of the raw water

Fig. 6. Particle size distribution of the raw water and the filtrate; Filtrate1: Vyout=0.33mm/s,; Filtrate2: Vyout= 0.091mm/s

In the filtrate 2, it has no peak around 10μm. It means the nucleated particles around 10 μm stay in the primary side in 0.091mm/s of Vyout. As for two big peaks around 1 μm of the filtrate 2, bigger particles than 1 μm in the primary side might be comminuted by the shear stress of the circulation Fig.4: Particle retentive zone exhibited by two-dementional pump of the filtration equipment. map of Vyout and particle size; Zone I stands for the region where the particle located at h=250um remains in the flow CONCLUSION solution under Vin of 92mm/s, Zone I+II stands for the The novel membrane separation technology remaining region for the particle at h=500um and Zone I+II+III stands for the remaining region for the particle at employed both of the pore diffusion and the flow h=750um. fractionation mechanisms worked effectively to the solution treated with the nucleating reagent for the removal of particles with the non-woven fabric D. Experimental evaluation of particle removal membrane. The removability was originated from the Fig. 5 shows experimental filtrate of each of Vyout. flow fractionation mechanism and the activity of the The rightmost is the raw water and it has the most Brownian motion in addition to the sieving of pores. vivid color. With slower Vyout speed, its color The contribution of the flow fractionation was becomes clear. It means slower Vyout gives higher reproducible by the computer simulation of the removability of the particle with wide range of size. movement of a particle in fluid flow. The experimental filtrates showed mostly the same results of the model simulation. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are deeply grateful to Mr. Takeuchi, Asahi Kasei Fibers Corp. for his enormous supports such as providing membrane samples and helpful comments. Also, we would like to thank FAIS, Kitakyushu Foundation for the Advancement of Industry, Science and Technology, for its financial supports.

REFERENCES

Fig. 5. Observation of solutions before and after treatment; [1] T. Oike, S. Manabe, T. Itai, S. Takeshita, From left side, the solutions are treated under “Characterization and filtration performance of Vyout=0.022mm/s, 0.091mm/s and 0.33mm/s, respectively, pressed non-woven membrane”, Proceedings of the and the solution at right end is the solution before treatment. International Conference on Environmental Aspects

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of Bangladesh, 2012, pp. 27-29 [2] [2] S. Manabe, S. Hanada, Japan patent No.4803341 [3] [3] K. Kamide, S. Manabe, “Mechanism of Permselectivity of Porus Polymeric Membranes in Ultrafiltration Process”, Polymer Journal, vol. 13, 1981, pp. 459-479 [4] [4] R. Hartmann, S. Williams, “Flow field-flow fractionation as an analytical technique to rapidly quantitate membrane fouling”, J. of Membrane Science, vol. 209, 2002, pp. 93-106 [5] [5] S. Kim, S. Lee, C. Kim, J. Cho, “A new membrane performance index using flow-field flow fractionation (fl-FFF)”, Desalination, vol. 249, 2009, pp. 169-179 [6] [6] N. Maeda, “Microcirculation of Erythrocytes in Relation to Their Rheological Properties”, Fluid Dynamics Research, vol. 21, 2002, pp. 129-134 [7] [7] N. Maeda, “Blood Flow Structure Related to Red Cell Flow”, Jpn. J. Physiol., vol. 51, 2001, pp. 19-30 [8] T. Pan, T. Wang, “Dynamical Simulation of Red Blood Cell Rheology in Microvessels”, Int. J. of Numerical & Modeling, vol. 6, 2009, pp. 455-473

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E18 Antibacterial Activity of Cajanus cajan Leaves against Industrial Wastewater Bacteria Collected from Kushtia, Bangladesh Mst. Shirina Khatun1, Md. Ruhul Amin1, Md. Manirujjaman2, Md. Monirul Islam1*, Hossain Md. Faruque1 1Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Islamic University, Kushtia, Bangladesh 2Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Rajshahi Universty, Rajshahi, Bangladesh *e-mail: [email protected] Abstract The beneficial effects of extracts from many types of plants that are used as antimicrobial agents have been claimed for centuries. The purpose of this project work was to examine the effectiveness of leaves extracts of Cajanus cajan L. for the control of growth and survival of microorganisms isolated from industrial wastes water including (tannery wastes water, tobacco wastes water and sugar wastes water) bacterial strains. All of these three industrial waste water bacteria showed colorful colony in MacConkey Agar Media. The Cajanus cajan leaves was extracted with different solvents viz., ethanol, ethyl acetate, chloroform, and n-hexane. Inhibition of growth was tested by the paper disc diffusion method. Among used solvent tested, ethanol and ethyl acetate extract exposed better antibacterial activity against testing samples (viz., sugar industry waste water and Tannery waste water bacteria). Antibacterial activity was assessed by inhibition diameters which were found to range from 8–25 mm for the four extracts against all the sources of bacterial strains. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) for the extracts were determined by two fold serial dilutions method and they ranged from 250–62.5mg/mL against all the sources of bacterial strains.

INTRODUCTION agents against different industrial waste water Throughout the world, various types of plants are bacteria. continuously using for the treatment of various MATERIALS AND METHODS ailments. Medicinal plants are rich bioresources of drugs [1]. A number of interesting outcomes have A. Source of plant been found with the use of a mixture of natural The leaves of C.cajan were collected from the products or plant extracts to treat diseases [2]. The local areas of Bheramara, District: Kushtia, antimicrobial properties of plants have been Bangladesh. It was authenticated from the proper investigated by a number of researchers worldwide source and a voucher specimen No: 01 was deposited though thorough biological evaluation of plants in the department of Biotechnology & Genetic extracts is vital to ensure their efficacy and safety. Engineering, Islamic University, Kushtia, Chemical constituents of the plant include glycosides, Bangladesh. flavonoids, alkaloids, essential fatty acid [3]. B. Extraction of plant Medicinal plants are the richest bio-resource of drugs Collected leaves were cleaned and shade-dried. of traditional systems of medicine, modern medicines, The dried leaves were pulverized by a mechanical nutraceuticals, food supplements, folk medicines, grinder and passed through a 20-mesh sieve. A pharmaceutical intermediates and chemical entities powdered leaf (500 g) was successively extracted for synthetic drugs [1]. A number of interesting with petroleum ether, Chloroform and ethanol using outcomes have been found with the use of a mixture a Soxhlet apparatus and water extracted by cold of natural products to treat diseases, most notably the maceration. The extraction was carried out for 24 hrs synergistic effects and poly pharmacological at room temperature with mild shaking. The filtrates application of plant extracts [2]. The development of were collected in different beakers. The filtrates were pharmaceuticals begins with identification of active evaporated to dryness in a steady air current for principles, detailed biological assays and dosage about 24 h in a previously weighed Evaporation formulations, followed by clinical studies to establish dishes (porcelain dishes). After evaporation, the safety, efficacy and pharmacokinetic profile of the dishes were re-weighed and the differences in their new drug [4]. weights before and after evaporation were calculated Cajanus cajan belongs to the family Fabaceae, and recorded. The plant extracts (residues) were commonly called pigeon pea and locally known as stored in a clean sterile container for further use. ‘adhor’ in Bangladesh.It is an important grain legume crop. Cajanus cajan is widely used as food. They C. Sources of Microorganisms contain high level of protein and the important amino Three (3) samples of waste water were collected acids methionine, lysine and tryptophan. The green from the following sources:- leave of Cajanus cajan is usually used traditionally a. Tannery waste water from Kushtia. as medicine, in the treatment of stomach or intestinal b. Tobacco waste water from Leaf Factory, Kushtia. disorder. This study was designed to evaluate the c. Sugar mill wastewater from Jogoti sugar mill, effects of Cajanus cajan (‘adhor’) as antimicrobial Kushtia.

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D. Culture of waste water bacteria potent antibacterial activity agents against three Two types of media were used, viz., MacConkey industrial (Tannery, Tobacco and Sugar Mill) waste Agar Media and Nutrient Agar media. Each of the water Bacterial strains. waste water was cultured to MacConkey agar media For ethanol extract of Pigeon pea, the highest and Nutrient agar media was used for spread culture. inhibition zones (22.0mm) were measured at For streak culture, the Nutrient agar media was used. 500µg/10µl against Tannery waste water bacteria, Then some of the colonies were transferred to conical where the lowest inhibition zones (19.5mm) was flask for liquid culture with the help of Nutrient measured against Tobacco waste water bacteria broth. (Table 1) after 24 hours. E. Concentration (MIC) of the crude extracts For ethyl Acetate extract of Pigeon pea, the highest inhibition zones (23.5 mm) were measured In the experiment, Minimum inhibitory at 500µg/10µl against the sugar Industry waste water concentrations (MICs) are defined as the lowest bacteria, where the lowest inhibition zones (22.5mm) concentration of an antimicrobial that will inhibit the were measured against Tannery waste water bacteria visible growth of a microorganism after overnight (Table 2) after 24 hours incubation. Minimum inhibitory concentrations For Chloroform extract of Pigeon pea, the highest (MICs) are used by diagnostic laboratories mainly to inhibition zones (18.0 mm) were measured at confirm resistance, but most often as a research tool 500µg/10µl against Tannery waste water bacteria, to determine the in vitro activity of new where the lowest inhibition zones (15.5 mm) was antimicrobials and data from such studies have been measured against Tobacco waste water bacteria used to determine MIC breakpoints. The method (Table 3) after 24 hours. gives information on the storage of standard For N-Hexane extract of Pigeon pea, the highest antibiotic powder, preparation of stock antibiotic inhibition zones (19.0 mm) was measured at solutions, media, and preparation of inocula, 500µg/10µl against Tannery waste water bacteria, incubation conditions, and reading and interpretation where the lowest inhibition zones (11.5 mm) was of results. In the present study, it was determined measured against Tobacco waste water bacteria following the serial dilution according to Reiner (Table 4) after 24 hours. (1982). The lowest concentrations of the extracts, Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was which did not show any growth of tested organisms observed in almost all of the bacterial strain when after microscopic evaluation, were determined as different extract were used. For the ethanol extract, Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations (MIC). the MIC of the C. cajan (Pigeon pea) leaf against RESULTS Tobacco waste water bacteria is 62.5µg10/µl The extracts derived from C. cajan L. showed a produced 14.5mm zone of inhibition. The MIC significant antibacterial activity against almost all the against Tannery waste water bacteria and Sugar Mill tested bacteria. The oil of extract exhibited a potent waste water bacteria produced 16.5 mm and 17.0 inhibitory of effect against all the microorganisms. mm zone of inhibition respectively (Table 5). Various organic extracts of C. cajan L. also have

Table 1. Determination of antibacterial activity of Ethanol extract of Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) Source of Bacterial Strain Diameter of the Zone of Inhibition (mm) Positive Control Negative Extract Concentration (g/10l) (Cloxaciline 10g/l) Control 500 250 125 62.5 Tannery waste water bacteria 25.23±0.32 - 22.0 18.5 17.0 16.5 Tobacco waste water bacteria 24.16±0.23 - 19.5 19.0 18.0 14.5 Sugar Mill waste water bacteria 26.00±0.00 - 21.0 20.0 18.0 17.0

Table 2. Determination of antibacterial activity of Ethyl Acetate extract of Cajanus cajan (Pigeon pea) Source of Bacterial Strain Diameter of the Zone of Inhibition (mm) Positive Control Negative Extract Concentration (g/10l) (Cloxaciline 10g/l) Control 500 250 125 62.5 Tannery waste water bacteria 25.23±0.32 - 22.5 21.0 20.5 20.0 Tobacco waste water bacteria 24.16±0.23 - 23.0 22.0 20.0 18.0 Sugar Mill waste water bacteria 26.00±0.00 - 23.5 19.5 18.0 16.0

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Table 3. Determination of antibacterial activity of Chloroform extract of Pigeon pea (C. cajan) Source of Bacterial Strain Diameter of the Zone of Inhibition (mm) Positive Control Negative Extract Concentration (g/10l) (Cloxaciline 10g/l) Control 500 250 125 62.5 Tannery waste water bacteria 25.23±0.32 - 18.0 16.5 12.0 11.5 Tobacco waste water bacteria 24.16±0.23 - 15.5 12.0 9.0 8.5 Sugar Mill waste water bacteria 26.00±0.00 - 17.0 14.0 13.0 10.0

Table 4. Determination of antibacterial activity of N-Hexane extract of Pigeon pea (C. cajan) Source of Bacterial Strain Diameter of the Zone of Inhibition (mm) Positive Control Negative Extract Concentration (g/10l) (Cloxaciline 10g/l) Control 500 250 125 62.5 Tannery waste water bacteria 25.23±0.32 - 19.0 16.5 12.0 10.5 Tobacco waste water bacteria 24.16±0.23 - 11.5 9.0 8.0 5.5 Sugar Mill waste water bacteria 26.00±0.00 - 14.0 10.0 8.0 6.0

Table 5. Comparison study of minimum inhibitory concentration of ethanol and ethyl acetate extract of C. cajan (Pigeon pea leaf). Source of Bacterial Strain Minimum Inhibitory Concentration(MIC) Ethanol extract Zone of inhibition Ethyl Acetate Zone of (µg/10µl) (mm) extract (µg/10µl) inhibition (mm) Tannery waste water bacteria 19.0 16.5 12.0 10.5 Tobacco waste water bacteria 11.5 9.0 8.0 5.5 Sugar Mill waste water bacteria 14.0 10.0 8.0 6.0

For the Ethyl Acetate extract, the MIC of the C. inhibition were produced by each of the strain. These cajan (Pigeon pea) leaf against Sugar Mill waste differences in the zones of inhibition may be directly water bacteria is 62.5µg/10µl produced 16.0 mm related to the susceptibility of each test organisms zone of inhibition. The Ethyl Acetate extract of C. present in the waste water to the C. cajan extracts. The cajan (Pigeon pea) against Tobacco waste water factors responsible for this high susceptibility to the bacteria and Tannery waste water bacteria also extracts are not exactly known but may be attributed to showed the MIC at 62.5µg/10µl that produced the presence of secondary plant metabolites. It was clear 18.0mm and 20 mm zone of inhibition respectively from this work that the extraction solvents affected (Table 5). the degree of antibacterial activity of the extracts. The result of ethyl Acetate extract showed very good DISCUSSION antibacterial activity against Sugar waste water Antimicrobial activity of extracts of C. cajan using bacteria with maximum zone of inhibition 23.5mm different extraction solvents was investigated. The at 500µg/10µl concentration. This extract show good phytochemical characteristics possessed by C. cajan antibacterial activity against Tannery waste water may be attributed to their antimicrobial properties. bacteria and Tobacco waste water bacteria. This finding agrees with similar study by [7]. Chloroform extract also showed moderate High level of reduction was recorded as the antibacterial activity against Tannery waste water concentration of extract increased comparable with bacteria, Sugar waste water bacteria with zone of standard antibiotics used. The growth inhibitory inhibition 18.0 mm and 17.0mm using the effect was concentration dependent [5]. This is 500µg/10µl concentration. The ethanol extract important in considering dosage and rate at which the showed antibacterial activity against all of the test extract inhibits the growth of organism [6] this means strain. The result indicated that n-hexane extract that the extracts were as effective as standard showed antibacterial activity against all the tested antibiotic used. The present study showed that effluents with zone of inhibition 19.0 mm ~ 11.5 mm extracts of leaf C. cajan generally have antimicrobial using the concentration of 500µg/10µl. properties against the test industrial effluents. Result of our study suggests the possibility of The results of this work indicated that the various using the organic extracts of C. cajan as natural soluble extracts of C. cajan had antibacterial properties. antimicrobial in pharmaceutical industry because When the extracts were tested on all the above they possess positive antibacterial activities. Since mentioned industrial effluents, different zones of the extracts showed marked antibiotic potencies, it

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may be said that new era has been explored in the field of control of organisms. It can be concluded from the study that the extracts showed a significant antibacterial activity against all the tested industrial effluents. However, a sub chronic toxicity test has to be conducted to establish the adverse effects of a repeated response to C. cajan extract CONCLUSION Based on the result, we have considered that the extract of C. cajan have strong antibacterial activity against all bacteria present in different industrial waste water. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We wish to thank Professor Dr. Md. Rezuanul Islam, Chairman, Dept. of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering. Islamic University, Kushtia-7003 Bangladesh to support financially and guide to complete this project. REFERENCES [1] KA Hammer, CF Carson and TV Riley.1999. Antimicrobial activity of essential oils and other plant extracts. J. Appl. Microbiol. 86(6): 985. [2] S Gibbons. 2003. An overview of plant extracts as potential therapeutics. Expert Opin. Ther. Pat. 13(4): 489-497. [3] K Arokiyaraj, P Perinbam, R Agastian and K Mohan. 2009. Phytochemical analysis and antibacterial activity of Vitex agnus-castus. International Journal of Green Pharmacy. 34:162-164. [4] MW Iwu, AR Duncan and CO Okunji. 1999. New antimicrobials of plant origin. In: Janick J (editor), Perspectives on new crops and new uses. ASHS Press. Alexandria, pp. 457-462. [5] OK Achi. 2006. Composition and antibacterial activities of Tetrapleura tetraptera Taub. pod extracts. Journal of Microbiology. 1 (5): 416 – 422. [6] LO Egwari. 1999. Antibacterial activity of crude extracts of Nauclea latifolia and Eugenia aromatica. West AfricanJournal Pharmacology drug Res. 15 (1-2): 55 –59. [7] AM Kilani. 2006. Antibacterial assessment of whole stem bark of Vitex doniana against some enterobacteriaceae. African Journal of Biotechnology. (10): 958-959.

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E19 Risk Assessment of Pesticide Exposure on Farmers Health in Upazila Ahmad Kamruzzaman Majumder*, Shahriar Iqbal, Md. Enayet Hossain, Nur Alam Mistri and Wahed Uddin Department of Environmental Science, Stamford University Bangladesh, Dhanmondi, Dhaka-1209, Bangladesh e-mail: [email protected]*, [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Abstract Present study evaluates the level of farmers' pesticide use practiced to rice pest control, their knowledge and perception of the impact of pesticides on health and environment. Data have been collected from 300 farmers of Kaliakair Upazila of Bangladesh. For the case of spraying in the agricultural field the respondents found that 89% spend their spraying time for less than 2 hours whereas only 11% spend their time more than 2 hours. The study found that, almost all the symptoms studied were found frequent for the farmers of sprayer group compared to the farmers of non sprayer group. Of the symptoms, headache (123), excessive sweating (130) and thirst (121) were found major in the farmers of sprayer group. In terms of knowledge regarding different aspects of pesticide use and its effects showed that the respondents of sprayers group have more knowledge (132 and 136) than that of respondents of non sprayers group (112 and 123 respectively).

