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Home , Celebrity Skin, Dancing Queen, Disco 4, Disco Inferno, Disco Inferno (wrestler), Get Down Tonight

Faculteit Letteren & Wijsbegeerte

Sofie Busschop

From Man to

A Comparative Stylistic Study of Singer-, and

Masterproef voorgelegd tot het behalen van de graad van Master in de taal- en letterkunde twee talen: Engels - Spaans

2016

Promotor Prof. dr. Stef Slembrouck Vakgroep Taalkunde

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the people who supported me in the process of writing this thesis. Firstly, like to thank my supervisor, prof. dr. Stef Slembrouck, for the many hours he has invested in this investigation. His guidance and valuable insights have been an incredible help in the creation of this work. I would also like to thank Prof. Ludovic De Cuypere for his much appreciated assistance in the statistical analysis of the corpus. I would also like to thank my friends and family, and especially Aurelie and Hanne, for the emotional support that they have given me throughout the process of writing this thesis. to dedicate this work to my mother, who would have been very happy to know that I am to completing my Masters Degree.

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List of Abbreviations

D – Disco ABB ABBA – Dancing Queen BeG – Stayin’ Alive BoM Boney M. – Daddy Cool Chic – DiR Diana Ross – Upside Down DoS Donna – EWF Earth, Wind and - September KSB KC and the Sunshine – Get Down SiS Sister Sledge – We Are Family Tra –

G- Grunge AIC – Would? Bus Bush - Glycerine Hol Hole – Celebrity Mud – Touch Me I’m Sick Nir Nirvana – PeJ Pearl – Alive ScT – Sou – STP – Interstate TeD – Hunger Strike

S- Singer-Songwriter BiJ Billy Joel – Piano Man BoD – Like a CaK Carole King – It’s

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JaT James Taylor – Fire and Rain JoB Joan Baez – and Rust JoM Joni Mitchell – LeC Leonard Cohen - Suzanne NeY Neil Young – Heart of Gold SiG Simon and Garfunkel – VaM Van Morrison –

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List of Tables

Table 1 disco ...... 4 Table 2 Songs grunge ...... 5 Table 3 Songs singer-songwriter ...... 5 Table 4 attribution of stress by trial subjects ...... 30 Table 5 Dominant text idiom per song per genre ...... 50 Table 6 General percentage of text idioms per genre ...... 51 Table 7 Types of pronouns per genre ...... 56 Table 8 Lexical variation by means of type-token ratio per genre ...... 64 Table 9 Lexical density per genre ...... 66

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List of Figures

Figure 1 Word cloud grunge ...... 71 Figure 2 Word cloud singer-songwriter ...... 72 Figure 3 Word cloud disco ...... 73

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Table of Contents

Introduction 1 Chapter 1 Introduction to the corpus ...... 3 1.1 Composition of the corpus ...... 3 1.2 Musical genres ...... 6 1.2.1 Singer-Songwriter ...... 7 1.2.2 Disco ...... 8 1.2.3 Grunge ...... 9 1.3 Poetic language and performance ...... 11 1.3.1 Song as poetic language ...... 11 1.3.2 Songs as performances ...... 14 1.3.3 Conclusion ...... 17 Chapter 2 Phonological analysis ...... 18 2.1 Introduction to English Prosody ...... 18 2.1.1 Stress ...... 18 2.1.2 Rhythm ...... 20 2.1.3 Intonation ...... 21 2.1.4 Meter ...... 23 2.2 Phonological analysis of the corpus ...... 25 2.2.1 General phonological analysis ...... 25 2.2.2 Comparison of the three genres ...... 31 2.2.3 Conclusion ...... 35 Chapter 3 Text-typological analysis ...... 37 3.1 What is a text type? ...... 37 3.2 Text-typological theories ...... 39 3.2.1 James L. Kinneavy ...... 40 3.2.2 Egon Werlich ...... 40 3.2.3 Robert E. Longacre ...... 43 3.2.4 Comparison ...... 45 3.3 Text-typological analysis of the corpus ...... 48 3.3.1 General text-typological analysis ...... 48 3.3.2 Pronouns ...... 55 3.3.3 Conclusion ...... 58 Chapter 4 Lexical analysis...... 60 4.1 Lexical richness ...... 60 4.1.1 Theoretical discussion of lexical variation and lexical density ...... 61 4.1.2 Analysis of lexical richness in the corpus ...... 64 4.1.3 Conclusion ...... 67