INTRODUCTION comparison to other developing countries. It is 0.03 The rapid increase of pesticide use is causing kg/ha compared to 0.3 kg/ha in India, 0.4 kg/ha in Sri detrimental effect on environment and health of farm Lanka and 0.8 kg/ha in Indonesia [4]. Currently, workers and consumers. Pesticides are contaminating 14,340.40 metric tons of commercial pesticides are ground and surface water, which is causing depletion used annually, primarily in the cultivation of rice, tea, of inland fishing resources and ecosystem. Pesticide jute, sugarcane and vegetables. About 70% of use in crop production has been suspected of being a pesticides are used on rice. Pesticides used on rice major contribution to environmental pollution. There consist almost exclusively of insecticides, but are widespread and growing concerns of pesticide fungicides are used occasionally. In 1989-90 almost over-use, relating to a number of dimensions such as 90% of pesticides were used on rice. In Bangladesh, contamination of ground water, surface water, soils insect pests' outbreak is frequent in rice and crop and food, and the consequent impacts on wildlife and losses occurred due to rice insect pest attack up to human health [1]. Farmers often spray hazardous 80% [5]. Another surveys of 291 households every insecticides like organophosphates and organochlorine week for seven months in 2005 to understand acute up to five to six times in one cropping season while health symptoms and to estimate health costs only two applications may be sufficient [2]. The usual associated with pesticide exposure in rural Nepal [6]. practice of draining paddy water into irrigation canals The study finds that the magnitude of exposure to may cause river and lake contamination. Residues insecticides and fungicides significantly influenced carried by the water can be taken up by non-target the occurrence of acute symptoms. flora and fauna, leach in to soil, and possibly With this background, the present study has been contaminate groundwater or potable water. A greater carried out to assess the risk of pesticide exposure on problem lies in the bioaccumulation of pesticides in farmer’s health in Kaliakair Upazila of . beneficial organisms like fish. Residues in food pose The study also aim to evaluate the knowledge, to consumers if the maximum residue limit set by attitude and perception of farmers in respects to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World spraying pesticide and its health and Economic loss. Health Organization (WHO) is exceeded [3]. METETIALS AND METHODS Pesticide as agricultural input was introduced in Bangladesh in 1957 and mainly DDT and BHC was The study was conducted in Kaliakair Upazila distributed by the Government to the farmers free of which is located at 24°N to 24° 15’N and 90°08”E to cost until 1973. The pesticides become very popular 90°22”E in district of . to the farmers for two reasons; firstly quick and Kaliakair Upazila with an area of 314.14 sq km, is visible effect on pest and secondly, no cost bounded by mirzapur and sakhipur upazilas on the involvement. In 1974, the subsidy was reduced to north, savar and gazipur sadar upazilas on the south, 50% and in 1979 it was withdrawn completely. As a Gazipur sadar and sreepur upazilas on the east, result at first pesticide use declined and again Mirzapur and Dhamrai upazilas on the west. It gradually increased and in 1999 the amount reached consists of 9 union parishads, 181 mouzas and 283 15000 metric tons. At present 84 pesticides with 242 villages. This study was conducted between March trade names have been registered in Bangladesh [4]. 2013 to May 2013. The Upazila consists of 9 Union The use of pesticides in Bangladesh is less in from which 3 unions was selected from which 10

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villages were considered for the present study. From farmers of both sprayers (139) and non sprayer group 10 villages of the Upazila, 300 respondents were (70) argued that weakness is a very common selected based on random sampling technique. Of symptoms experienced by them. those 300 respondents, 150 respondents were sprayer group and the remaining 150 were in non sprayer Table 1. General characteristics of sample farmers group. A reconnaissance survey was conducted Issues Frequency (N=300) Percent (%) before finalizing the sample villages and respondents Age Group in early March 2013. The data analysis was carried out using SPSS 16 and included calculation of Less than 20 Years 22 7 percentages and proportions and application of the 21-30 Years 47 16 test of significance. 31-40 Years 125 42 Above 40 Years 106 35 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Gender The age group of the respondents in the study area found (Table 1) that more than 42% respondents are Male 241 80 31 to 40 years of age followed by 35% in age group Female 59 20 above 40 years old. Of the sample respondents 80% Education Statues were male whereas only 20% were female. The No Schooling 36 12 educational status of the respondents in the study Primary 195 65 area was found that 65% farmers have primary education followed by SSC education of 16% of the S.S.C 49 16 respondents whereas only 12% respondents have H.S.C 20 7 found no education. Its implies that the average Occupation literacy rate of the study area is better than the Agriculture 201 65 national average of 57% (BBS, 2010). About 65% of Wage labor 48 16 the respondents are engaged in agricultural Business 22 7 occupation followed by 16% of the respondents engaged in wage labor. The maximum respondents Other 29 10 of 50% are found to have their monthly income Monthly income in BDT. more than BDT. 8000 followed by BDT. 3000 to Less Than 3000 31 10 5000 of 21% respondents. 3000-5000 62 21 Table 2 showed the pesticide exposure assessment 5000-8000 151 50 of the respondents. Study showed that most of the Above 8000 56 19 respondents have been working duration for 11 to 15 years (44%) and 16 to 20 years (30%). The minimum numbers of workers (3%) found working above 20 Table 2. Pesticide exposure assessment of the respondents years in the agricultural field. The number of days Issues Frequency (N=150) Percent (%) working per year was found highest 63% for 31 to 60 Working Duration (Years) days followed by 17% of the respondents for the Less than 5 Years 11 7 working day of less than 30 days. Minimum 6-10 Years 24 16 respondents (9%) found to work above 90 days per 11-15 Years 65 44 annum. Similarly maximum respondents of 47% 16-20 Years 45 30 found to work 3 to 6 hours in a day whereas above 20 Years 5 3 minimum respondents of 17% work for more than 6 Working Day/year hours a day. For the case of spraying in the Less than 30 days 25 17 agricultural field the respondents found that 89% 31-60 days 95 63 spend their spraying time for less than 2 hours 61-90 days 16 11 whereas only 11% spend their time more than 2 above 90 days 14 9 hours. Working Hour/day An investigation was conducted among the Less than 3 hours 54 36 farmers of sprayers and non sprayers group on the 3-6 hours 70 47 different symptoms experienced by them during the above 6 hours 26 17 last one year. The outcome of the investigation is Working Time in farms( hr/day) given in the table 3 where it is found that almost all Less than 3 hours 18 12 the symptoms studied were found frequent for the 3-6 hours 78 52 farmers of sprayer group compared to the farmers of above 6 hours 54 36 non sprayer group. Of the symptoms, headache (123), Spraying Time (hr/day) excessive sweating (130) and thirst (121) were found 1-2 hours 133 89 major in the farmers of sprayer group whereas above 2 hours 17 11

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Table 3. Symptoms experienced by farmers in connection Table 4 has shown a comparative assessment of with spraying pesticides within the last year (Positive the respondent’s knowledge regarding the use of answer). pesticides between sprayers and non sprayer’s Issues Sprayers Non Sprayers categories. The study revealed that most of the (N=150) (N=150) respondents of both categories do not have IPM

training. The respondents of non sprayer’s category (110) have much knowledge on reading the labeling

Percent Percent in the bottle/container whereas only 72 respondents Frequency Frequency of sprayer group read the label. In terms of knowledge Blurred vision 121 81 50 33 regarding different aspects of pesticide use and its Chest pain 80 53 20 13 effects showed that the respondents of sprayers group Concentration loss 78 52 24 16 have more knowledge (136 and 132) than that of Cough 90 60 12 8 respondents of non sprayers group (123 and 114). Diarrhea 77 51 15 10 On the other hand Table 5 portrayed that due to Dizziness 67 45 17 11 spraying of pesticides in the agricultural filed the Excessive sweating 130 89 32 21 maximum respondents (47%) experienced one Eye irritation 139 93 50 33 symptom per annum whereas only 21% respondents Headache 123 82 42 28 experienced 2 symptoms in a year. The loss of work Muscle pain 90 60 45 30 day of the respondents of the sprayer category due to Nausea 70 47 21 14 illness was found maximum 0-5 day per annum Nose irritation 56 37 13 9 (52%) followed by more than 10 days (28%). For the Respiratory depression 69 46 15 10 medication, the respondents found to have Skin irritation/burn 85 57 24 16 expenditure of BDT. 1000 to 2000 for the maximum Sneezing 78 52 16 11 Stomach pain 88 59 17 11 respondents of 31% followed by less than BDT. 1000 Thirst 121 81 41 27 representing 30% of the respondents. About 43% of Throat discomfort 125 83 43 29 the respondents found to have more than BDT. 2000 Trembling 67 45 27 18 per annum of the loss of productivity and there is a Vomiting 120 80 32 21 gradual inclination in the regard. White patches on skin 65 43 18 12 Table 5. Economic loss of spraying pesticides within the Weakness 139 93 70 47 last 1 year (N=150 Sprayers) Issues Frequency Percent Table 4. Knowledge about the pesticide use (%positive answer) Symptoms experienced (No/person/year) Issues Non Nill 35 23 Sprayers Total Sprayers (N=150) (N=300) 1 time 70 47 (N=150) 2 times 31 21 f % f % f % 3 times 14 9 Have you received IPM 20 13 16 10 36 23 Work day loss for illness (day/person/year) Training 0-5 days 78 52 Have you ever read the label in 72 48 110 73 182 121 pesticide container? 6-10 days 30 20 Knowledge regarding the effect Above 10 days 42 28 136 91 123 82 259 173 of excessive use of pesticide Medication Costs (BDT/year/household) Knowledge regarding direction 123 82 124 83 247 165 Nill 40 27 of pesticide spray Less than 1000 BDT 45 30 Knowledge on worst impact of 132 88 114 76 246 164 1000-2000 BDT 46 31 improper handling of pesticide Above 2000 BDT 19 12 Knowledge regarding cause of 120 80 118 79 238 159 the harmfulness of the pesticide Productivity loss (BDT/year/household) Knowledge regarding toxic Less than 1000 BDT 34 23 107 71 82 55 189 126 effects of pesticide 1000-2000 BDT 51 34 Knowledge on primary Above 2000 BDT 65 43 treatment of the toxicity of 109 73 101 67 210 140 WTP for safer pesticides (BDT/year/household) pesticide Nill 40 27 Use of protective gear while 127 85 140 93 267 178 handling of pesticide? Less than 1000 BDT 70 46 Urgent need for creating more 1000-2000 BDT 25 17 150 100 150 100 300 100 awareness among the farmers? Above 2000 BDT 15 10

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During the study the willingness to pay (WTP) of the respondents were investigated for safer pesticides. 46% of the respondents found to have WTP of less than BDT. 1000 per household per annum whereas only 10% respondents have WTP of more than BDT. 2000 and the expenditure for unsafe pesticides was found less than BDT. 1000 for 50% of the respondents. CONCLUSION The availability and use of obsolete pesticides indicates that existing pesticide laws and regulations are not strictly enforced in relation to import, formulation, repackaging, distribution, advertising and use of pesticides. Therefore, in Bangladesh the laws and regulations of pesticide should be enforced more strictly and a new policy should be enacted to educate the farmers regarding the harmful impacts of pesticides. There is an urgent need to assess the impact of pesticides on human health and pollution level of pesticides in soil, water and air in Bangladesh.

REFERENCES [1] A McLaughin and P Mineau. 1996. The impact of agricultural practices on biodiversity. Agriculture, ecosystems and environment, 55, 201-212, Elsevier Netherlands [2] VP Gandhi and NT Patel. 1997. Pesticides and the environment: A comparative study of farmer’s awareness and behaviour in Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Gujarat. Indian J. Agri. Econ, 52 (3): 519-529. [3] PL Pingali and PA Roger (eds.). 1995. Impact of Pesticides on Farmer Health and the Rice Environment.Kluwer Academic Publisher, Boston. [4] KMHA Kalam. 1998. Bangladesh Country Paper. Environmental Assessment for Agricultural Development in Asia and the Pacific, pp. 141-152. Asian Productivity Organization (APO), Tokyo. [5] JM Kim. 2000. Analysis of economic and environmental effects of pesticide application with special reference to vegetable production. Acta-Horticulturae, 25 (524): 33-38 [6] A Kishor 2008. Health costs from short-term exposure to pesticides in Nepal, Social Science and Medicine, 67(4): 511-519.

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E20 Egg and Fry Production Performance of Female Tilapia Related to Fluctuating Temperature and Size Variation Md. Shahadat Hossan1, Suparna Biswas Ulka1, Md. Abdul Motin1, Md. Abdul Kadir Tarafder2, Zahid Parvez Sukhan2, and Harunur Rashid1* 1Department of Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2002, Bangladesh 2Sharnalata Agro-Fisheries Ltd., Radhakanai, Fulbaria, Mymensingh, Bangladesh e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Female Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus of six body weight (200, 250, 300, 350, 400 and 450 g) were studied to estimate egg and fry production performance in fluctuating temperature and size of fish at Sharnalata Agro-fisheries Ltd., Mymensingh, Bangladesh. Water temperature was 31-36°C and 29±0.5°C in the broodstock pond and incubator, respectively during experimental period. Histological observation of ovary showed that water temperature has significant effect on egg production (P < 0.01). Egg production decreased with increased water temperature and relative fecundity decreased significantly with the increasing body weight of female (P < 0.01). Maximum number of eggs, 1342±10.54 and 1377.33±48.27 were found at 32°C and 250 g female, respectively. Histological sections of ovaries from 250 g and 300 g females showed higher number of mature eggs compared to other weight categories. Reproductive performance in O. niloticus can be improved by selecting 250 to 350 g brood and rearing them near or below 32°C temperature.

INTRODUCTION of eggs; medium body weights produce higher Tilapia has been dubbed as the “aquatic chicken” number of eggs compared to the small and large [1] of which the most widely farmed stock is the Nile body weight. The difference in fecundities (seed/ tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Word-Fish Center female/spawning season) could be related to has developed the genetically improved farmed differences in size and age of brood used [12] and the tilapia (GIFT) strain through several generations of relative fecundity in Nile tilapia has been shown to selections involving eight different pure breeds of decrease with increased female size and age [13]. Nile tilapia O. niloticus strain and it is the most Considering all these facts, the present study was widely farmed variety and performs 60% better growth conducted to determine the effect of fluctuating and 50% better survival than other commercially temperature and size of brood on egg and fry available strains of tilapia [2]. The high growth rate, production performance of O. niloticus. resistant to adverse environmental and management MATERIALS AND METHODS conditions, and low production cost makes tilapia as the most important commercial species in Bangladesh. A. Experimental fish and site The attributes that make Nile tilapia so suitable for Brood stock of GIFT strain of Nile tilapia were fish farming are its resistance against harsh conditions, collected from Bangladesh Fisheries Research ease of breeding, rapid growth rate, ability to Institute (BFRI) and reared at the Sharnalata Agro efficiently convert organic and domestic wastes into Fisheries Ltd., Mymensingh, Bangladesh. high quality protein and good taste [3, 4]. Experiments were conducted during January to Several environmental and physiological factors August, 2010. are practically involved in fish gonadal maturation B. Brood rearing in pond and spawning, hence facilitate hatchery production Tilapia broods were stocked in ponds at a density [5]. In natural water bodies, tilapia species can show of 6-7 per m2, reared for 3 months, and fed twice large variations in its reproductive characteristics [6]. daily with floating feed (30% protein) at 1.5-2% In culture situations, tilapias tend to produce more body weight. 30% pond water was replaced at 15 but smaller oocytes than under natural conditions [7]. days interval. Major environmental factors involved in cueing C. Selection of brood and stocking in hapa reproductive activity are temperature and photo- period [8–11]. Temperature is generally the most Based on the body weight, broods were variable environmental parameter and also the most categorized in six group (200, 250, 300, 350, 400 and 3 controllable in hatchery condition. It has been 450 g) and stocked in separate breeding hapa (5m ) 2 considered as the most thoroughly investigated at a density of 6 per m at 1:2 male-female ratio. environmental factor influencing fish reproduction. D. Measurement of temperature, collection of egg, Sexual maturity in tilapia species is a function of counting, and incubation age, size, and environmental conditions. O. Temperature was measured every day, fertilized mossambicus, in general, reaches sexual maturity at a eggs were collected at every 15 days interval from smaller size and younger age than O. niloticus and O. the mouth of female tilapia, transported to hatchery, aureus. Body weight of tilapia influences the number

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then treated with salt solution, counted carefully, and Table 2. Numbers of eggs produced per female tilapia at placed into incubator with controlled water flow of different sizes. recirculating system. Weight of female (g) Number of eggs/female

E. Counting of hatchlings ~ 200 1201.00±27.62 After hatching out, the hatchlings were counted and hatching rate was calculated using the formula, ~ 250 1377.33±48.27 Hatching rate = (No. of hatched fry/No. of fertilized ~ 300 1298.66±23.81 egg)×100. ~ 350 1216.33±49.37 F. Histological study of ovary ~ 400 989.67±40.00 Ovary of each weight category tilapia at very sampling day were collected and fixed in Bouin’s ~ 450 820.67±9.02 fixative for 24 hrs at 4OC. Gonad tissues were then processed using graded series of ethanol, embedded in paraffin, sectioned at 5 m thickness, staining 1600 using Haematoxylene-Eosin stain, and mounting by 1400 DPX mounding agent. Ovary section were then 1200 examined under microscope (Olympus). 1000 800

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 600 A. Effect of temperature on egg production Number of egg 400 There were direct effect of temperature on egg 200 0 production of tilapia (Table 1). Egg production 31 31.5 32 32.5 33 33.5 34 34.5 35 35.5 decreased with increasing water temperature. Pond water temperature (°C) Maximum eggs (1342±10.54) were found at 32°C and no egg was found when the temperature was  Fig. 1. Relationships between number of egg and water 35°C. The correlation between water temperature and temperature at 250 g body weight of female Oreochromis number of eggs produced per female was negatively niloticus. significant (P < 0.01) and egg production per female decreased with the increasing temperature (Fig. 1). 1600 1400

Table 1. Number of eggs produced per female tilapia (~ 250 1200 g weight) at different temperature. 1000

Water temperature (°C) Number of eggs/female 800 31.5 218.66±15.50 600 Number of egg 400 32.0 1342.00±10.54 200

33.0 1305.00±8.89 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 33.5 801.66±22.55 Body weight (g) 34.0 636.33±39.27 Fig. 2. Relationships between number of egg and body 35.0 0 weight of Oreochromis niloticus at 32°C temperature.

Temperature is considered as the crucial cue in Number of egg and body weight of female showed gonadal development in many fish species [10, 11]. inverse relationship [15, 16], similar findings were Temperature of 21-23°C is the minimum range observed in the present study. The difference in required for spawning of fish [14]. Temperatures fecundities (seed/female/spawning season) could be above 20°C trigger the development of secondary related to differences in size and age of brood used sexual characteristics and nest building [7]. Nile [12]. Comparison of reproductive performance of tilapia does not lay eggs in water temperature of tilapia could be a complicated issue because it is below 19°C and above 32°C, and the most favorable affected by brood size, spawning history, production productive period coincided with a rise in water setting, and the limitation of broodstock selection. temperature range from 22 to 27°C [11]. Unfortunately, broodstocks used in the present study B. Effect of body weight on egg production were selected randomly and largely of unknown age. Oreochromis species is a mouth-brooder in nature Numbers of eggs per female were significantly with small gonads and produce less than 700 eggs higher in 250~300 weight tilapia compared with [17] and fecundity ranged from 243 to 1847 eggs in other weight category (Table 2) and higher weight all sizes [18]. The present study confirmed that fish tend to produce less number of eggs (Fig. 2). fecundity was significantly related to fish body

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weight (1377.33±48.27 ~ 820.67±9.02 eggs in 250 g 250g and 300g female tilapia contained the highest ~ 450 g tilapia). ME compared to others stages with very few YVS C. Effect of body weight on stages of ovarian cells and EP oocytes. 350 g weight female contained higher number of early stage (EP, LP) and few Five different stages of ovarian cells were numbers of later stage (YVS, ME) oocytes. Besides observed in the histological observation of different the highest number of eggs (1377.33±48.27), more weight tilapia and mentioned in Table 3 in detail. mature eggs were evident in the 250 g female. Numbers of mature eggs in histological sections were Table 3. Intensity of ovarian cells observed in different decreased with the increasing body weight. This body weight tilapia. results are also correlated with previous histological Body EP LP YVS PM ME Fig. No. study that the ovaries of O. niloticus contained less weight number of mature egg with increasing body weight ~ 200 ++ ++ + + +++ Fig. 3 [19]. ~ 250 + × + × +++ Fig. 4 ~ 300 + × +++ Fig. 5 ~ 350 +++ +++ × × +++ Fig. 6 ~ 400 + × × × + Fig. 7 ~ 450 + × × × + Fig. 8 EP, early perinucleolar; LP, late perinucleolar, YVS, yolk- vesicle (YVS), PM, pre-maturation; ME, mature egg. +: very few; ++: few; +++: more; ×: none Fig. 5. Haematoxylin-eosin stained sections of tilapia ovary at 300g body weight fish (a-b). (a) YVS, yolk vesicle stage. (b) ME, mature egg.

Fig. 6. Haematoxylin-eosin stained sections of tilapia ovary of 350g body weight fish (a-b). (a) EP, early perinucleolar stage; LP, late perinucleolar stage; YVS, yolk vesicle stage. (b) ME, mature egg.

Fig. 3. Haematoxylin-eosin stained sections of tilapia ovary at 200g body weight fish (a-d). (a) EP, early perinucleolar stage; LP, late perinucleolar stage (b) YVS, yolk vesicle stage. (c) PM, pre-maturation stage. (d) ME, mature egg.

Fig. 7. Haematoxylin-eosin stained sections of tilapia ovary at 400g body weight fish (a-b). (a) EP, early perinucleolar stage ; YVS, yolk vesicle stage . (b) ME, mature egg.

Fig. 4. Haematoxylin-eosin stained sections of tilapia ovary at 250g body weight fish (a-c). (a) EP, early perinucleolar Fig. 8. Haematoxylin-eosin stained sections of tilapia ovary stage; (b) YVS, yolk vesicle stage. (c) ME, mature egg. at 450g body weight fish. (a) EP, early perinucleolar stage; ME, mature egg.

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CONCLUSION and cultivation of Fish. Fishing News Ltd., Farnham. Surry, England, U.K. It can be concluded that temperature and body [15] RR Velasco. 2003. Reproductive biology of tilapias. weight have a significant effect on egg production pp. 1-12. In: Training manual on brood stock performance of tilapia. For Nile tilapia broodstock management and sex reversal o tilapia using GIFT pond, it better to maintain water temperature at Protocol. GIFT Foundation International Inc. 31-32°C. Moreover medium size body weights (250 [16] MP Masser. 1999. Tilapia; life history and biology. and 300 g) are good for egg production compared to Southern Regional Aquaculture Center. small and large size fish. For better tilapia hatchery [17] RD Gurrero. 1994. Commercial fry production of management temperature and body weight of brood Tilapia nilotica using concrete tanks in the Philippines. Auburn University, Auburn, USA. Paper should be managed in recommended ways. presented at the Aquaculture Symposium. [18] DJ Macintosh and DC Little. 1995. Broodstock REFERENCES management and fry production of the Nile tilapia [1] JL Maclean. 1984. Tilapia- the aquatic chicken. Oreochromis niloticus. In: Broodfish management ICLARM Newsletter, 7(1): 17. and egg and larval quality. Blackwell Science. [2] AE Eknath, MM Tayamen, MS Palade-de Vrea, JC Editors: Bromage, N. R. and R. J. Roberts. Oxford. Danting, and RSV Pullin. 1993. Genetic pp. 277-320. Improvement of farm Tilapia: the growth [19] J Srijunngam and K Wattanasirmkit. 2001. performances of eight strains of Oreochromis Histological structures of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus tested in different farm environments. niloticus ovary. The Natural History Journal of Aquaculture, 11(1): 171-188. Chulalongkorn University, 1(1): 53-59. [3] GJ de Graaf, F Galemoni, and EA Huisman. 1999. Reproductive biology of pond reared Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus. Aquaculture Res., 30: 25-33. [4] Y Yi, CK Lin, and JS Diana. 1996. Influence of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus stocking density on their growth and yield in cages and ponds containing the cages. Aquaculture, 146: 205-215. [5] N Bromage, M Porter, and C Randall. 2001. The environmental regulation of maturation in farmed finfish with special reference to the role of potoperiod and melatonin. Aquaculture, 197: 63-98. [6] RH Lowe-McConnell. 1982. Tilapias in fish communities. pp. 83-113. In: RSV Pullin and RH Lowe-McConnell (ed.), The biology and culture of tilapias, ICLARM Conference Proceedings 7, Manilla. [7] G Fryer and TD Iles. 1972. The cichlid fishes of the great lakes of Africa. Oliver and Boyd, London. 641 p. [8] KN Eyeson. 1983. Stunting and reproduction in pond-reared Sarotherodon melanotheron. Aquaculture, 31: 257-267. [9] L Emit, I Etcheri, and O Umoren. 1989. Aspects of the reproductive biology of Tilapia guineensi in Editas Pond, Nigeria. Rev. Zool. Afr. J. Zool., 103: 127-134. [10] ZA El-Greisy. 1993. Effect of some environmental and physiological characteristics on reproduction of Mugil capito in Egypt. M.Sc. Thesis, Institute of Graduate Studies and Research, Alexandria University, Egypt. [11] GO El-Naggar, MA El-Nady, MG Kamar, and AI Al-Kholy. 2000. Effect of photoperiod, dietary protein and temperature on reproduction in NileTilapia, Oreochromis niloticus 5th International symposium for tilapia aquaculture (ISTA) September 3-7, Barzil. [12] LC Lim. 2006. Larviculture of the greasy grouper Epinephelus tauvina and brown marbled grouper E. fuscoguttatus in Singapore. Aquaculture, 24: 262-274. [13] EM Cruz and GC Mair. 1989. Conditions for effective androgen sex reversal in Oreochromis niloticus. Aquaculture, 122: 237-248. [14] M Huet. 1972. Textbook of fish culture: Breeding

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E21 Histological Study of Gametogenesis in Endangered Pabo Catfish (Ompok Pabo) from the Sylhet Basin in the North-East Bangladesh Md. Abdul Motin1 , Md. Reaz Uddin Sarkar2, Majnoonnaher Maya1, Md. Jahangir Alam1 , Zahid Parvez Sukhan3, Harunur Rashid1, * 1Department of Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh 2 National Project Diractor, Establishment of Fisheries Diploma Institute at Gopalganj, Kishoreganj and Sirajganj District Project, Department of Fisheries, Matshya Bhaban, Dhaka. 3Sharnalata Agro Fisheries Ltd., Radhakanai, Fulbaria, Mymensingh, Bangladesh *Corresponding Author: Tel: +88-01924-429971; e-mail: [email protected] Abstract The endangered pabo catfish (Ompok pabo), from the Sylhet basin in the North-east Bangladesh, was studied to determine length-weight relationships, gonado-somatic index (GSI) and stages of oocytes and testicular germ cells from September to December 2010. Length-weight relationships and condition factor were determined from the pooled data collected over the study period. The b value ranged from 2.291879 to 3.112763 indicated isometric growth of pabo catfish. GSI value for female was found highest 4.06 in September and lowest 1.55 in November and for male it was highest 0.76 in December and lowest 0.43 in October. GSI values suggested spent condition of ovary and testes. Oogonia (OG), perinucleolar oocyte (PNO), previtellogenic oocyte (PVO) and yolk granule (YG) stages of oocytes were observed in developing ovary. It was also observed that oocytes did not develop synchronously. Similarly, spermatocytes (SC), spermatids (ST) and spermatozoa (SZ) stages of testicular germ cells observed during histological study. October samples were found filled with SC and empty lumen of tubules (LU) indicating spent phase of testes. Present study suggests that September-December is the post spawning season for pabo catfish and during this period pabo catfish persevere good health in the Sylhet basin.

INTRODUCTION Knowledge on reproductive biology of fish is The pabo catfish (Ompok pabo) locally known as useful for evaluating the commercial potentialities of ‘kala pabda’ is one of the important and popular its stock, life history, culture and management freshwater catfish of Bangladesh. It is delicious, less practice of its fishery [7]. Besides, information on spiny and high valued fish. Pabo catfish is gonadal development and spawning season of a non-migratory and remains in one habitat throughout species make its management easier. Studies on of its life [1, 2]. It is omnivorous, feeds on reproductive physiology, on the other hand, can crustacean larvae, fish fries, zooplankton, algae and also provide important and basic information on small portion of sand and mud. It is found in quiet, the gonadal maturity, breeding potential and shallow, often muddy water, in sandy streams, rivers breeding season of a species. Information on to tanks and also occurs in canals, and reproductive physiology is particularly important inundated fields. In the past, this fish was abundantly for threatened fish species concerning available in wetlands () of Sylhet basin conservation. There are many published reports (depression) in the North-east region of Bangladesh on length-weight relationship and histology of [3, 4]. Sylhet basin is a distinct type of floodplain in different fish species. But a few works had been the North-east region of Bangladesh which included done on length-weight relationship and GSI of Netrokona district and eastern part of Kishoregonj pabo catfish in Bangladesh. district. The North-east region of Bangladesh is the Considering the above importance, the present largest flooding basin and rich in freshwater fish and study was undertaken to examine some aspects of is often called as the “fish mine” of Bangladesh. But reproductive biology of endangered pabo catfish fish production from this natural source is declining from the Sylhet basin in the north-east region of increasingly due to climate change, environmental Bangladesh. degradation, overfishing and many other manmade MATERIALS AND METHODS interventions Presently, distribution of pabo catfish population A. Collection of sample has been reduced alarmingly and IUCN Bangladesh A total of 18 pabo catfish were collected from [5] already been recognized it as an endangered fish. Mohongonj Bazar fish landing centre from According to Rashid et al. [6], this fish is the mostly September to December 2010. The catch of this rare among the three endangered fishes under landing centre is composed of harvests from Ompok genus, indicating having chances of critically different wetlands (haors) around the Mohongonj endangered status for pabo catfish. Therefore, Upazilla under Netrakona district known as Sylhet conservation of this species is an urgent issue for its basin in north-east region of Bangladesh. existence in nature.

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B. Recording length and weight (gonad and body) RESULTS data A. Length-weight relationships Total length (snout to caudal tip) and standard The body weight against the standard length length (snout to caudal fork) of each collected fish measured from September to December, 2010 is were measured by using a specialized scale and presented in Figure 1. The regression line has recorded in cm. Length of each sample were intercept (q) = -4.11693 and the slope (b) =2.700422. measured to the nearest 0.1cm and body weights and The correlation coefficients (r) obtained 0.960915 gonad weights to the nearest 0.1g. The body weight and the coefficient of determination (r2) was and gonad weight were determined by a sensitive 0.923358. In the power curve equation of portable electronic balance. Then length-weight length-weight relationship, the constant q was relationship of pabo catfish was calculated with the b 0.016294 and b was 2.700422. The power curve help of power curve equation as: W=qL and a equation is BW=0.016294SL2.700422 presented in linear form of natural logarithms as: lnW=lnq + the Figure 2. The condition factors, CFW of pabo b(lnL); where W is the body weights, L is the total catfish was 1.0529 during the study period. length, b and q is slope and intercept respectively. C. Collection of gonads The collected fish were dissected out carefully by a scissor, starting from anus to lower jaw and the belly was opened. Then the muscles of the abdomen were cut from the anus towards the vertebral column vertically. Muscles, fat tissue, digestive organs and blood vessels were removed properly. After this the gonads were taken out by a forceps. Then the ovary and testes was removed carefully and placed on a petridish. Then weight of the gonads was measured very carefully with a sensitive portable electronic balance. Finally, gonadal samples were cut into 3-5 Fig. 1. Standard length-body weight relationship of pabo mm3 sized by a scissors and preserved in 10% catfish during study period formalin fixative. D. Calculation of gonado-somatic index (GSI) GSI value of pabo catfish is calculated with the of following formula. GSI = (GW.BW) × 100 Where, GW = gonad weight; BW = body weight. E. Study of Condition factor The condition factor, K was calculated to determining the condition of fish such as the degree of wellbeing. The condition factor of pabo catfish was calculated with the help of following equation: Fig. 2. Natural logarithm of standard length-natural CF = W/Lb logarithm of body weight relationship of pabo catfish F. Histological study of gonads during study period For historical study the preserved gonads were taken out from the vials (kept in 10% formalin fixatives) and put into cassette. Then dehydration of gonads was carried out followed by clearing, infiltration, embedding, sectioning, staining, and mounting. G. Microscopic observation

After mounting the slides were observed under GSI (%) electric microscope (Olympus) which was connected to computer with a viewer (Magnus viewer). The viewer was also equipped with a camera. By the help October of this mechanism numerous photographs were September November December snapped at different magnification. Months Fig. 3 GSI (%) values of female pabo catfish during study period

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The GSI values of female and male pabo catfish were calculated and found to be ranged from 1.55to 4.06 and 0.43to 0.76 respectively during the study period. The highest GSI value of female 4.06 and male 0.76 were observed in September and December respectively. Monthly mean GSI(%) values of female and male pabo catfish are presented in figure 3 and 4 respectively.

Fig. 6. Sections of Ompok pabo testes in October (a), November (b) & (c), and December (d), 2010 at 40×

magnification.

DISCUSSION

GSI (%) Indigenous pabo catfish (Ompok pabo) was plenteously available in freshwater wetlands (haors) in the north-east region of Bangladesh. But presently, their distribution has been decrease critically and recognized as an endangered fish. In October November December order to provide a guideline for conserving the Months species in nature, present study was designed to determine the length-weight relationship, GSI, and Fig. 4. GSI (%) values of male pabo catfish during study stages of oocytes and testicular germ cells period September to December, 2010. The relationships of body weight to standard B. Histological study of gametogenesis length of pabo catfish exposed q (intercept) and b PNO (perinucleolar oocyte), Previtellogenic (slope) values. In the study, q value and b value for oocyte (PVO), and OG (oogonia) stages of oocytes pabo catfish were 0.016294 and 2.700422, in September samples (Figure 5 a); PNO and PVO respectively. The ranges of b values were between stages of oocytes in October samples (Figure 2.291879 to 3.112763 which included 3 indicating isometric growth of pabo catfish population and the 5.b);only PNO stages of oocytes in November 2.700422 samples (Figure 5.c) and PNO and YG stages of obtained equation was BW=0.016294SL . The oocytes in December samples (Figure 5) observed relative condition factor, CFBW, obtained in the in the histological study of ovary section. present study was 1.052945, indicating that the fish is in good condition throughout the study period. The mean GSI values of female pabo catfish ranged from 1.55 to 4.06 with the highest 4.06 in September and male ranged from 0.43 to 0.76 with the highest 0.76 in December. In the microscopic observation of the ovary sections oogonia (O), perinucleolar oocyte (NPO), previtellogenic oocyte (PVO) and yolk granule stage (YG) was identified in the ovary of pabo catfish. Likewise, in the observation of the testicular sections spermatocytes (SC), spermatids (ST) and spermatozoa (SZ) stages and empty lumen of tubules (LU) was identified in the testes of pabo catfish. The GSI of female Fig. 5. Sections of Ompok pabo ovary in September (a), indicated spent ovary in September the October (b), November (c) and December (d), 2010 at 40× post-spawning season and onward. Similarly, GSI magnification values in male also indicated spent testes in November and onward. Study of ovarian SC (spermatocytes) and empty lumen of tubules gametogenesis reveals that most of the mature stages (LU) in October samples (Figure 6.a); ST of oocytes were absent in the ovary except for (spermatids), SZ (spermatozoa) and LU in December samples. Start of vitellogenesis in October November samples (Figure 6. b & c) and SC and ST and yolk granule formation in December indicated in December samples (Figure 6.d) were observed in gradual maturation of oocytes and preparation for the histological study of the testes section.

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the next breeding season. The GSI values complied CONCLUSION with that of histological observations of ovary Length-weight relationship and condition factor indicated by yolk granule formation in December indicate isometric growth and good condition of fish and increased GSI values in December from lowest during post spawning season. The GSI study in November. Gametogenesis study in indicated spent ovary of the post-spawning female in post-spawning male identified spent testes. Again, September and onward. Similarly, GSI values in gradual increase in GSI value of testes is in male also indicated spent testes in November and agreement with the histological observations of onward. Study of ovarian gametogenesis reveals that testicular tissues, indicated by filling-up of empty most of the mature stages of oocytes were absent in LU with ST and SZ with the progression of time. In the ovary except for December samples. Start of the current study, the highest value of GSI for female vitellogenesis in October and yolk granule formation found during post-spawning season in September in December indicated gradual maturation of oocytes (4.06) was much less than the highest value found and preparation for the next breeding season. The during spawning season in June (14.45±2.37 [8]), GSI values complied with that of histological indicating a spent ovary in September and onward. observations of ovary indicated by yolk granule In case of male, although the GSI value of the formation in December and increased GSI values in post-spawning male gradually increased from December from lowest in November. Gametogenesis October to December (0.43 to 0.76), was much less study in post-spawning male identified spent testes. than the highest value (1.006±0.326; [8]) during Again, gradual increase in GSI value of testes is in spawning season in June, also indicating a spent agreement with the histological observations of testes in November and onward. Testicular stages testicular tissues, indicated by filling-up of empty were studied during September to December. From LU with ST and SZ with the progression of time. the histological study of testis, the testicular germ cell stages observed were spermatocytes (SC), REFERENCES spermatids (ST) and spermatozoa (SZ) during [1] Mathur, D. and Robbins, T. W. 1971. Food habits and successive months. Post-spawning October samples feeding chronology of young white crappie, Pomoxis were filled with SC and with empty lumen of tubules annularies in Conowingo reservoir. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 100: 307-311. (LU), indicating spent phase of testes. From the [2] Mathur, D. 1973. Food habits and feeding chronology histological study of ovary during post-spawning of the blackbanded darter, Percina nigrofasciata in months, it was observed that ocytes developed Halawakee Greek, Albenia. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 102: asynchronously. Occurrences of early stage oocytes 48-55. (oogonia, O; perineucleolar oocyte, PNO; and [3] Talwar, P. K. and A. G. Jhingran.1991. Inland fishes of previtellogenic oocyte, PVO) were evident during India and adjacent countries. vol 1. A.A. Balkema, the entire study period (September to December). Rotterdam. 541 pp. [4] Rahman, A. K. A. 2005. Freshwater Fishes of Maturing oocyte, yolk granule stage (YG) was nd evident only during December together with early Bangladesh, 2 ed. Zoological Society of Bangladesh, Department of Zoology, University of Dhaka. 394pp. oocytes, indication of gradual maturation of ovary [5] IUCN Bangladesh. 2003. Bangladesher Bipanno from spent phase. Bonno Prani. IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Alam [8] 2009) studied earlier the reproductive xiv+294 pp. biology and gametogenesis of pabo catfish from the [6] Rashid, H., M. A. Khaleque and M. S. Haq. 2011. Sylhet basin during June-August the spawning Threatened fish biodiversity of Dingapota in the season of the fish. The present study, conducted North-East Bangladesh. Fish. and Aqua. from September-December, to get further News-Bangladesh., 1: 23-24. information on spent and maturing female and male [7] Doha and Hye. 1970. Fecundity of hilsa, Hilsa ilisha. Pakistan J. Sci., 22: 176-184. which will be helpful to better understand its [8] Alam, M. S. 2009. Length-weight relationship and reproductive physiology towards designing reproductive physiology of three endangered pabda management and conservation plans and captive fishes from Sylhet basin. M.S. Thesis, Department of maturation. To maintain the species diversity, it is Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural high time to take steps against their gradual University, Mymensingh. 61pp. extinction through development of induced breeding techniques and sustainable management practices. The knowledge gathered through the present study on the length-weight relationship, GSI and histological observation pabo catfish gonads can be used as a basis for further research to save this species from the threats of extinction and also for their management in nature.

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E22 Heavy Metal Contamination in Water and Sediments of the River Karnafuli from South-East Coast of Bangladesh Al Mamun1, Kizar Ahmed Sumon1, Zahid Parvez Sukhan2, Enamul Hoq3, Md. Wahidul Alam4, Muhammad Shahidul Haq1, Fahmida Rashid5, Harunur Rashid1* 1Department of Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh 2Sharnalata Agro Fisheries Ltd., Radhakanai, Fulbaria, Mymensingh, Bangladesh 3Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute, Mymensingh, Bangladesh 4Institute of Marine Science and Fisheries, University of Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh 5Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Upazila Health Complex, Anwara, Chittagong, Bangladesh *Corresponding Author: Tel: +88-01924-429971; e-mail: [email protected] Abstract In order to determine the intensity of industrial heavy metal pollution in the River Karnafuli from south-east coast of Bangladesh this research was conducted and to analyze water and sediment samples Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry were used. Water quality parameters were also studied from the same location. Water and soil sediment samples were collected from two different sites viz. pollution source (PS; Chaktai khal estuary) and upstream the pollution source (UPS; 6 km upstream the Chaktai Khal estuary) of the River Karnafuli. Samples were collected during two different seasons- summer and winter. Heavy metals in the water and soil sediment samples analyzed were- Copper (Cu), Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni), Iron (Fe), Lead (Pb) and Aluminium (Al). Water quality parameters analyzed were- temperature, total alkalinity, ammonia, pH and dissolved oxygen (DO). The average concentrations of Fe, Pb and Al in water samples were found to be 0.6455±0.0025, 0.158±0.012 and 0.0745±0.0175 mg/l, respectively from UPS and 1.821±0.332, 0.224±0.031 and 0.215±0.0465 mg/l, respectively from PS. Cu, Cr and Ni concentrations were below detectable limit. Out of six hazardous heavy metal elements Fe, Pb and Al were found in higher concentration in winter compared to summer. The average concentrations of Cu, Cr, Ni, Fe, Pb and Al in soil sediments were found to be 19.46±1.10, 25.23±2.18, 25.39±3.94, 20900±2656.46, 14.44±1.63 and 12884.57±1349.15 mg/kg, respectively from UPS and 20.63±1.54, 31.11±1.87, 34.20±1.69, 27250±953.73, 16.53±2.24 and 16122.72±932.96 mg/kg, respectively from PS. The average values of temperature, total alkalinity, ammonia, pH, and DO were found to be 24.75±4.45 ºC, 60.5±4.5, 0.6105±0.4395, 8.625±0.175, and 6.285±0.315 mg/l, respectively from UPS and 24.4±4.0 ºC, 77.0±7.0, 3.0±1.0, 8.76±0.12 and 0.675±0.665 mg/l, respectively from PS. Among the water quality parameters studied, the DO concentration was found very low in winter from PS. Among the heavy metals, Cu, Fe and Pb were found in higher concentration in soil sediment samples from both the sites and samples from PS showed higher concentration in both water and soil.

INTRODUCTION a major environmental focus especially during the Karnafuli River is the largest and most important last decade [6]. river in Chittagong and the , Generally, heavy metal pollution is a problem originating in the Lushai hills of Mizoram, India. associated with intensive industry, because many of Because of industrial development, the heavy metal the industries do not use ETP (effluent treatment pollution of the Karnafuli River is increasing day by plant) before disposing into rivers or any type of open water bodies [7]. In this situation, it is day [1]. The availability of the heavy metals in the necessary to evaluate the presence heavy metal river water directly affect the fish physiology, and by contamination in the Karnaphuli river water. This the consumption ultimately affects the human health study allowed us to determine the level of heavy [2]. The fish population of the river decreasing metal such as Fe, Pb, Ni, Cu, Cr and Al in water of rapidly due to the increasing level of pollution, hence, the river Karnaphuli from the south-east coast of the socio-economic condition of the fishing Bangladesh. Ultimately, the results of this research community is affected [3]. project will be helpful for further investigation and it Bangladesh is a riverine country. Large number of will encourage the owner of the industries for rivers flowing through Bangladesh originated from installing the `Effluent Treatment Plant’. other country heavy, carried out loads of sediments and other debris including domestic wastes, agro- MATERIALS AND METHODS chemical and industrial wastes. Thus, makes the A. Study Area water body polluted with organic and inorganic The river Karnafuli near the Chittagong city pollutants, and affect the environment. Pollution is a receives a huge amount of untreated effluents from serious problem all over the world and is getting industries such as spinning mills, dying, cotton, textile, aggravated like Bangladesh [4]. Coastal areas are the still mills, oil refineries and other industries. Due it sites of discharge and accumulation of a range of indiscriminate discharge of untreated wastes from environmental contaminants [5]. Studies on heavy these industries, the river is getting polluted day by metals in rivers, lakes, fish and sediments have been day and the water is getting toxic.

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B. Site selection and sample collection E. Data analysis The Karnaphuli River, which passes through Data were analyzed using a two-way analysis of Chittagong, was selected as the case study for this variance (ANOVA), the level of significance thereby research (Fig. 1). Soil sediment and water samples being set at 5% (probality limit of p< 0.05). were collected to identify the toxic substances and the water quality. The high density PVC bottles were RESULTS AND DISCUSSION used for water sample collection and preservation. A. Water quality parameters The bottles ware kept air tight and labeled properly Water quality parameters of the River Karnafuli for future identification. Two sampling points in the from two sampling points are shown in Table 01. Karnaphuli River were- Upstream the Pollution Results showed that there were variations from two Source (UPS): Low industrial discharge near at sampling points and the values indicated high level bolihater khal of the River Karnafuli. Pollution of water pollution in the site of industrial discharge Source (PS): Apparantly high industrial discharge area (PS) compared to comparatively low industrial near the mouth of Chaktai Khal, Karnafuli River. discharge area (UPS).

Table 1. Mean concentrations (±SE) of physico-chemical parameters collected from two sampling points of Karnafuli River Parameters Sampling points USP PS Temperature 24.75±4.45 24.4±4.0 UPS (0C) Total alkalinity 60.5±4.50 77.0±7.00 (mg/l) PS pH 8.625 ± 0.175 8.76±0.12 Ammonia 0.6105±0.4395 3.0±0.10 (mg/l) Dissolved oxygen 6.285±0.315 0.675±0.665 (mg/l)

The average ammonia concentration was found Fig. 1. Map showing the sampling locations; upstream the 0.6105±0.4395 mg/l and 3.0±0.1 mg/l at UPS and PS pollution source (UPS) and pollution source (PS) of the respectively. The highest value of ammonia was 3.1 River Karnafuli. mg/l at PS which exceed the acceptable limit. The C. Sample preparation pollution source (PS) where industrially polluted waters are being carried to the Karnafuli River Sediment and water samples were collected from through Chaktai Khal intense industries are located, the two sampling points of the Karnaphuli River, put the average pH value was higher (8.76±0.12) than in ice box and transported to the wet laboratory at UPS (8.625 ± 0.175). From the present study it was Faculty of Fisheries in Bangladesh Agricultural found that the dissolved oxygen concentration was University. The water samples were collected in plastic 0.01 mg/l near the pollution source in winter. It was bottles and acidified immediately with 2 ml of HNO3 considerably less amount. The required amount of per liter of water and were preserved in refrigerator dissolved oxygen on a particular water body is 5 mg/l at 40C for laboratory analysis. The sediment samples or more for proper functioning of the recirculatory will be collected by vertical corer and Ekman Dredge system of fishes [8, 9]. The average dissolved sampler. Soil samples were dried in air and sieved by oxygen concentration was found 6.285±0.315 mg/l fine meshed net for laboratory analysis. and 0.675±0.665mg/l at upstream from the pollution D. Sample analysis source (UPS) and pollution source (PS) respectively. Water quality parameters and sediment samples So from the current study it was observed that the were analyzed at the laboratory of Department of dissolved oxygen concentration was below the Agricultural Chemistry in Bangladesh Agricultural acceptable limit at PS. In a similar study on water University during the period from July, 2012 to May, quality parameters of an industrially polluted river of 2013. Some of the water samples were analyzed in Bangladesh, Buriganga River, mean values of DO, SGS (Social General Service) Laboratory, Dhaka. pH and NO3-N to be 0.85 mg/l, 7.41 and 4.12 mg/l The prepared sediment samples and water samples during dry season were observed [10]. were analyzed by Atomic Absorption B. Heavy metal concentratoion in water Spectrophotometer (AAS) for detection of heavy metals like Copper (Cu), Chromium (Cr), Aliminium The average concentration of Fe in the water (Al), lead (Pb), Nickel (Ni) and Iron (Fe). samples of the Karnafuli was 0.6455±0.0025 mg/l and 1.821±0.332 mg/l at UPS and PS respectively. In

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accordance with permissible limit, in winter season compared to others. Cu, Cr and Pb concentration the Fe concentration at PS of the river water was were below the permissible limit (Table 3). The higher compare to summer at UPS (Table 2). permissible limit of Cu, Zn, Pb, and Cd are 135-270, The mean values of Al concentration were 300-600, 250-500 and 3-6 mgKg-1, respectively 0.0745±0.0175 mg/l and 0.215±0.0465 mg/l at UPS according to Indian standard for soil (ISS) [8], and and PS respectively in our sampling sites of the River according to ISQGs, the maximum permissible limits Karnafuli. The highest value of Al concentration was are 35.7, 123.0, 35.0 and 0.6 mgKg-1, respectively 0.261mg/l at PS in winter, which is slightly higher for freshwater sediment [12]. In the Karnafuli River than the permissible concentration. In UPS Pb sediment, all the toxic metals were found within the concentration was 0.158±0.012 mg/l and in PS, permissible limit of ISS and ISQGs. Results also which shows the higher concentration 0.224±0.031 showed that, PS always indicates the high level of mg/l compare to UPS. Al concentration is more in heavy metal contamination compared to UPS. the Chaktai Khal (UPS) may be due to discharge of industrial effluents without any treatment. Ni, Cr and CONCLUSION Cu concentrations were analyzed for the both The river Karnaphuli near the Chittagong city sampling sites UPS and PS of the River Karnaphuli receives a huge amount of untreated effluents from and analysis shows the result below detectable limit. industries such as spinning mills, dying, cotton, Concentrations of toxic metal in the water of textile, still mills, oil refineries and other industries. Buriganga River, Bangladesh were reported to be Due it indiscriminate discharge of untreated wastes 65.45, 9.34, 8.08, 163.09 and 587.20 mg/L for Pb, Ni, from these industries, the river is getting polluted day Cu and Cr, respectively; levels were much higher by day and the water is getting toxic. than the permissible limit [11]; in Cauvery River, This research revealed that the physico-chemical India concentrations were found to be 0.32, 2.23, parameters of the River Karnafuli (pH, alkalinity, 1.12 1.25, 5.25, 10.70 and 9.95 mgL-1 for Cr, Co, Cu, ammonia and temperature) were within the Mn, Ni, Zn and Pb, respectively; some parameter acceptable limit throughout the study period. But the found within the recommended limit and some dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration was very low parameters beyond the permissible limit [12]. particularly at pollution source (Chaktai Khal) in winter. It was found that, DO concentration was less Table 2: Mean concentrations (±SE) of toxic heavy metals than 1 mg/l, which causes hazardous situation for the in water from two sampling points of the River Karnafuli aquatic organisms to survive here. The average concentrations of Fe, Al, Pb, in water samples were Metals Sampling points higher amount but beyond the tolerable limit. Out of (mg/l) USP PS six hazardous heavy metal elements Fe, Al and Pb Fe 0.6455±0.0025 1.821±0.332 were found higher concentration in winter compare Pb 0.158±0.012 0.224±0.031 to summer. In our country, rivers and coastal areas are sites of Ni ND ND discharge and accumulation of a range of Al 0.0745±0.0175 0.215±0.0465 environmental contaminants. Studies on heavy Cr ND ND metals in rivers, lakes, fish and sediments have been Cu ND ND a major environmental focus especially during the last decade. Heavy metals contamination of river *ND; not detected water and sediment has been identified as a serious Table 3. Mean concentrations (±SE) of toxic heavy metals pollution resulting from industrialization. So, proper from two sampling points of the River Karnafuli management and initiative measures should be taken immediately for reducing heavy metal pollution and Metals Sampling points enhancement of our aquatic resources in the River (mg/kg) USP PS Karnafuli. Cu 19.46±1.10 20.63±1.54 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Cr 25.23±2.18 31.11±1.87 Professor Md. Shahidur Rahman, Department of Ni 25.39±3.94 34.20±1.69 Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural Fe 20900±2656.46 27250±953.73 University, Mymensingh for kind help in analyzing water quality parameters and Avijit-Somen, Institute Pb 14.44±1.63 16.53±2.24 of Marine Science and Fisheries, University of Al 12884.57±1349.15 16122.72±932.96 Chittagong, for their kind help in collecting samples from the River Karnafuli. C. Heavy metal concentration in soil sediment

Among the analyzed six heavy metal elements Fe and Al concentration were found to be higher

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REFERENCES [1] MK Ahmad, S Islam, S Rahman, MR Haque and MM Islam. 2010: Heavy Metals in Water, Sediment and Some Fishes of Buriganga River, Bangladesh. International Journal of Environment Research 4(2) 321-332. [2] AU Ahmed and M Reazuddin. 2000. Industrial Pollution of Water Systems in Bangladesh, University Press Limited, Dhaka, Bangladesh, pp 175-178. [3] H Rashid, MN Hasan, MB Tanu, R Parveen, ZP Sukhan, MS Rahman and Y Mahmud. 2012. Heavy Metal Pollution and Chemical Profile of Khiru River, Bangladesh. International Journal of Environment, 2(1): 57–63. [4] MOEF (Ministry of Environment and Forest), Govt. of Bangladesh 1991: Bangladesh Country Report for United Nations Conference in Environment and Development (UNCD), Brazil. [5] DG Shaw. 1984. Hydrocarbon in the water column. In Wolfe DA (ed), fate and effects of proteum Hydrocarbon in marine ecosystems and organisms. New York pegamon press. pp. 08. [6] H Ozmen, F Kulahci, A Cukurovali and M Dogru. 2004. Concentrations of heavy metals and radioactivity in surface water and sediment of Hazar Lake (Elazig, Turkey). Che-mosphere, 55 401-408 [7] K Alam. 2003. Cleanup of the Buriganga River, Integrating The Environment Into Decision Making. PhD Dissertation. Perth, Mordoch University. pp. 120. [8] SK Awasthi. 2000. Prevention of Food Adulteration Act. No. 37 of 1954, Central and state rules as amended for 1999. Ashoka Law House, New Delhi,India. [9] MA Rahman and DA Bakri. 2010. A Study on Selected Water Quality Parameters along the River Buriganga,Bangladesh. Iranica Journal of Energy & Environment, 1(2): 81-92. [10] AD Greiner and MB Timmons. 1998. Evaluation of the nitrification rates of microbead and trickling filters in an intensive recirculating tilapia production facility. Aqua Eng 18: 189-200. [11] MK Ahmed, S Islam, S Rahman, MR Haque and MM Islam. 2010. Heavy metals in water, sediment and some fishes of Buriganga River, Bangladesh. Int. J. Environ. Res., 4(2): 321-332. [12] A Begum, M Ramaiah, HI Khan and K Veena. 2009. Heavy metal pollution and chemical profile of Cauvery River Water. E-J. Chem., 6(1): 47-52.

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E23 Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals in Aquatic Fauna Collected from Contaminated Waters of the River Karnafuli in the South-East Coast of Bangladesh Kizar Ahmed Sumon1, Al Mamun1, Md. Enamul Hoq2, Md. Wahidul Alam3, Md. Rafiqul Islam Akhand4, Md. Abdus Sattar5, M Abul Faiz6, Harunur Rashid1* 1Department of Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh 2Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute, Mymensingh, Bangladesh 3Institute of Marine Science and Fisheries, University of Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh 4Innovision Consulting Private Ltd., Dhaka, Bangladesh 5Department of Medicine, Chittagong Medical College, Chittagong, Bangladesh 6Dev Care Foundation, Dhaka, Bangladesh *Corresponding Author: Tel: +88-01924-429971; e-mail: [email protected] Abstract The study was intended in determining the levels of some physico-chemical parameters, bioaccumulation of heavy metals in fish, shrimp and snail muscle sampled from the River Karnafuli. Samples were collected from two different points of the Karnafuli River (UPS-upstream the pollution source and PS- Pollution source) during July 2012-January 2013. The samples were collected for two different seasons: the summer and the winter. The samples like one fish species-Goby (Apocryptes bato), one shrimp species- Karnafuli shrimp (Palaemon karnafuliensis) and one snail species- Girdled horn snail (Cerithidea cingulata) were analyzed for the detection of concentration of six heavy meta like copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), iron (Fe), aluminium (Al) and nickel (Ni). The concentrations of heavy metals in each sample were determined via Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. Among the physico-chemical parameters studied the dissolved oxygen concentration was considerably low at pollution source area in winter. Out of the six most hazardous substances Cu, Cr, Pb and Ni were identified in low amount in fish and shrimp but high in snail. These metals were within the safe limit adapted by fish and shrimp. The bioaccumulation of heavy metal concentrations in snail was higher than the other samples like fish and shrimp during both summer and winter. The present study indicates that the water quality of Karnafuli River is deteriorating and the organisms are getting polluted due to discharge of untreated industrial wastes.

INTRODUCTION percent by industrial effluents and the rest by Bangladesh is a great delta formed by the alluvial untreated sewage [5]. Heavy metals occur in aquatic deposits of the three mighty Himalayan Rivers: the systems from natural sources and anthropogenic , the Brahmaputra and the Meghna. These activities. The pollution of aquatic environment by three rivers originate outside of Bangladesh and flow heavy metals affects aquatic biota posse’s through China, Nepal and India before they enter considerable environmental risks and concerns [6]. into Bangladesh and finally drain out into the Bay of Compared with other types of aquatic pollution, Bengal [1]. The environment, economic growth and heavy metal pollutants less visible but its effects on development of Bangladesh are all highly influenced the ecosystem and humans are intensive and very by water- its regional and seasonal availability, and extensive due to their toxicity and their ability to the quality of surface and ground water. More accumulate in the biota [7, 8]. These chemicals obvious are the polluting activities, such as the accumulate in the tissues of aquatic organisms at discharge of domestic, industrial, urban and other concentrations many times higher than concentrations wastewaters into the water-course (whether intentional in water and may be biomagnified in the food chain or accidental) and the spreading of chemicals on to levels that cause physiological impairment at agricultural land in the drainage basin [2]. higher tropic levels and in human consumers [9]. Water quality also depends on effluent types and These heavy metals are potential toxic agents for discharge quantity from different type of industries, human having effects on nervous system. types of agrochemicals used in agriculture, and Nowadays heavy metal pollution is a major seasonal water flow and dilution capability by the problem in developing countries like Bangladesh. river system [3]. Advancement in technology as well The pollution problem is associated with the as increase in population have led to environmental discharge of different types of effluents from various concerns relating from indiscriminate dumping of industries such as garments, textiles, aluminium, refuse and discharge of industrial effluents, petroleum plastic, rice mill, fish drying and other industries. waste water, and crude oil spills replete with most The heavy metal pollution of the River Karnafuli is common heavy metals in our environment [4]. occurring due to the discharge of various River pollution has been a major problem in the contaminants. In this situation, it is necessary to developing countries. In developing countries the evaluate the presence of trace elements and their watercourses are polluted approximately twenty limits in fish and plants as well as to human body. The aim of this study is to evaluate the seasonal

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variation in bioaccumulation of six heavy metals discharge near at Bolihater Khal, Karnafuli River such as Cu, Cr, Pb, Fe, Al and Ni in fish, shrimp and and Pollution Source (PS): Apparently high snail muscle and the suitability of some industrial discharge near the mouth of Chaktai Khal, physicochemical parameters sampled from Karnafuli Karnafuli River. River situated in the South-East Coast of Bangladesh. C. Sample preparation The information will be helpful to create awareness among the people and policy makers about the The collected samples were put in ice box and necessity of installing ‘Effluent Treatment Plant’ in transported to the Wet Laboratory at Fisheries these industries. Faculty, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh. Samples were kept at 40C until MATERIALS AND METHODS analysis. Viscera were removed from fish samples A. The study area and the shell was discarded from shrimp and snail The River Karnafuli receives different types of samples. The samples were prepared following the effluents those are discharged from the numerous standard protocol. 0 industries like garments, tanneries, rice mills, plastic, 3-5 g of each sample was kept in an oven at 60 c aluminium, refineries, ship breaking industries and for 48 hours. After then1 g was taken in digestion fish drying industries. The river is getting polluted tube. The samples were digested with 15 ml acid 0 rapidly due to indiscriminate and unplanned mixture (10 ml HNO3 and 5 ml HClO4) at 120 C for construction of these industries. As a result the water 1 hr. Digested samples were then filtered with and the different organisms like various species of Whitman 42 filter and raised the volume to 100ml fishes, shrimps, snails and other invertebrates of this with distilled water. river are getting toxic (Fig. 1). D. Sample analysis The physico-chemical parameters (pH, dissolved oxygen, total alkalinity, ammonia-nitrogen and temperature) of water were analyzed using HACK kit. The prepared fish, shrimp and snail samples were analyzed by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) for the detection of heavy metals like Cu, Cr, Pb, Fe, Al and Ni. UPS E. Data analysis Data were analyzed using a two-way analysis of PS variance (ANOVA), the level of significance thereby being set at 5% (probability limit of p< 0.05). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. Water quality parameters Water quality parameters sampled from two Fig. 1. Map showing the sampling locations; upstream the sampling points are shown in the Table 1. Results pollution source (UPS) and pollution source (PS) of the showed that there were considerable variations in River Karnafuli. water quality parameters between two sampling points. The values indicated that water pollution level B. Site selection and sample collection was higher at pollution source area (Chaktai Khal) The River Karnafuli was selected as the case study than upstream the pollution source area (Bolihater for this research. Fish, shrimp, snail and water Khal). This may be due to the variation of different samples were collected from July, 2012 to January, industries and discharge of untreated wastes. 2013 to determine the toxic substances and the water quality parameters. These samples were collected Table 1. Mean concentrations (±SE) of physico-chemical within two seasons, the summer and the winter. parameters collected from two sampling points of Karnafuli River Fishes- Goby (Apocryptes bato) and shrimps- Sampling Point Parameter Karnafuli shrimp (Palaemon karnafuliensis) were UPS PS collected with seine net. Snail samples- Girdled horn pH 8.62 ± 0.18 8.76±0.12 snail (Cerithidea cingulata) was collected manually. Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) 6.285±0.32 0.67±0.66 Immediately after collection the fish, shrimp and Total alkalinity (mg/l) 60.5±4.50 77.0±7.0 snail samples were kept into the ice box. The high Ammonia-nitrogen (mg/l) 0.61±0.44 3.0±0.1 density bottles were used to collect and preserve the Temperature (0C) 24.75±4.45 24.4±4.0 water sample. The samples were collected from two points of the Karnafuli River. The sampling points The suitable range of DO, total alkalinity, NH3-N were: Upstream the Pollution Source (UPS): About and pH for fish in river is 6.5-7.0, 20-200, <1.0mg/l six kilometers from pollution source. Low industrial and 6.5-9.0, respectively [10, 11]. The present study

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indicates that some parameters (pH, total alkalinity Bangladesh, Buriganga River [19], highest Cu was and temperature) were within the acceptable limit found in Taki (Channa punctata; 5.27 mg/kg) and and some were (DO and NH3-N) beyond the lowest in Chapila (Gudusia chapra; 4.25 mg/kg) in permissible limit. It was found that the DO was 0.01 pre-monsoon fish samples. The concentration of Cu mg/l at near the PS in winter which was significantly found in the fish originating from the Una River low. The required amount of dissolved oxygen on a basin (located in the northwestern part of Bosnia and particular water body is 5 mg/l or more for proper Herzegovina) averaged 0.79 mg/kg [20]. functioning of the recirculatory system of fishes [12]. C. Heavy metals concentrations in shrimp muscle The value of ammonia was 3.1 mg/l at PS which exceeded the acceptable limit. Fish and other aquatic The toxic heavy metal concentrations in shrimp life exposed to ammonia level of 1 mg/l in water may muscle are presented in the Table 3. suffocate as a result of a significant reduction in the The concentrations of all trace metals in shrimp oxygen combining capacity of blood [13]. The level muscle collected from the River Karnafuli were of ammonia at PS (Chaktai Khal) was so high, thus within safe limit [18]. The amount of copper was indicating the water unsuitable for fish and other detected from the Una River basin, located in the aquatic lives. In a similar study on water quality northwestern part of Bosnia and Herzegovina ranged parameters of an industrially polluted river of from 0.004 to 0.01 mg/l [20]. The concentration of Bangladesh, Buriganga River, mean values of DO, lead was 10.0 mg/kg in Macrobrachium rosenbergii pH and NO3-N to be 0.85 mg/l, 7.41 and 4.12 mg/l and 7.28 mg/kg in Penaeus monodon during the during dry season were observed [11]. Low DO and comparative study between M. rosenbergii and high NH3-N level in Karnafuli River water may have P.monodon in Epe lagoon, Nigeria [21]. been resulted from the variety of inorganic and Table 3. Mean concentrations (±SE) of heavy metals in organic wastes coming from numerous industries. shrimp muscle sampled from two sampling points of B. Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in fish muscle Karnafuli River. Heavy metals in the aquatic environment can Metals Sampling Point affect aquatic biota and pose a risk to fish consumers, (mg/kg) UPS PS such as humans and other wildlife. Discharge of Cu 3.8425± 3.6675 6.102±1.942 heavy metals into river or any aquatic environment Cr can change both the diversity of aquatic organisms 1.53± 1.39 0.1205±0.0105 and ecosystems, because of their toxicity and Pb 0.04± 0.03 0.0395±0.0105 accumulative behavior [14]. The toxic effects of Fe 23.00± 5.85 22.335±11.015 heavy metals may alter the physiological activities of Al 12.145±1.495 15.054±7.014 organisms as well as change the biochemical Ni 0.075±0.045 0.0395±0.0145 parameters both in tissue and in blood of fish [15,16and17]. The Karnafuli River receives huge amount of untreated effluents from various industries. D. Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in snail So the environment of the River Karnafuli is getting muscle polluted. The mean concentrations of heavy metals in The toxic heavy metal concentrations in snail fish muscle sampled from the River Karnafuli are muscle are presented in the Table 4. presented in the Table 2. Table 4. Mean concentrations (±SE) of heavy metals in snail muscle collected from two sampling points of Table 2. Mean concentrations (±SE) of heavy metals Karnafuli River in fish muscle sampled from two sampling points of Sampling Point Karnafuli River. Metals Sampling Point (mg/kg) UPS PS Metals (mg/kg) UPS PS Cu 8.135±8.055 732.4725±717.2325 Cr 5.845±4.365 2.688±1.192 Cu 0.59± 0.28 0.575±0.095 Pb 0.71±0.40 1.827±0.923 Cr 0.665±0.075 0.2245±0.0755 Fe 1865.355±129.125 2326.152±2297.158 Al 521.35±417.60 1830.8935±591.2165 Pb 0.08±0.03 0.1825±0.0575 Ni 2.118±0.122 4.553±0.817 Fe 32.12±2.21 46.945±5.935 Al 13.73±4.53 35.9555±17.9345 The bioaccumulation of different heavy metals in snail muscle sampled from two sampling points of Ni 0.165±0.125 0.076±0.074 the River Karnafuli was beyond the safe limit [18]. The average Cu concentrations in snail muscle were The concentrations of all parameters like Cu, Cr, 8.135±8.055 mg/kg and 732.4725±717.2325 mg/kg Pb, Fe, Al and Ni in fish muscle from Karnafuli at UPS and PS, respectively. The highest value of Cu River at both sampling points were within the in snail muscle was 1449.705 mg/kg at PS in summer permissible limit [18]. In a heavily polluted river of which was so high [18]. The concentrations of Cr in

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snail muscle varied from 1.48 mg/kg to 10.21 mg/kg ACKNOWLEDGEMENT at UPS and 1.496 mg/kg to 3.88 mg/kg at PS. The Avijit and Somendranath, Institute of Marine average lead concentrations were 0.71±0.40 mg/kg Science and Fisheries, University of Chittagong, and 1.827±0.923 mg/kg at UPS and PS, respectively. Chittagong for their kind help in collecting the The highest value of Pb in snail muscle was 2.75 samples from the Karnafuli River during the study mg/kg at PS in winter. The concentrations of Fe in period. snail muscle varied from 1736.23 mg/kg to 2004.48 REFERENCES mg/kg at UPS and 28.994 mg/kg to 4623.31 mg/kg at PS. The highest value of Fe in snail muscle was [1] H Rashid, MN Hasan, MB Tanu, R Parveen, ZP 4623.31 mg/kg at PS in winter which was Sukhan, MS Rahman and Y Mahmud. 2012. Heavy Metal Pollution and Chemical Profile of Khiru River, significantly high [18]. The lowest Al concentration Bangladesh. International Journal of Environment, (103.75 mg/kg) was found in summer at UPS and the 2(1): 57–63. highest value of Al was 2422.11 mg/kg at UPS in [2] M Meybeck and R Helmer. 1996. Introduction. In: D winter. Chapman (Editor), Quality Assessments. A Guide to High heavy metal concentrations in snail muscle the Use of Biota, Sediments and Water in of the Karnafuli River may have been resulted from Environmental Monitoring. 2nd edition. Chapman & the direct discharge of untreated wastes from the Hall, London. various industries situated in the vicinity of the river. [3] DHV. 1998. Meghna Estuary Study, Draft Master Plan, Volume 1, Main Report for Brunei Economic During this study, a visit along the river by the Development Board, Dhaka, Bangladesh. research team found most of the industries [4] J Wills. 2000. A survey of offshore oil field drilling discharging of raw, untreated, hot and intransparent wastes and disposal techniques to reduce the liquid wastes directly into the river. ecological impact of sea dumping. Sakhalin Environ. Watch 13: 23-2. CONCLUSION [5] PJM Saunders. 1976. The estimation of pollution The study revealed that the physico-chemical damage. Manchester university press. pp. 17. parameters of the River Karnafuli (pH, total [6] S Amisah, D Adjei-Boateng, KA Obirikorang and alkalinity, ammonia-nitrogen and temperature) were Quagrainie. 2009. Effects of clam size on heavy within the acceptable limit throughout the study metal accumulation in whole soft tissues of Galatea paradoxa (Born, 1778) from the Volta estuary. period. But the dissolved oxygen concentration was Ghana. International journal of Fisheries and considerably low particularly at pollution source in Aquaculture, 1 (2):14 -21. winter (January). Out of six most hazardous [7] A Shanmugam, C Palpandi and K Kesavan. 2007. substances Cu, Cr, Pb and Ni were identified in low Bioaccumulation of some trace metals (Mg, Fe, Zn, amount. But the bioaccumulation of Al and Fe were Cu) from Bowl Cymbium melo (Solander, 1786). high concentration in almost all samples. Heavy Research Journal of Environmental Sciences, 1 (4): metal concentrations in fish and shrimp muscle were 191-195. within the tolerable level. The concentrations of all [8] CA Edem, B Akpan and MI Dosunmu. 2008. A comparative assessment of heavy metals and parameters especially Al and Fe in snail muscle were hydrocarbon accumulation in Sphyrena afra, significantly high. Because the invertebrate like snail Oreochromis niloticus and lops lacerta from can absorb these metals more than the others. So the Anantigha Beach market in Calabar-Nigeria. African bioaccumulation of heavy metals in snail muscle was Journal of Environmental Pollution and Health, 6: beyond the permissible limit. 61-64. Rivers are the glory of Bangladesh and transcend [9] JC Raposo, EL Bartolome, EE Cortazar, EJ Arana, EM all aspects of life. The rivers serve as the main Zabaljauregui, EM Diego, EO Zuloaga, EJM Madariaga and source of water for cultivation and as the principal EM Etxebarria. 2009. Trace Metals in Oysters, Crassotrea sps., from UNESCO Protected Natural Reserve of Urdaibai: arteries of commercial transportation. Rivers also Space-Time Observations and Source Identification. Bulletin provide fish, an important source of protein. Many of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 83: 223. people earn their livelihood by catching fish in the [10] MA Rahman and DA Bakri. 2010. A Study on rivers. But the rivers are getting polluted day by day Selected Water Quality Parameters along the River due to various reasons. Therefore, proper Buriganga,Bangladesh. Iranica Journal of Energy & management and maintenance of river is very Environment, 1(2): 81-92. important not just because of their crucial role in [11] SK Awasthi. 2000. Prevention of Food Adulteration maintaining ecological balance and keeping the Act. No. 37 of 1954, Central and state rules as amended for 1999. Ashoka Law House, New environment naturally hygienic but to increase Delhi,India. fisheries production as well as to provide livelihood [12] AD Greiner and MB Timmons. 1998. Evaluation of for the rural people of Bangladesh. In order to reduce the nitrification rates of microbead and trickling the pollution level from the Karnafuli River it is filters in an intensive recirculating tilapia production necessary to create awareness among the public as facility. Aqua Eng 18: 189-200. well as the policy makers. A periodic surveillance on [13] MA Winker. 1981. Biological Treatment of Waste the level of these heavy metals among these fish and Water, Ellis Horwood Ltd., Chichester, England. snails from the Karnafuli might be useful.

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[14] AG Heath. 1987. Water pollution and Fish physiology. CRC press, Florida, USA, pp. 245. [15] A Larsson, C Haux and M Sjobeck. 1985. Fish physiology and metal pollution: Results and experiences from laboratory and field studies. Ecotox. Environ. Safe, 9: 250-281. [16] JG Nemesok and ZGM Huphes. 1988. The effects of copper sulphate on some biochemical parameters of rainbow trout. Environmental Pollution, 49: 77-85. [17] PD Abel and SE Papoutsouglou. 1986. Lethal toxicity of cadmium to Cyprinus carpio and Tilapia aurea. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 37: 382-386. [18] FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization). 1983. Compilation of legal limits of hazardous substance in fish and fishery products. FAO fishery circular, no. 464, pp.5-100. [19] AOAC. 2000. Official methods of analysis of. AOAC. Internatioanal. Official method 937.07, fish and marine products (17th ed.), Gaithersburg, MD: AOAC. [20] A Vildana, N Vahcic and Bajramovic. 2007. Bioaccumulation of metals in fish of salmonidae family and the impact on fish meat quality. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 13(1-3): 349-364. [21] OO Fafioye and BM Ogunsanwo. 2006. The comparative toxicities of cadmium, copper and lead to Macrobrachium rosenbergii and Penaeus monodon post larvae. African journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. 2(1), pp. 31-35.

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E24 Distribution of Salmonella and Vibrio in Water and Soil with Relation to Water Parameters at the Estuary of the Karnafuly River, Bangladesh Md. Wahidul Alam*, Mohammad Zafar and Mohammed Monirul Hoque Khan Institute of Marine Sciences and Fisheries, University of Chittagong, Chittagong-4331, Bangladesh *e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Present study was carried out to examine the Salmonella and Vibrio presence in soil and water sample along with some physico-chemical parameters of water at the Karnafuly river estuary during March-June 2012 from 3 stations. Water temperature ranges from 26.5- 32ºC, salinity ranged between 0ppt to 5ppt, pH 7.5 – 7.9 and dissolved oxygen (DO) 2.28 – 2.91mg/l in water samples. Maximum Salmonella concentrations was observed 5 cells/gm in soil sample at station 1 during May and maximum Vibrio concentration was 6 cells/ml in water sample of station 1 during May. Dissolve oxygen concentration was found most influential factor for occurrence of Salmonella where salinity was found for Vibrio occurrence. Among two species Vibrio contributed 67.23% where Salmonella contributed 32.77% and both the species exceed the standard level in water and soil at the Karnafuly river for drinking and other household purpose.

INTRODUCTION diverse fluctuating parameters are responsible for Bacteria have adapted to live and reproduce in a occurrences and distribution of different micro- variety of environments including animals, humans, organisms in estuarine environment. It is also blessed water, sediments, soils and foods. Health hazard with estuarine water, soil, marine resources and indicating bacteria like Salmonella and Vibrio are varieties of fish species. Besides a lot of industry, those which act as a contributory representative of fishing boats, vessels or trawler and container ship disease. Growth of those bacteria depends on are available over the river which hampers the status adequate supplies of water, food, nutrients and some of water, soil and fish species of this river. Different physio-chemical parameters like proper pH, suitable scientist reported the estuarine environment is oxygen, salinity, temperature etc [1]. Aquatic polluted owing to the continuous discharge of waste environment contaminated by limited microbial material from the industries and sewage of the town. population when little amount of organic matters Pollution of water courses associated with industrial support but higher concentration of organic matter discharge and refuse from human settlements is a can support a higher population of bacterial growth global problem [15]. Everything is carried by rivers [1]. Salmonella and Vibrio in water and soil can lead ultimately goes in oceans through estuaries. The to diseases i.e. Typhoid, dysentery and cholera is pollutants get dispersed by turbulence, ocean currents transmitted by water. The sites of infections in and tidal action firstly in the estuary, then animal and human body are the alimentary canal, concentrated in the food chain components through ears, eyes, nasal cavity, skin and upper respiratory microbial action or deposited in the bottom soils [1]. tract. Consumption of contaminated shell fishes People in Chittagong city are depending on also exposes humans to marine pathogens. In Karnafuly River for drinking or other house hold Bangladesh, pathogenic bacteria contamination can purpose. Besides lots of people including large also lead to infectious hepatitis and dysentery which number of fisherman lives in both side of the river. are more common. From health hazard point of view, They use the water for bathing and drinking. They many indicator microorganisms have been identified also used soil and soil for household purpose. Many by Ref. [2]. Salmonella and Vibrio traditionally countries in the world have developed drinking water monitored by water pollution control to help limit the criteria and standards. Bangladesh developed the first spread of environmental diseases [3]. Concentration Water Quality Standards in 1976 based on levels of Salmonella and Vibrio are significantly International Drinking Water Standards [16]. The influenced by various nonpoint sources such as Bangladesh standard specification for drinking water surface runoff, bank soils, recreational activity, and (BDS 1240: 1989) was prepared and published by the animal excreta [4-8]. Many studies indicate that soils Bangladesh Standard and Testing Institution (BSTI) can harbor much higher populations of both fecal for the control of drinking water including bacterial coliforms and Vibrio sp than the overlying water load. According to World Health Organization [17] column [9-14]. and Environment Quality standard for Bangladesh Karnafuly river estuary is one of the most [18], the standard value of total load of Salmonella important estuaries in Bangladesh and hydro- and Vibrio for drinking water is nil/ml of water. biologically it is the meeting place in which fresh Different researchers identified different pathogenic water from upstream in continuously mixing with bacteria in respect of contaminated fish of the salt water from Bay of Bengal. Combinations of Karnafuly River but it is rare to identify the presence

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of Salmonella and Vibrio bacteria in water and soil in estuary during this study period. In situ measurement respect of this area. Consider the importance of water of water temperature was measured by centigrade and soil of the estuary in daily life, the present thermometer where water pH and salinity was research work aimed to estimate the presence of measured by pen pH meter and refractometer Salmonella and Vibrio in water and soil of Karnafuly respectively. Dissolve Oxygen (DO) concentration river estuary. was measured in laboratory by following standard method [20]. Collected water and soil sample were METHODOLOGY preserved and microbial analysis was conducted at A. Description of the study area laboratory to identify the presence of Salmonella and The Karnafuly is the principal river of Chittagong Vibrio in water and soil of the Karnafuly estuary. district of Bangladesh. It originates in the Lushai Salmonella and Vibrio of water and soil identified by Hills of Mizoram (India), flows through Rangamati standard plate count (SPC) techniques [20]. As the and the port city of Chittagong and discharges into Salmonella and Vibrio was very rare in water and the Bay of Bengal near Patenga. Geographically this soils, so the author did the work without serial estuary located between latitude 22053/N and dilution in respect of identify the growth of colonies longitude 92027/E. It travels about 121 miles in a in selective medium. For this reason SPC was zigzag ways to west and south west side and finally conducted by making without serial dilution, plating falls on the Bay of Bengal at latitude 22012/N and and identify colony by presence or absence. Presence longitude 91047/E at near Patenga, Chittagong. The or absence of Salmonella and Vibrio was estimated average channel depth of the basin at the river by using pour plate techniques. 1 ml. of water (1ml : estuary is 8 meters. Geologically, the entire 9 ml of Distilled Water) or diluted soil samples catchment consists of a substratum of tertiary rocks (1gm : 9 ml of Distilled Water) were transferred by covered with alluvial deposits. The overlying sterile pipettes into Petridis and the plates were deposits show that it consists of successive layers of poured with Brilliant Green Agar (BGA) media for mud and sand [19]. Hydrological parameters i.e. Salmonella and Thiosulphate Citrate Bile Salt temperature, salinity, pH, D.O fluctuate seasonally. (TCBS) Agar media for Vibrio and incubated at room Three sampling stations (Fig. 1) were selected for the temperature for 48 hours. Growth of Colonies having present investigation with the basis of different types a pink opaque color with surrounded by a bright red of pollution. First sampling station (St-1) located color were confirmed as Salmonella sp. present and near Chaktai canal (most polluted canal of colonies having a greenish centre were confirmed as Bangladesh) receives heavy discharges from Vibrio sp. present. different domestic and industrial sources to the estuary. Second sampling station (St-2) located at the RESULTS middle portion of the River where small city canal A. Hydrographic conditions falls into the river and carry industrial and city Results from the water samples showed distinct wastes. Third sampling station (St-3) located at the hydrographic conditions (Fig. 2). Water temperature mouth of the estuary and receives discharges varies between 26.50C to 32.00C. Maximum water composed of different kinds of city wastes through a temperature was recorded 32.00C in June at St-1and canal which ultimately fall into the estuary. St-3 where minimum temperature was recorded in March at St-1. Monthly maximum average temperature was found 31.67⁰C during May where minimum 26.83⁰C during March. On the other hand average maximum water temperature was recorded 29.25⁰C at St-2 and 3 and minimum 29.13⁰C at St-1. No significant difference was observed in water temperature among the stations but significant difference was found among the months (F=23, P<0.01). Salinity of the present study found between 01 ppt. to 05 ppt. Maximum was recorded (1.6 ppt) in June at St-1,2 and minimum 0.3 ppt at St-1,4 during March and April. Monthly maximum average salinity was found 1.67 ppt during May where Fig. 1 Geographical location of the study area showing minimum salinity was recorded 0.33 ppt during different sampling stations March and April. Mean maximum salinity was observed 2.3 ppt at St-3 and no salinity was found at B. Data collection and analysis St-1 and 2. No significant difference was observed Present work was carried from March to June 2012. among the stations but have significant difference Water and soils samples were collected from three among months (F=26, P<0.001) for salinity value. stations (St-1, St-2 and St-3) of the Karnafuly river Dissolved Oxygen (DO) concentration in water

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sample varies between 2.40 mg/l to 2.88 mg/l. The B. Status of Salmonella and Vibrio colony in water maximum D.O. contents were recorded in 2.91 in and soil sample July at St-3 and minimum was recorded in June at Status of Salmonella and Vibrio colony in water St-2. Monthly maximum mean DO was found 2.71 and soil sample is shown in fig. 3. No Salmonella mg/l during June and minimum 2.02 mg/l during was observed in water sample at station 2 and 3 May. On the other hand maximum mean DO 2.63 during March to June, where it was absent for station mg/l was recorded at St-1 where minimum 2.25 mg/l 1 during March and June. Only 1 cell/ml and 3 at St-2. No significant difference was found in DO cells/ml Salmonella was found in water sample of among the stations though significant difference was station 1 during April and May respectively. In case observed among months (F=25, P<0.01). Water pH of soil sample, 2, 5 and 3 cells/ml Salmonella was varies between7.5 to 8.5 and maximum pH value was found at station 1 during March, May and June recorded 8.5 at St-3 during June and minimum 7.5 respectively where it was absent for the month April. during March at St-3. Monthly maximum mean pH During March and April Salmonella was absent in was recorded 8.13 during May and minimum 7.2 the soil sample of station 2 but only few (2cells/ml during June. Average pH at maximum level occurred and 1cell/ml) was observed during May and June. No at St-1(7.7) where minimum found at St-2 (7.6). No concentration of Salmonella was found in soil sample significant difference was found in pH values among of station 3 during the present study period. the stations but significant difference was found among the months (F=31, P<0.01).

Fig. 2 Physico-chemical parameters of Karnafuli River at different stations in different months

Fig. 3 Salmonella and Vibrio sp concentration (cells/ml) in water and soil sample at different stations during sampling period

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Vibrio concentration was found nil during March sample was found significantly correlated with and June in water sample of station 1 but 4 cells/ml dissolve oxygen concentration. and 6 cells/ml concentration was observed during SIMPER analysis (Table 1) showed that Vibrio in April and May. On the other hand this species was soil contributed 40.46% where it contributed 26.77% absent in stations 2 during May and June but very for water sample. Salmonella contributed 24.76% few concentration (2 cells/ml and 3 cells/ml) was and 8.01% for soil and water sample respectively. found during March and April. No Vibrio was found Among two species Vibrio contributed 67.23% throughout the study period in water sample of where Salmonella contributed 32.77%. station 3. In soil sample of station 1, Vibrio was Table 1 SIMPER analysis of Vibrio and Salmonella found at a concentration 3, 5, 7 and 4cells/ml for the concentration in water and soil sample months of March, April, May and June respectively. During March and June occurrence of this species Groups Average Contribution was nil but 3 and 4 cells/ml concentration was found dissimilarity (%) during April and May months. Only 1 cell/ml Vibrio Vibrio in soil 24.88 40.46 was found in soil sample of station 3 during May and Vibrio in water 16.46 26.77 was absent for other months. Salmonella in soil 15.23 24.76 Salmonella in water 4.927 8.01 Vibrio in soil 41.34 67.23 Total Salmonella 20.157 32.77

DISCUSSION From the present physio-chemical study of the water quality of the Karnafuly, it can be concluded that the condition of the Karnafuly River is critical. Decreasing trend of DO of the Karnafuly river water was observed from the present and previous study [21] Minimum DO value found for the Karnafuly as low as 2.40mgL-1. This indicates the critical condition of this River. DO values in the range (2.74-5.12mg/l) and (3.95-5.97mg/l) for river water samples and (3.73-5.01 mg/l) and (5.04-5.49 mg/l) for lake water samples in the dry and rainy seasons, respectively [22]. Mean pH value of the water was found in the alkaline range. Similar pH values 7.5-8.5 were also reported by [23]. For the Naf River which almost similar to the present Fig. 4 Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) ordination findings. Reference [24] stated that salinity of an of species concentration and water parameters estuary ranged between 0.50 ppt to 35 ppt. Reference Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) [25] showed the salinity ranged between 14.43 ppt to ordination of species concentration and water 25.92 ppt salinity of the present work found at parameters is shown in figure 4. In CCA, species similar value. Reference [26] also reported variation concentration plotted closer to the vector, have of water temperature for seasonal change. Reference stronger relationships with them. Species [27] and [28] observed seasonal variation of water concentration located near the origin either do not temperature ranged between 7.54ºc and 10ºc. During show a strong relationship to any of the variables or the present study monthly variation of water are found at average values of water temperature was observed. parameters. CCA eigenvalues of the first and second Several non-point and point sources can contribute axis was found 0.02 and 0.008 respectively. to the presence of Salmonella and Vibrio sp. in aquatic Species concentration and water parameters Pearson systems that can be detrimental to public health such correlation coefficients for the first and second axis as: humans, agriculture, water run-off, tidal actions, were found 0.62 and 0.41 respectively. The first and animal traffic, sustained winds, boats, dredging and second axis modeled 72.01 and 27.94% data polluted groundwater and environmental sources respectively. Water pH was found significantly such as soil. Toxic metals pollution is predominant in correlated with Vibrio concentration in water sample the Karnafuly river water as the toxic metals were where significant relationship was found for station 2 included form drainage of domestic waste. A large and total Vibrio concentration with water temperature. number of chemical and fertilizer industries have Salinity showed significant correlation with station 1 been established since the independence on both the and 3 and Vibrio concentration in soil. Total banks of the Karnafuly. Effluents from these Salmonella concentration and its occurrence in soil industries are reportedly being directly discharged

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into this river. Huge amount of solid wastes and contaminated by Salmonella and Vibrio. During the effluents are discharged through Chaktai, Sundari, study period, it is concluded that Salmonella and Noakhal, Mazirghat, Gupta, Mohesh, Shikalbhaha Vibrio bacteria from three stations of the Karnafuly and Ferighat canals into the Karnafuly River; as a exceed the standard level in some stations both in result pollution of this river is increasing day by day. water and soil so this water is polluted and Leaking and leaching of oil from ships and boats are unhygienic for drinking and even washing without also polluting the water of the Karnafuly River. Due treatment which directly effects on human health. to the climate change during flood, soil erosion and land slide increases the suspended solids, metallic ACKNOWLEDGMENT and other pollutants. Polluted water and soil create a The authors are grateful for the technical lab and favorable condition for Salmonella and Vibrio sp. instrument support of Institute of Marine Sciences multiplication. and Fisheries (IMSF), University of Chittagong, In Karnafuly estuarine area, a lot of people used Bangladesh to complete the research work estuarine water and soils for drinking, bathing and successfully. The Authors also accords their obliged various houses hold purposes. Estuarine resources admiration to all facuties of IMSF for their helpful and fish species are contaminated by some suggestion and earnest co-operation in carrying out pathogenic bacteria because water and soils are the this study. potential career of such types of bacteria. Health hazard indicating bacteria are those which are REFERENCES pathogenic to organisms including fish species, [1] MN Islam. 1998. Study on the pollution indicating human etc. or create health hazard disease including bacteria in the brackish water environment with diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, typhoid etc. So estuarine reference to Karnafuly river estuary. MSc. Thesis. water and soils were should be free from such types Institute of Marine Sciences, University of of microorganisms. During the study period (2012), Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh. [2] PC Wood. 1972. Marine pollution and sea life. it was observed that Salmonella and Vibrio were very Summaries of discussion at FAO technical rare and sometimes absent in different station. The conference on marine pollution. Ruivo, M. (ed.) 9-18 presence or absence of Salmonella and Vibrio were Dec. 1970. Fishing news. 23, Rosemount Avenue, also observed in all the sampling stations during the West Byfleet, Surrey, England. study period. The presences of these health hazard [3] M Niemi, M Sihakov and S Niemela. 1983. organisms indicate truly polluted aquatic Antibiotic resistance among different species of fecal environments because of producing many serious coliforms isolated from water samples. Appl. Environ. diseases in animal and human body. In the present Microbiol. 45:79–83. [4] C Ferguson, AM Husman, N Altavilla, D Deere, N investigation, Vibrio was found more than Ashbolt. 2003. Fate and transport of surface water Salmonella. Salmonella was not found both in water pathogens in watersheds. Critical Reviews in and soils at St-3. The abundances of Vibrio were high Environ Sci and Technol. 33, 299–361. in St-1 both in water and soil sample where always [5] EE Geldreich. 1996. Pathogenic agents in unhygienic conditions indicate. Reference [29] freshwater resources. Hydrological Processes 10, reported that, Vibrio sp. is a pathogenic organism that 315–333. distributed in the coastal and brackish water [6] GH Kim, JH Yur, JK Kim. 2007. Diffuse pollution environment. Salmonella was also found more loading from urban storm water runoff in Daejeon city, Korea. Journal of Environmental Management frequently during the investigation about the estuary 85, 9–16. [30]. He reported that, a great number of Salmonella [7] J Wilkinson, D Kay, M Wyer, A Jenkins. 2006. present in the estuarine environment. Seafood Processes driving the episodic flux of faecal indicator processors also reported Salmonella contaminates in organisms in streams impacting on recreational and their sea food harvested from the offshore water [31]. shellfish harvesting waters. Water Research 40, References [32-34] were also reported the occurrence 153–161. of Vibrio in the aquatic environment of Bangladesh. [8] P Servais, T Garcia-Armisen, I George, G Billen, 2007. Fecal bacteria in the rivers of the seine CONCLUSION drainage network (France): sources, fate and modeling. Sci Total Environ. 375, 152–167. Water of Karnafuly river estuary for any purposes [9] C Crabill, R Donald, J Snelling, R Foust, G Southam. people may be affected by several health hazard 1999. The impact of sediment fecal diseases like diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, typhoid etc. coliform reservoirs on seasonal water In the present work with compare between the water quality in Oak Creek, Arizona. Water Research and soil, it was found that soil sample carries more 33, 2163–2171. presence of bacterial colony in different stations than [10] CR Rehmann, MR Soupir. 2009. Importance of water sample. In Karnafuly river area, people interactions between the water column and the suffering by various health hazard diseases due to sediment for microbial concentrations in streams. Water Research 43, 4579–4589. uses of water for drinking, bathing, washing and soil [11] J Smith, J Edwards, H Hilger, TR Steck. 2008. for various houses hold purposes. Water and soil Sediment can be a reservoir for coliform bacteria resources and fish species of Karnafuly estuary are

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released into streams. J. General and App Sciences and Fisheries. University of Chittagong. Microbiol. 54, 173–179. 86pp. [12] JD Doyle, B Tunnicliff, K Kramer, R Kuehl, SK [28] Zaman. 1994. Temporal and spatial Brickler. 1992. Instability of fecal coliform distribution of ichthyofauna in the populations in waters and bottom sediments at Karnaphully River estuary with special emphasis on recreational beaches in Arizona. Water Research 26, the physio-chemical parameters, Chittagong. 979–988. Institute of Marine Science and [13] R Buckley, E Clough, W Warnken, C Wild. 1998. Fisheries. University of Chittagong. 99pp. Coliform bacteria in streambed sediment in a [29] B Aiyamperumal, A Velammal, S Ajmalkhan and subtropical rainforest conservation reserve. Water VK Venuopalon. 1994. Ecology of Vibrio sp. in Research 32, 1852–1856. Toticorin coastal environment of southeast coast of [14] SM Goyal, CP Gerba, GL Melnick. 1977. India. Ind J. microbiol. 34 (1): pp. 65-72 Occurrence and distribution of bacterial indicators [30] K Kanti. 1988. Study on the bacteriological water and pathogens in canal communities along the Texas quality of the Karnafuly river estuary. MSc. Thesis. Coast. App and Environ Microbiol. 34, 139–149. Dept. of Botany, University of Chittagong, [15] CM Joy, KP Bakkrishnan and A Joseph. 1990. Chittagong, Bangladesh. Physico chemical aspects of a tropical river receiving [31] HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control industrial effluents. In: river pollution in India. Points).1995. A manual for Shrimp and Fish Trivedi, R. K. (ed.). New Delhi, India. Pp. 220-233. Processing Plant. Sagarica road. Chittagong. [16] WHO (World Health Organization). 1984. Bangladesh. Guidelines for drinking water quality. Vol.1. [32] A Huq, MAR Chowdhury, A Felsennstein, RR Recommendations Geneva. Colwell, R Rahman and KMB Hossain. 1980. [17] WHO (World Health Organization). 1993. Microbial Detection of V. cholerae from aquatic environments specifications for drinking water. Reports a joint in Bangladesh. In: Biological monitoring of FAO/WHO expert consultation. Ec/Microbial environmental pollution proceedings of the fourth 173/Report-2. IUBS. International Symposium on Bio monitoring [18] EQSB (Environmental Quality Standard for the State of Environments. Yasuno. M. and Whitton, Bangladesh). 1991. A manual of environmental B. A. (eds.) 6-8 Nov. 1987. Tokyo, Japan. Pp. 11: quality standard for Bangladesh. Dept. of 402-405. Environment, Govt. of the people’s republic of [33] SMA Riad. 1997. Study on diseased P. monodon Bangladesh. (Fabricus in 1978) culture ponds in the coastal [19] SNH Rizbi. 1971. Bangladesh district gazetteers, aquaculture area of Khulna region, Bangladesh. MSc. Chittagong. Govt. of Bangladesh, Service and Thesis. Institute of Marine Sciences, University of general administration department. Bangladesh Govt. Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh. Press. Dacca. 64. [34] Z Rahim and KMS Aziz. 1992. Isolation of [20] APHA (American Public Health Association). 1976. enterotoxigenic V. cholerae no. 01 from the Standard methods for examination of water and Buriganga riverand two ponds of Dhaka, Bangladesh. waste water (14th ed.). American Public Health J. Diarrhea Dis. Rs. 10 (14): 227-230. Association Inc. Washington D.C. [21] MB Gasim, BS Ismail, E Toriman, SI Mir, TC Chek. 2007. A physico-chemical assessment of the Bebar River, Pahang, Malaysia. Global J. Environ. Res. 1(1): 7-11. [22] MM Alam, MA Islam, S Islam and SZ Haider. 1996. Surface water quality of various polluted locations. J. of the Bangladesh Chem. Society. 8(2), 129-137. [23] MSN Chowdhury, MS Hossain, NG Das and P Barua. 2011. Environmental Variables and Fisheries Diversity of the Naaf River Estuary, Bangladesh. J. of Coastal Conserv, 15(1): 163-180. [24] DS McLusky M Elliott. 2004. The Estuarine Ecosystem. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 214 pages. [25] F Ahammad. 2004. Catch Composition of Estuarine Set Bag Net (ESBN) in the Moheshkhali Channel of the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh. MSc Thesis, Institute of Marine Sciences, University of Chittagong, Bangladesh [26] Alam. 1993. Ecology of Saltpans and radionuclide’s concentration in water, Soil and salt in the coastal area of Cox’s Bazaar. MSc Thesis, Institute of Marine Science and Fisheries. University of Chittagong. [27] Kamal. 1992. Temporal and spatial variation in species diversity of fishes in the Karnafully River-estuary, Chittqagong. Institute of Marine

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E25 An Investigation of the Reproductive Physiology of Endangered Mud Eel Monopterus cuchia Md. Mahmudunnabi Mithu1, Md. Jahangir Alam1, Mohammad Abu Taher Siddique2, Zahid Parvez Sukhan2, M. Shalauddin Kabir1, MAR Hossain1, and H. Rashid* 1Faculty of Fisheries, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2002, Bangladesh 2Sharnalat Agro Fisheries Ltd., Radhakanai, Fulbaria, Mymensingh, Bangladesh *e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Reproductive physiological characteristics such as external sexual characters, monthly gonado-somatic index (GSI), egg diameter, and fecundity of an endangered fish, mud eel Monopterus cuchia were studied to identify the peak breeding season. The most distinct feature to separate the sex is the shape of genital papilla. The female genital papilla became rounded and swollen and the male papilla was sunken and elongated during April-May. The highest GSI of 6.00±1.67% was observed in mid-May and the lowest of 0.23±0.01% in September. Fecundity was calculated during mid-March to mid-May and it ranged between 132 (body weight 240g, mid-April) to 461 (body weight 380g, mid-May). Ova diameter was measured during the breeding season which ranged between 3.1 (mid-May) to 3.9 mm (mid-April). Relationships between gonad weight and mean ova diameter indicated that ova diameter increased with the increase in gonad weight. Fecundity vs body weight, total length and gonad weight relationships revealed 33%, 25% and 16% variations in fecundity, respectively. However, reproductive physiology information of this experiment indicated the mud eel having peek breading season from late-April to mid-May.

INTRODUCTION helpful in evaluating the commercial potentialities of Mud eel, Monopterus cuchia is an endangered fish its stock, life history, culture practice and management of Bangladesh [1] and considered as a nutritious and of its fishery and is also helpful in achieving basic high valued fish. In Bangladesh, mud eel is collected information on the breeding season, breeding potential, form nature and exported to China, Hong Kong and gonadal maturity and reproductive performance of Taiwan. Despite the increasing demand in the fish which will serve as indirect indicators on the international markets, artificial breeding and culture recruitment of new fish into the stock. technique of mud eel has yet not been developed. MATERIALS AND METHODS Due to over exploitation, and various ecological D. Animal, study area, and period changes in natural habitat, this species become threatened. As the natural production of mud eel is Mud eel, Monopterus cuchia were bought from eel decreasing day by day, it is important to develop sales center that was collected from the seven largest artificial breeding and aquaculture technique. beels namely Phenar , Bisundar beel, Panahara It is important of know the reproductive Beel, Katia Beel, Khaikuri Beel, Deoramara Beel physiological factors of a fish such as fecundity, and tarakanda Beel of Phulpur upazilla under gonado-somatic index (GSI), external sexual Mymensingh District. Collected fish were stocked in characters, gonad developmental stages, growth rate, experimental ponds and cistern of the Field food and feeding habit etc. to develop artificial Laboratory of Faculty of Fisheries, Bangladesh breeding technique. Fecundity is one of the most Agricultural University, Myemsingh. Mud eel were important aspects of fish biology that explains reared and sampled every month. variations in the level of production, success of E. Observation of external sexual character induced breeding etc., it also help to explain the The shape of genital papillae of male and female breeding cycle [2]. mud eel were distinguished and light pressure was GSI is the indicator of the state of maturity, given on the abdomen by thumb from upward to gonadal development and onset of spawning season. downward motion of male and females to observe the As the weight of the ovary increases with the milt and ova during the breeding periods. The advancement of maturity, it might be possible to conditions of ready to spawn were noted. detect the stages of maturation and spawning season F. Gonado-somatic index (GSI) by histological process. To determine the breeding The fish were weighed, dissected out carefully and season, it is necessary to know the condition of the the gonads were taken out, placed in petridish, and female, its ovary and egg size [3]. Knowledge on weighed. The GSI of each female fish was calculated gonadal development and spawning season of a species during March 2011 to February 2012 using following is necessary to determine the spawning frequency of formula. its population. GSI values also helps to know the breeding biology and breeding season of a species. GSI = × 100 Overall, the study of reproductive physiology is

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G. Fecundity and ova diameter Table 1. Mean (±SD) body weight, ovary weight and GSI (%) in Monopterus cuchia The ovary was taken out carefully, moisture was Fish Mean body Mean ovary GSI removed with blotting paper. Eggs were counted Months directly spreading the eggs on the tray. The weight examined weight (g) weight (g) (%) 148.33 0.32 0.28 of the extracted ovary of each fish was recorded January 3 ± 138.05 ± 0.22 ± 0.12 in g and egg diameter was measured using slide 246.66 0.96 0.41 February 3 calipers. The fecundity was plotted against total ± 127.01 ± 0.41 ± 0.07 length, body weight and gonad weight of the fish. 213.33 2.94 1.53 March 6 H. Data analysis ± 80.10 ± 1.57 ± 0.87 244.16 9.16 4.48 April 6 The mean values were calculated with the MS ± 98.40 ± 5.67 ± 3.16 Excel computer based software. 140.00 8.21 6.00 May 2 ± 22.62 ± 0.98 ± 1.67 RESULTS 341.00 2.63 0.76 June 2 A. Sexual dimorphism ± 12.72 ± 0.74 ± 0.18 293.33 1.67 0.57 July 3 Sex identification by external characters of mud eel ± 56.86 ± 0.39 ± 0.11 could only be possible during the breeding season. 263.33 1.24 0.47 August 3 Between June-December, its sex could not be ± 56.86 ± 0.37 ± 0.06 identified. But, sex can be differentiated with some 154.50 0.36 0.23 September 2 external sexual characters during breeding season. On ± 7.77 ± 0.042 ± 0.02 235.33 1.34 0.57 gentle pressure, yellowish fluid from female October 3 genital papilla and liquid milt from male genital ± 30.86 ± 0.22 ± 0.02 191.67 1.36 0.71 papilla came out. The female papilla becomes November 3 ± 11.54 ± 0.163 ± 0.05 rounded and swollen; on the other hand, the male 175.00 0.57 0.32 December 2 genital papilla is elongated and sunken (Fig. 1). ± 14.14 ± 0.14 ± 0.05

C. Fecundity and ova diameter Fecundity of M. cuchia was ranged from 132 to 461 during mid-March to mid-May (Fig. 3). The mean ova diameter was 55±0.34 mm (Fig. 4). All the eggs of an individual were found to be having similar diameter.

400

350

Fig. 1. Genital papilla of male and female mud eel. 300 250 B. Gonado-somatic index (GSI) 200 Month wise changes in mean GSI values of female Fecundity 150 mud eel are presented in Table 1 and Fig. 2. Values 100 of GSI ranged from 0.23±0.02 to 6.00±1.67% in mud 50 eel during the experiment period. In this time, the 0 Mar (mid) Mar (end) Apr (mid) Apr (end) May (mid) highest GSI value (6.00±1.67%) was observed during Month

May and the lowest (0.23±0.02) were observed in Fig. 3. Monthly fluctuations in fecundity of cuchia during September. the breeding season

Fig. 4. Relationship between gonad weight and mean ova Fig. 2. Monthly mean GSI of female mud eel diameter for mud eel

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D. Relationship between fecundity (F) and body DISCUSSION weight (BW), fecundity and total length (TL), A. Secondary sexual characters and fecundity and gonad weight (GW) During our study, male and female mud eels were The fecundity of fish was increasing with the not identifiable externally before March. Abdomen increase of body weight, total length and ovary weight. of female cuchia was found round and swollen The relationship of body weight, total length, and during April – May. The shape of genital papillae of gonad weight with fecundity are shown in following male was sunken and that of female cuchia was the equations, respectively. swollen. On gentle pressure, yellowish fluid from F = 0.618BW + 127.8; R² = 0.334; r=0.578 (Fig. 5) female genital papilla and transparent liquid milt F = 5.868TL - 67.81; R² = 0.255; r=0.505 (Fig. 6) from male genital papilla came out. Appearance of F= 7.651GW + 205.9; R² = 0.162; r=0.402 (Fig. 7) external sexual characters and separation of male and The co-efficient of correlation between fecundity female by color of genital papilla and abdomen shape and body weight, fecundity and total length and in April – May further emphasizes our finding on fecundity and gonad weight was found to be 0.58, GSI that this fish breeds during this period. Rahman 0.51 and 0.40, respectively. The r values of body [4] reported that mud eel and found yellowish egg weight-fecundity relationship and length-weight from female genital papilla and whitish milt from relationship are significant at 5% level of significance. male genital papilla coming out on gentle pressure However, the r value of gonad weight – fecundity during breeding season. relationship is not significant at 5%. B. Gonado-somatic index (GSI) GSI, which is indicative of the breeding season of the fish, has been calculated from March 2011 to February 2012 for female mud eel. Values of GSI ranged from 0.232±0.015to 6.002±1.672 in female mud eel during the experiment period. During this time, the highest value of GSI was observed in May which was 6.002±1.672 and the lowest value was observed in September which was 0.232±0.015. The highest GSI value in May is indicative of the fact that mud eel may have peak breeding season in May. This result is very similar to those obtained by Rahman Fig. 6. Relationship between body weight [4], on the other hand, Alam [5] reported that the and fecundity of mud eel peak breeding season of mud eel is from late April to mid-May. C. Fecundity and ova diameter The fecundity of M. cuchia ranged from 132 to 461 for the period from mid-March to mid-May. Nasar [6] calculated the fecundity of M. cuchia ranging 118 to 687 eggs. The highest mean fecundity was observed in mid-April and lowest in mid-May. The findings of fecundity are found to be similar with the findings of Alam [5]. In a study with M. albus (rice field eel) in Vietnam, the value of average fecundity was found 589 and egg was not uniform Fig. 7. Relationship between total length and fecundity of mud eel [7]. They also found highest fecundity in March and September. Unlike M. albus, mud eel eggs were uniform during the peak breeding season and highest fecundity was found in mid-April having only one spawning season in a year. The ova diameter in mud eel was found to be 3.55±0.34 mm. The highest ova diameter of 3.9 mm was found in mid-May and lowest 3.1 mm was observed in mid-April. All the eggs of an individual were found as same diameter. Relationships between gonad weight and mean ova diameter indicated that ova diameter increases with increase in gonad weight. The maximum mean ova diameter of M. cuchia was Fig. 8. Relationship between gonad weight 3.40 (±0.11) during the month of March and April and fecundity of mud eel [4] which is very similar to our estimated ova

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diameter. In case of M. albus, ova diameter was 3 to in endangered mud eel Monopterus cuchia. MS 4 mm and eggs were not uniform [7]. The ova Thesis, Department of Fisheries Management, diameter in M. albus is close to M. cuchia but they Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, differ in uniformity of egg size. Bangladesh. 33-36 pp. [6] SST Nasar. 1997. Backyard eel culture: International D. Fecundity (F) vs body weight (BW), total length Institute of Rural Reconstruction, Silag, Cavity, (TL) and gonad weight (GW) relationships: Philippines. 88 pp. 33%, 25% and 16% variations in fecundity were [7] NH Khanh and HTB Ngan. 2010. Current practices of rice field eel Monopterus albus (zuiew, 1973) found due to variation in BW, TL and GW. The culture in Vietnam. 48-51pp. relationship between BW and F was found to be the [8] MA Karim and A Hossain. 1972. Studies on the most significant than that of other factors with biology of Mastacembelus pancalus (Spiny eel) in fecundity. The regression equation and scattered Artificial Ponds. Part 11. Sexual maturity and diagram showed a positive body weight –fecundity fecundity. Bangladesh J. Biol. and Agril. Sci., 1: relationship. Increase in fecundity with the increase 15-18pp. in body weight is also reported in various fishes [9] G Mustafa, KR Islam, S Ali and AKM notably, Mastacembelus pancalus [8], Puntius Ashraftil-Alain. 1983. Some aspects of the biology of Puntius sarana (Hamilton): 1. Food and feeding sarana [9], Sarotheradon nilotica [10]. The fecundity habits in relation to fish size and fecundity. increased with the increase of the total length. Bangladesh J. Zool., 10: 92- 100pp. Similar results were obtained in Heteropneustes [10] AM Mian and S Dewan. 1984. Studies on the fossilis [11, 12]. Fecundity was increased with the fecundity of Sarotherodon nilotica (Linnaeus) in a increase of gonad weight of M. cuchia, similar fish pond. Bangladesh J. Zool., 12(2):99-103pp. relationship was also reported in Puntius stigma [13]. [11] MA Azadi and MS Siddique. 1986. Fecundity of In the present study, fecundity of M. cuchia showed a catfish (in Bangladesh), Heteropneustes fossilis positive and linear relationship with BW, TL and (Bloch). Bangladesh .J. Zool., 14: 33-39pp. [12] MS Das, S Dewan and SC Debnath. 1989. Studies on GW. the fecundity of Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch) in a CONCLUSION minipond of Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh. Bangladesh J. Agril.Sci., 16:1-6pp. Mud eel, M. cuchia has already entered into the [13] M Shafi and MMA Quddus. 1974. Fecundity of the export channel. Since this fish is not cultured due to common punti (Puntius stigma). Bangladesh J. Zool., lack of fry, the export market is totally dependent on 2: 133-145pp. wild catch. A success in fry production and subsequent development of aquaculture technique of mud eel will not only save it from extinction but also keep the export channel sustained towards earning of foreign currency. The findings of the current research on different aspects of reproductive physiology will help further studies for artificial propagation and fry production of this fish. Studies on identification of neuroendocrine parameters are required for pin pointing the factors for triggering ovulation and hence induced of this high priced but endangered fish species. REFERENCES [1] IUCN, Bangladesh. 2003. Bangladesher Bipanno Bonno Prani. IUCN-The World Conservation Union, xiv+294 pp. [2] JR Hunter, BJ Macewicz, NCH Lo, and CM Kimbrell. 1992. Fecundity, spawning and maturity of female Dover Sole, Microstomus pacificus, with an evaluation of assumptions and precition. Fish. Bull., U.S., 92:101-108. [3] MK Islam and M Das. 2006. Fecundity of gulsa Mystus cavasius from the Bramaputra and Kongsa rivers. J. Bangladesh Agril. Univ., 4 (2): 347-355. [4] MM Rahman. 2007. Reproductive biology and fry rearing of freshwater eels Monopterus cuchia (Ham.) and Mastacembelus armatus (Lacep.) of Mymensingh, Bangladesh. PhD Dissertation, Department of Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh. 173pp. [5] MJ Alam. 2012. Histological study of gametogenesis

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E26 Effect of the Insecticide, Sumithion on Larval Development in Heteropneustes fossilis Md. Farajul Kabir1, Lipi Rani Bhowmik1, Md. Abdul Motin1, Muhammad Shahidul Haq1, Kudrat E Alahe2, Tanmi Shahrin3, Harunur Rashid1* 1Department of Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh 2The M.O. Agro Fisheries & Hatchery, Trishal, Mymensingh, Bangladesh 3Department of Fisheries, Govt. of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh *e-mail: [email protected]; Tel.: +88-01924429971 Abstract Sumithion, an organophosphate insecticide, widely used in agriculture and fish larvae rearing ponds in Bangladesh. Present experiment was conducted to observe the effects of sumithion on larval development and developmental deformities of Heteropneustes fossilis larvae. Three different concentrations of sumithion (T1, 145µg/L; T2, 230µg/L; T3, 314µg/L) against a control (C, 0µg/L) each having three replications were carried out in glass aquaria. Exposure experiment was continued upto the absorption of yolk sack. Different forms of deformities, viz. edema, notochord deformity, caudal fin damage, yolk sac damage, posterior region damage, tissue fragmentation, and black pigmentation on yolk sac were evident in the sumithion-exposed larvae during the course of development. The mortality rates of the larvae gradually increased (32%, 52.86%, 57.86%, and 65.72% for C, T1, T2 and T3, respectively) in response to increased sumithion concentrations. Moreover, around 30% of the total H. fossilis found to be deformed permanently that reared in sumithion-treated aquaculture ponds. The results of the current study denote that sumithion exerts developmental toxicity to H. fossilis larvae; sumithion exposure results in deformities in H. fossilis larvae; sumithion results in mortality of H. fossilis larvae; and the toxic effects of sumithion to shing is irreversible.

INTRODUCTION market demand due to its deliciousness and less spine In Bangladesh, a large number pesticides are used [8]. It breeds in shallow inland waters during the for crop protection in agricultural field. Over 98% of onset of monsoons and also capable of breeding in sprayed pesticides and 95% of herbicides reach a ponds when sufficient rainwater accumulates [9]. destination other than their target species, including Their eggs, embryo and larvae are often exposed to non-target species, air, water, bottom sediments, and the toxicity of pesticides in nature when pesticides run food [1]. Sumithion, the O, O Dimethyl off into natural waterbody from agricultural field. O-(3-methyl-4- nitrophenyl), an organophosphate Furthermore, in all H. fossilis nursery pond, sumithion insecticide, is widely used in agricultural field and usually applied to control back swimmer and it aquaculture pond as well. It is effective against a wide exposed to the toxicity of sumithon. Considering the range of pests, i.e. penetrating, chewing and sucking toxic effects of sumithion, an experiment was insect pests on cereals, cotton, orchard fruits, rice, conducted on the effect sumithon toxicity on the vegetables, and forests. It may also be used as a fly, larval development and developmental deformities of mosquito, and cockroach residual contact spray for of stinging catfish H. fossilis. farms and public health program. In Bangladesh, MATERIALS AND METHODS sumithion is also widely used in aquaculture ponds for eradication of aquatic insect, mainly back swimmer The experiment was conducted in Faculty of prior to release of larvae. Fisheries (FoF), Bangladesh Agricultural University, Sumithion is considered somewhat toxic to fish [2] Mymensingh and Sharnalata Agro Fisheries Ltd. and found most toxic among 6 widely used (SAFL), Radhakanai, Fulbaria, Mymensingh. To organophosphate pesticide [3]. A large number of conduct this experiment, healthy and mature broods experiment has been carried out on the effect of of H. fossilis were selected from SAFL brood pond sumithion on fish and other aquatic vertebrate. and reared in resting hapa. After six hour of resting Sumithion exposure can decreases the hemoglobin period, male and female fishes were injected with content of tilapia [4] and 30 ppm sumithion is HCG solution at the doses of 500 and 3000 IU/kg sufficient to kill all test fishes within an hour [5], body weight, respectively and was placed spawning ovarian recrudescence was observed in Channa tanks. After 12 hours of hormone administration, spawning and fertilization takes place in the punctatus when treated with LC50 dose of sumithion [6], sumithion exposure showed deformities such as spawning hapa and after 24 hours of fertilized, larvae loss of balance, abnormal behavior, curvature of the hatched out. Hatched out larvae were then transported to the FoF using oxygenated bag. Twelve body axis, poor pigmentation, feeble circulation in 3 the tail, distension of body cavities and retarded glass aquaria (36×10×12 inch ) were used for this growth in frog [7]. experiment. Three concentrations of sumithion Stinging catfish, Heteropneustes fossilis is one of (T1=145µg/L, T2=230µg/L, and T3=314 µg/L) each the important catfishes of Bangladesh with good having three replications against a control (C=0µg/L)

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were exposed to observe the degree of deformity of posterior region was deformed (PD). Degradation of larvae. Sumithion solution was prepared by serial tissue (DT) was evident at the middle portion of the dilution in 40L water for each aquarium. Then the body in T2. In T3, the entire body was deformed (BD) hatched out larvae of same number were released in and caudal fin was not developed (CD). each aquarium very carefully and ensured continuous oxygen supply. Larval samples (5 larvae) were C. Sumithion exposure effect after 24 hours of collected from each aquarium at certain hrs interval hatching (6, 12, 24, 36, 60, 84 hrs) until yolk sac absorption. After 24 hrs of hatching (Fig. 3), in control (C), Collected samples were observed under a digital the yolk-sac became reduced, dark pigmented and microscope (Olympus CX 41) fitted with a camera prominent spherical shaped eyes appeared, and the (Magnus analytics, Model-MIPS). The development posterior part of body was well developed. In T1, few stages of H. fossilis were determined according to deformities were observed, viz., entire body was embryonic and larval stages of this species [10]. deformed (BD), edema (E) formed on the yolk sac, Some deformed adult fishes that were exposed to no organ developed normally. In T2, eyes were not sumithion at their larval stage in ponds were well developed, caudal fins were invisible (CI) and collected from SAFL. the end of the posterior region was deformed (PD). In T3, yolk sac became deep dark in colour and RESULTS damaged in different areas (AY), notochord A. Sumithion exposure effect after 6 hours of hatching deformation (ND) was evident at the anterior part of After 6 hrs of hatching (Fig. 1), larvae were the body. brownish in colour and mouth yet to delveop, yolk-sac was brownish and oval. In T1, yolk-sac was found as abnormal (AY), black pigmentation was evident in the yolk-sac, and notochord deformation was observed. T2 showed damaged yolk-sac (YD), notochord deformation (ND) and damaged caudal fin (CD) on tail region. In T3, yolk-sac was normal but C(a) C(b) T (a) caudal fin was not well developed (CD), end of 1 posterior region of larvae was deformed (PD).

T1(b) T2(a) T3(a) Fig 2. Deformities after 6 hrs of hatching in different stages of larval development in H. fossilis exposed to sumithion. C(a) C(b) T1(a) C(a) Anterior part of larvae; C(b) Posterior part of larvae; T1(a) Black pigmentation (BP), T1(b) deformed posterior region (PD); T2(b) Tissue degradation (DT); T3(a) deformed caudal fin (CD) and deformed body (BD).

T2(a) T3(a) T3(b) Fig 1. Deformities after 6 hrs of hatching in different stages of larval development in H. fossilis exposed to sumithion. C(a) Anterior part of larvae; C(b) Posterior part of larvae; T1(a), notochord deformity (ND), and abnormal yolk sac (AY); T2(a), Damaged yolk sac (YD), deformed notochord C(a) C(b) T1(a) (ND) and damaged caudal fin (CD); T3(a), Anterior part of larvae; T3(b) damaged caudal fin (CD) and deformed posterior region (PD). C, control; T1, treatment 1; T2 treatment 2; and T3, treatment 3.

B. Sumithion exposure effect after 12 hours of T2(a) T2(b) T3(a) hatching Fig. 3. Deformities after 24 hrs of hatching in different After 12 hrs of hatching (Fig. 2), in control, stages of larval development in H. fossilis exposed to pigmented eyespot appeared on the anterior part of sumithion. C(a) Anterior part of larvae; C(b) Posterior the head, buccul invagination appeared, upper jaw part of larvae; T1(a) Deformed body (BD), and edema (E); T2(a) Anterior part of larvae; T2(b) Invisible caudal fin (CI) and lower jaws were formed. In T1, black and deformed posterior region (PD); T3(a) Deformed pigmentation (BP) was found at the yolk sack, Notochord (ND) and abnormal yolk sac (AY). pigmented eyespot did not appear, and the end of the

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D. Sumithion exposure effect after 36 hours of T2(a) Yolk sack (YS); T2(b) Deformed notochord (ND); hatching T3(b) Deformed notochord (ND) and damaged caudal fin (CD). After 36 hrs of hatching (Fig. 4), in control, yolk sac found to be absorbed, eyes were dark pigmented and spherical in shape, pectoral fin was oval shaped F. Sumithion exposure effect after 84 hours of and actively used for free movement, heart was hatching clearly visible located behind the head and showed After 84 hrs of hatching (Fig. 6), the body was regular beats. Whereas, in T1, abnormal notochord brownish in colour and the mouth and anus fully formation was evident at the anterior part of the body functional in control (C), the head was prominent and (ND), Edema (E) formed, and heart was invisible; in free movement of the eyeball was observed and four T2, notochord was curbed (ND), deformed posterior pairs of barbells were noticed. The yolk has fully region was observed (PD), and heart was not visible; diminished. Deformities were found in different and in T3, edema (E) found on the yolk sac and larvae that were exposed to sumithion. In T1, formed abnormal notochord (ND). degradation of tissues (DT) and damaged caudal fin E. Sumithion exposure effect after 60 hours of (CD) was evident; notochord became curbed (ND) hatching and deformed body structure was observed in T2 and T3. Abnormal movement of larvae was evident. After 60 hrs of hatching (Fig. 5), the mouth of larvae found well developed with lower jaw in control (C), further, barbles became elongated and prominent around mouth, and yolk has further diminished in size. In T1, deformities observed as degradation of tissue (FT) at the anterior part of the body, damage of caudal fin (CD); in T2, damaged yolk sac (YD) were found, heart was not clearly C(a) T1(a) T1(b) visible; notochords became curbed (ND) in both T2 and T3, and also deformed body structure was found.

T2(a) T3(a) T3(b) Fig. 6. Deformities after 84 hrs of hatching in different stages of larval development in H. fossilis exposed to sumithion. C(a) Anterior part of larvae in control; C(a) T1(a) T2(a) T1(a) Tissue degradation (DT), T1(b) Damaged caudal fin (CD); T2(a) Deformed notochord (ND); T3(a) Deformed notochord (ND); T3(b) Deformed body (BD).

G. Larval mortality

T2(b) T3(a) T3(b) Mortality rate were 32%, 52.86%, 57.86% and Fig. 4. Deformities after 36 hrs of hatching in different 65.72% for C, T1, T2 and T3, respectively. Therefore, stages of larval development in H. fossilis exposed to mortality rate of H. fossilis larvae exposed to all sumithion. C(a) Anterior part of larvae in control; T1(a) concentrations of sumithion were more than the Deformed notochord(ND), edema(E); T2(a) Deformed control and increased with increasing concentrations notochord (ND); T (b) Deformed posterior region (PD); 2 (Fig. 7). T3(a) Edema (E); T3(b) Deformed notochord (ND).

C(a) T1(a) T1(b)

T2(a) T2(b) T3(a) Fig. 5. Deformities after 36 hrs of hatching in different Fig. 7. Mortality rate (%) of larvae exposed to different stages of larval development in H. fossilis exposed to concentrations of of sumithion (C, 0 µg/L; T1, 145µg/L; T2, sumithion. C(a) Anterior part of larvae in control; T1(a) 230µg/L; and T3, 314µg/L). Tissue degradation (DT); T1(b) Damaged caudal fin (CD);

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H. Water quality parameters CONCLUSION Change of water quality parameters were noticed The result of this experiment provides clear with the change of sumithion concentration (Table understanding of the developmental toxicity of 1). sumithion to early life stages of H. fossilis and different deformities were observed. It will help the policy makers to make people conscious about Table 1. The water quality parameters in control (C) and impact of indiscriminate use of pesticide in three concentrations of sumithion (T1, 145µg/L; T2, 230µg/L; and T3, 314µg/L) during the experimental period. agriculture and fish culture pond.

Parameters C T1 T2 T3 REFERENCES Temperature (ºC) 25.2 25.4 25.00 25.2 [1] GT Miller. 2004. Sustaining the Earth, 6th edition. pH 8.00 7.5 7.2 6.9 Thompson Learning, Inc. Pacific Grove, California. p. 211-216. Dissolved O2 (ppm) 10.5 9.8 9.4 9.00 [2] WT Thomson. 1989. Agricultural Chemicals. Book I: Insecticides. Thomson Publications, Fresno, CA. 120 DISCUSSION pp. [3] N Aziz, SMH Kabir, and M Ameen. 1984. Effects of In the present study, different types of deformities, some organophosphorus insecticides on some aquatic specially curved notochord, deformed mouth and tail insecticides on some aquatic insects. Bang. J. Zool., region, damaged caudal fin, etc. were evident in 12: 53-61. stinging catfish larvae those exposed to different [4] PR Koundinya and R Ramamurthy. 1978. Effect of concentrations of sumithion. The formation of mouth, Sumithion (Fenitrothion) on some selected enzyme eye and burble were comparatively slow on systems in the fish, Tilapia mossambica (Peters). Indian J. Exp. Biol., 18: 809-811. sumithion exposed larvae than control. Spinal [5] MZ Haque and G Barua. 1988. Toxic and sub-lethal deformity was evident in case of diazinon treated effect of sumithion on Oreochromis nilotica (Lin.). medaka (Oryzias latipes) larvae, after hatching, Bangladesh J. Fish., 11(2): 79-85. affected larvae showed dorsal displacement of the [6] AB Saxena and R Sehgal. 1986. Pesticide toxicity to spine [11]. Developmental abnormality (i.e. curved a freshwater fish Channa punctatus in the river body axis) was observed in larval stages of zebra fish Kshipra Ujjain, India. Irtl. Environ. and safety Conf. exposed to bifenthrin [12]. Different developmental Publication, International and Safety Limited of U.K. abnormalities, such as abnormal notochord, poor 65-66 pp. [7] KR Pawar and M Katdare. 1982. Effect of the pigmentation, loss of balance, feeble circulation in insecticide sumithion (fenitrothion) on embryonic the tail, retarded growth, damaged caudal fin, development in a frog. Cell. Mole. Life Sci., 39(3): abnormal behavior etc. were evident in frog 297-298. (Microhyla ornata) due to exposure to sumithion [7]. [8] SH Tripathi, N Ross and N Hasan. 1997. The role of Edema formation on the yolk sac was also small indigenous species in food and nutritional commonly found in sumithion exposed larvae of H. security in Bangladesh. NAGA News Letter, July- fossilis. Edema on yolk sac in medaka was a major December. 13 pp. evidence of diazinon toxicity exposed during the late [9] PK Talwar and AG Jhingran (eds.) 1992. Inland fishes of India and adjacent countries. Vol. 2. Oxford embryonic period [11] and also to N-nitroso and IBH publishing CO. Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, India. compounds [13] and thiobencarb [14]. Black 1158p. pigmentation on yolk sac was observed in sumithion [10] S Puvaneswari, K Marimuthu, R Karuppasamy, MA treated larvae in H. fossilis larvae. Similarly Haniffa. 2009. Early embryonic and larval observation was reported in Spodoptera exigua and development of Indian catfish, Heteropneustes Tenebrio molitar larvae that exposed to sumithion fossilis. EurAsia. J. BioSci. 3: 84-96. [15]. In present study, sumithion treated larvae [11] JT Hamm and DE Hinton. 2000. The role of showed abnormal swimming behavior in the aquaria; development and duration of exposure to the embryo toxicity of diazinon. Aquat. Toxicol, 48: 403-418. similar type of behavior was observed in other [12] M Jin, X Zhang, L Wang, C Huang, Y Zhang and M studies [16–18]. Zhao. 2009. Developmental toxicity of bifenthrin in The mortality rate of H. fossilis larvae was higher embryo- larval stages of Zebrafish. Aquat. Toxicol, those exposed to sumithion. Clarias gariepinus 247-254 pp. showed more mortality than H. fossilis larvae, [13] GD Marty, JM Nunez, DJ Lauren and DE Hinton. observed 47% and 87% mortality of at the doses of 1990. Age-dependent changes in toxicity to 67.2 ppm and 134.4 ppm of basudin 10G (diazinon) Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) embryos. Aquat. within 96 hours of exposure [19], Catla catla Toxicol, 17: 45–62. [14] SA Villalobos, JT Hamm and DE Hinton. 2000. fingerlings showed 80% and 40% mortality of at Thiobencarb induced embryotoxicity in medaka doses of 4.20 ppm and 2.1 ppm of basudin 10G (Oryzias latipes): Stage specific toxicity and the within 96 hours of exposure [17]. protective role of the chorion. Aquat. Toxicol, 48: 309–326. [15] Z Adamski, K Ziemnicki, K Fila, V Zikic and K Stajn. 2003. Effects of long-term exposure to

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fenitrothion on Spodoptera exigua and Tenebrio molitor larval development and antioxidant enzyme

activity. Biol. Lett., 40(1): 43-52. [16] SMA Kabir and R Begum. 1978. Toxicity of three organo-phosphorus insecticides to singhi fish (Heteropneustes fossolis). Dacca University Studies, Part B. 26: 115-122. [17] Z Hossain and GC Halder. 1996. Impact of chloropyrifos (Lorsfan 10G), Cadusofos (ruzby 10G) and diazinon (basudin 10G) on three Indian major

carps, Bangladesh J. Environ. Sci., 2: 98-101. [18] M Gonzalez-Doncel, E Pena, C Barrueco and E Hinton. 2003. Stage sensitivity of medaka (Oryzias latipes) eggs and embryos to permethrin. Aquat.

Toxicol, 62: 255-268. [19] F Lovely. 1998. Toxicity of three commonly used organophosphorus insecticides to Thai sharpunti (Puntius gonionotus) and African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) fry. An M.S. Thesis Submitted to the Department of Fisheries Biology and Genetics. Faculty of Fisheries. Bangladesh Agricultural

University, Mymensingh. 83pp.

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E27 The Characterization of Dwellers in the Reserve Forest of Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh Masakazu Tani1, Md. Zulfikar Rahman2,Abu Zofar Moslehuddin3, Kazuo Asahiro4, and Hiroshi Tsuruta5 1Kyushu University, e-mail: [email protected] 2Bangladesh Agricultural University, e-mail: [email protected] 3Bangladesh Agricultural University, e-mail: [email protected] 4Kyushu University, e-mail: [email protected] 5Kyshu University, e-mail: [email protected] Abstract This paper analyzes human groups and their economic activities in a reserve forest area, part of Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary, in the west coast of the Teknaf Peninsula based on data generated by a household survey in three settlement clusters in the South Silkhali village, Baharcharra Union in Teknaf Sub-Disctrict, Cox’s Bazar. The analysis shows that dwellers of that area are represented by three ethnic groups and three religions. Because the reserve forest is legally closed for private activities except for those with special permission as “forest villagers,” about the one-half of the dwellers are “illegal” residents, encroachers. Further analysis shows that many of those encroachers moved in relatively recently and their in-flow does not seem to tapering off. Increase in encroachers appears a major threat on forest regeneration of this area.

INTRODUCTION Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary (formerly Teknaf Game The southern half of Teknaf Peninsula of Reserve) and analyzes dwellers of that area in terms Bangladesh has been suffering from long-term of their attributes and economic activities. This deforestation. Although an extensive forest reserve analysis first classifies dwellers into groups by their was instituted in the area, most large trees had been ethnicity and legal status. Thus, using these groups as cut by large scale illegal logging and sold away in the units of comparison, the characteristics of human 1980s. Large scale illegal logging is not currently activities in the reserve are analyzed. going on partly because Bangladesh Forest Department (FD) conducts tighter surveillance and because there are not enough mature trees to cut any more. Deforestation affects human lives in this area. Serious outcomes of deforestation include water shortage, soil erosion, shortage of fuel wood and building materials, intrusion of wild elephants into human settlements and the depletion of nutrients for marine resources in the coastal area. Despite of various efforts, forests in this area have not been coming back. Environmental research in this area argues that all kinds of human activities affect the conditions on the hills [1-7]. Areas in the reserve forest are institutionally closed for human activities unless the FD grants special permits. In reality, although the area is not under open access, the system of reserve forest is not working in preserving trees for many reasons. Many people live in the supposedly closed reserve forest, and they make their living using resources in the forest. Because the human use of the reserve area has been practiced for a long time, it may not be realistic to ban all the activities in the area. It seems crucial to somehow control human activities if the forest Fig. 1. Map of Teknaf Peninsula and the study area should regenerate in the near future. But, the analysis of human activities in reserve forests has not been reported very much (but, see [8]). MATERIALS AND METHODS Therefore, the objective of this paper is to The study area is in the middle section (Ward 5) of characterize human activities in the reserve forest to Baharchara Union, Teknaf Upazila (sub-district) in provide a specific case study. In order to accomplish the District of Cox’s Bazar (Fig. 1). Baharchara it, this study takes up an area of the reserved forest in Union occupies a narrow long belt along the west

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coast of the peninsula. Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary RESULTS AND DISCUSSION comprising 11,610 ha is established in the middle of Three ethnic groups, the Bengali, Chakma, & the peninsula. The area encompasses several unions Rohingya, and three religions, Muslim, Hindu, and of the Teknaf Upazila including Baharchara Union. Buddists are identified in the survey. Hindu is not A household survey was conducted in three included in the following analysis because there is settlements (para) in South Silkhali village of only one household. That makes a total of 171 Barharchara Union in September 2012. These three households included in this study. As legal status, paras (Chakma, Naya and Mat paras) were chosen “forest villager” is recognized as entitled to live in for the study because they are contiguous and located the reserve forest. All other households except for 6 entirely in the TWS’s reserved forest. The survey households claiming long-term residence, are used a questionnaire and recorded 172 households in categorized as “encroachers.” Because all Chakma these three paras. Items recorded in this survey are households are either forest villagers or their listed in Table 1. descendants, there is no household in the category of Table 1. List of recorded categories in the survey. Chakma-encroacher. In this way, 5 groups are distinguished as the unit of comparison (Table 2). - Location of the household Chakma-Forest Villager (FV), Bengali-FV, and - Religion Bengali-Encroacher (ENC) are three major groups in - Ethnicity this area, while the other two groups, Bengali-Old - Habitation history - Legal status Families (OLD), and Rohingya are small including 6 - Income households, respectively. By comparing and contrasting - Occupation these groups, this study attempts to characterize - Collecting activities attributes of dwellers in the reserved forest. - Farming activities Table 2. Groups of dwellers in the reserved forest used in - Paan cultivation the analysis - Water sources - Environmental perception Group Ethnicity Legal Status HHs* 1 Chakma Forest villager 26 This survey recorded the legal status of dwellers as 2 Bengali Forest villagers 54 living in the reserve forest. Although the reserve 3 Encroachers 79 forest is basically closed for private activities, “forest 4 “Old” families 6 villagers” are registered by the Forest Dept and allowed to live in the area in exchange for their 5 Rohingya Encroachers 6 duties of forest conservation. A forest villager’s *HH: household family lives in a lot allocated by the FD, and can A. Household income engage in private economic activities, such as Income of each household was recorded farming within the designated lot. This status of a separately by categories. Those categories include forest villager can be inherited. Those who are other “farming,” “paan,” “fishing,”, and other cash earning than forest villagers are, in theory, illegal activities including day labor, business, service, and encroachers. But, there are gray zones. other miscellaneous activities. For the first three The only one of the descendents of a forest categories, the respondent was asked to estimate the villager, for instance, can inherit the status, and gross sales of products, and the cost of operating others do not. While, in a strict sense, those who do such activities. Income was derived by the amount of not inherit the status have no right to live in the sales deducted by the cost. For cash earning activities, reserve forest, these non-heir descendents tend to live the respondent was asked the earning of a unit time where they are grown up. This study includes this (day, week, month, and so on), and the total length of kind of forest villagers’ descendents in the category period in a year engaged in such an activity for each of “forest villagers” as well. Another kind of the gray cash earner in the respective household. These zone is the timing of the initial habitation. The figures are added together to derive the total annual current reserved forest system was first established income of the household (Table 3). by the Forest Act in 1927 by the then-British The mean total annual income of all households is Colonial Govt. Therefore, if someone started to live 105,176 BDT. Among three major groups, Chakma, in a location, say, 100 years ago, such presence Bengali-FV, and Bengali-Encroachers, Bengali-FV should be beyond the jurisdiction of the current act as households are better off than the other two. Chakma the Article 5 of Chapter II of the Act specified it as households earn much less than other groups, less an exemption. This study, therefore, separates six than the half of the mean (Table 3). Even Rohingya those families who claim that they have lived in this households, refugees from Myanmar, earn 60% more area for a long time or more than 100 years in this than the Chakma. The difference between the two place as “Old” families although there is no Bengali groups, FVs and encroachers, is statistically documentation to substantiate their claims in hand. significant (t=2.2312, p=0.0141). The mean income

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of the encroachers is 30% less than that of Bengali villagers, both Chakma and Bengali, used more FVs. The highest income is earned by Bengali-OLD owned land than leased one for cultivation. The other being 262,667 BDT. three groups use more leased land for rice. Bengali-ENC households own only small amount of Table 3. Mean annual income by category and by dweller groups in Bangladesh Taka (BDT) land and the Rohingya own no land for agriculture. Farming Paan Business Labor Other Total Table 5. Mean cropping area of rice and paan by dweller groups in “kuni” (10 kuni = 1 acre) 1 7512 17523 692 18327 846 44900

Paan Cropping Area Rice Cropping Area 2 31639 40956 27472 18074 19167 137307 (paan boroz)

3 11953 27266 25463 11523 17342 93546 Group Own Lease Total Own Lease Total 4 69500 55833 86000 50000 1333 262667 1 2.1 0.9 3.0 0.4 0.6 1.1 5 20367 0 0 46133 6333 72833 2 3.9 1.7 5.6 1.0 0.1 1.1 All 19808 30153 23562 17191 14462 105176 3 0.4 1.8 2.2 0.2 0.4 0.6

B. Income sources 4 2.0 2.7 4.7 0.5 0.9 1.4 In terms of income and the composition of income 5 0.0 2.3 2.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 sources, characteristics of each group are as follows. All 1.8 1.7 3.5 0.5 0.4 0.9 The Chakma group, earning the least amount of income, heavily depends on paan cultivation and day D. Residential history labor, both comprising about 40% of their income. While all households in the Old family group have The Bengali-FV group earns income from different lived in this area for a “long time by definition, most sources relatively evenly with the main emphasis on Chakma families settled for more than 50 years paan, rice and other agriculture. The Bengali-ENC (Table 6). For Bengali FV families, the length of group earns less than the Bengali-FV, and as the living is distributed widely, and those with living Bengali-FV earns income from different sources history being less than 25 years comprise 28%. On evenly, but the Bengali-ENC puts less emphasis on the other hand, many of encroachers are relatively agriculture, and more emphasis on business. The new comers; among Bengali those living less than 25 income composition of the Old families is years are 58%. All Rohingya households have lived characterized by much earning from business (Table in this area less than a few years. 4). The composition of income sources of Rohinyga is very different from any other groups. More than Table 6. The number of households by group and by length 60% of all income of the Rohingya solely comes class of habitation from day laboring. While this is supplemented by Years Chakma B-FV* B-ENC* Old Rohingya some agricultural income, there is no income neither <10 0 7 15 0 6 from paan cultivation, nor business. 10-24 0 8 27 0 0 Table 4. Proportions of types of income-earning activities 25-49 3 13 22 0 0 in household income Farming Paan Business Labor Other 50-99 10 12 9 0 0

1 17% 39% 2% 41% 2% 100 13 13 0 6 0 *B-FV: Bengali, Forest Villager 2 23% 30% 20% 13% 14% *B-ENC: Bengali Encroachers 3 13% 29% 27% 12% 19% E. Implication on forest regeneration 4 26% 21% 33% 19% 1% About the one-half of dwellers in this area are not 5 28% 0% 0% 63% 9% officially entitled to live there. In general, human All 19% 29% 22% 16% 14% activities affect in two ways. The first is that people consume forest products for various purposes, such C. Agricultural land as fuel, building materials, agriculture, etc. The With regard to rice cropping area, the mean area second way is to occupy the area which was once for all households is 3.5 kuni (0.35 acres), forested. But, people clear the land to make Bengali-FV households use the most area, 5.6 kuni agricultural fields and homesteads. As long as they and the Bengali-ENC and Rohingya crop rice least in stay in the area, the forest is never regenerated. 2.2 and 2.3 kuni. For paan, the two Fv groups use The total area under cropping rice and other crops about the same size of area, the Old families use 305 by all dwellers is 655.2 kuni (65.5 acres, 26.5 ha), more, and the Bengali-ENC crops paan in about the and the area of paan boroj is 145.8 kuni (14.6 acres, half of that of the FVs (Table 5). The owned-lease 5.9 ha). Because flat areas suitable for rice and other pattern of rice cropping area shows that forest crops are limited, it is not possible for further

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expansion. On the other hand, because paan can be [4] IPAC. 2009. Site-level field appraisal for protected cultivated on a sloping ground, there may be further area co-management: Teknag Game Reserve, Cox’s potential of expanding paan cultivation as long as the Bazar. Cox’s Bazar: IPAC-Southeastern Cluster. 43p. water becomes somehow available. In order to [5] MA Mannan. 2006. Plant biodiversity management at Teknaf Peninsula ECA. Coastal Wetland cultivate paan, many kinds of forest products Biodiversity Management Project BGD/99/G31. including wooden poles, bamboos, leaves, and Cox’s Bazar Site Office. 90p. sungrass are necessary to build facilities to provide [6] LA Molony. 2006. Teknaf Peninsula ECA shade for paan plants, pan boroj. Thus, the expansion Conservation Management Plan. Submitted to of paan cultivation will affect the state of the forest Coastal and Wetland Biodiversity Management negatively [9-11]. Project. 170p. Although this area is closed for human activities [7] Nishorgo Support Project. 2006. Management plans except for forest villagers, new encroachers do not for Teknaf Game Reserve. 116p. [8] S Akhter, MSI Sohel, MP Rana, and M Alamgir. seem to stop flowing in. Twenty % of all encroachers 2009. Impact of forest and non-forest villagers on have lived there in less than 10 years. Once Ukhia and Inani Forest Range under Cox’s Bazar encroachers move in, they attempt to make their (South) Forest Division, Bangladesh. Proc. Pakistan living in this area. While they tend to rely more on Acad. Sci., 46(1):13-22. business and other activities than agriculture [9] M Tani, MZ Rahman, A Rahman, K Asahiro, and S compared to forest villagers, they establish Akhter. 2011. Deforestation by daily activites in the homesteads and agricultural fields by clearing the Teknaf Peninsula, Bangladesh. Proc. ICEAB 2011: land, and obtain forest materials for paan boroj, and 73-75. [10] H Tsuruta, M Tani, and MZ Rahman. 2012. The collect fuel wood from the forest. Therefore, new study on the impact of betel leaf cultivation on the encroachers are serious new sources of forest local forest in the Teknaf Peninsula. Proc. ICEAB destruction. 2012: 51-53. [11] MA Rahman, M Tani, K Asahiro, AZM Moslehuddin, CONCLUSION and MZ Rahman. 2013. Impacts of climate change This study shows that the half of dwellers in a and land use on forest degradation in Teknaf reserved forest area usually closed for human Peninsula. Proc. ICEAB 2013 (to be published). activities are not entitled to live in that area. While a small fraction of these dwellers may have started their habitation before the law prohibited such an act, most of them are encroachers. The FD, however, does not seem to control people’s movement into the reserved area effectively. As this analysis shows, the inflow of encroachers steadily continues. It is feared that such new settlers in the reserved area would further degrade the condition of already damaged forests because of the very presence of their homesteads and the pressure exerted by paan cultivation on the forest.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT This study is in part supported by JSPS grant for scientific research to the senior author (#24401040).

REFERENCES (BANGLADESH POUSH 2006; MANNAN 2006; MOLONY 2006; NISHORGO PROJECT 2006; HEBARA 2007; EPLERWOOD INTERNATIONAL 2009; IPAC 2009) [1] Bangladesh POUSH. 2006. Participatory action plan development, Cox’s BAzar Teknaf Peninsula ECA, Baharchara Union, Teknaf. Report submitted to Dept. of Environment, Bangladesh. 22p. [2] Epler Wood International. 2009. Integrated protected area co-management (IPAC): Teknaf Peninsula Community-Based Ecotourism Strategy. Report submitted to USAID Bangladesh. 53p. [3] MS Hebara. 2007. Proposal for implementing pilot ecotourism project in Teknaf Peninsula and Sonadia Island ECAs. Coastal Wetland Biodiversity Management Project BGD/99/G31. 27p.

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