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4.2 Content analysis ...... 68 4.2.1 Theoretical discussion of word count ...... 69 4.2.2 Content analysis of the corpus ...... 70 4.2.3 Conclusion ...... 75 Conclusion for word counts and word clouds ...... 76 Conclusion 78 Bibliography 80 Appendix 86

Word count: 29986

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Introduction

Pop music can be considered quite a recent phenomenon, rising in society during the course of the twentieth century (Danesi, 2003: 76). Therefore, the study of did not receive much attention of scholars until the last couple of decades. As Bértoli-Dutra (2014: 149) notes, over the last 20 years, has become a more prominent topic within sociological and musical studies. However, the linguistic interest in pop music has remained quite limited. The study of pop music in the field of linguistics has primarily been centered around “theme selection, as well as on its poetics and semiotics” (Bértoli-Dutra, 2014: 149). In this investigation, however, I investigate whether linguistic differences between musical genres go beyond the different lexical themes they present. Linguists who offer a multidimensional approach to the linguistic comparison of different genres of pop music are rare, with the exception of Bértoli-Dutra (2014). Due to the limited precedence of comparative linguistic studies of pop music genres, this investigation does not follow a particular model and, instead, the parameters have been determined by the author. In this study, three musical genres with a strongly recognizeable musical identity have been selected in order to investigate whether the generic differences of these different branches of pop music can be extended to linguistic differences. These musical genres are the grunge, disco and singer-songwriter genre. A first glance at songs of these three genres shows that there is quite some linguistic variation. In order to establish whether this variation can be considered genre-specific, three prominent linguistic aspects of the pop songs have been focussed on. Lexical content, as mentioned, is an important factor in the linguistic distinction of the three genres. However, lyrics do not only show variation in terms of word choice, but also in the way they are constructed on a larger scale, namely in the type of text they form. Therefore, it is interesting to see whether this text-typological variation also shows some genre-specific tendencies. Finally, rather than just focussing on the lyrics, this investigation will also establish

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whether the way language and music interact in pop music also varies according to genre. This belongs to the study of phonology, and particularly prosody. This investigation, in other words, will focus on the variation between the musical genres of grunge, disco and singer-songwriter music with regards to phonology, text-typology and lexicon. In order to allow for a profound analysis, ten prototypical songs of each genre have been selected. However, the limited nature of this corpus also affects its representativeness of the genres. Although the selected songs are considered to be essential works of each genre, too strong a generalization of the results should be avoided. This investigation offers an introductory approach to the multidimensional analysis of musical genres, which should be confirmed by the analysis of a larger corpus. In order to investigate the variation in terms of phonology, text-typology and lexicon in grunge, disco and the singer-songwriter genre, first offer a short introduction to the corpus, discussing the three genres, as well as the general properties of of songs. Then I will analyse the phonological properties of the genre, particularly focussing on linguistic and musical rhythm, and establish whether there is variation in the way these different rhythms interact. Next, I will focus on text-typological properties of the genres, investigating whether the lyrics of the different genres constitute different text types.1 Finally, the corpus will be submitted to a lexical analysis, which will focus on lexical richness and content analysis. This will shed whether the lexicon of each genre shows genre-specific tendencies, and whether it reflects larger thematical patterns that are proper to each genre. This approach will offer a broad view of the linguistic variation of the three musical genres of the corpus.

1 Not to be confused with what this investigation considers the linguistic genre (cf. 3.1). In terms of text genre, the corpus is uniform, as it consists of songs.

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Chapter 1 Introduction to the corpus

In order to allow a multidimensional linguistic comparison of grunge, disco and singer- songwriter music, the corpus has been limited to ten songs per genre. This chapter will describe how this corpus has been composed as well as give a brief introduction to each of the genres.

1.1 Composition of the corpus

The objective of the corpus is to include ten songs of each genre. This, however, provided some challenges, considering the fact that the genre classification of songs is debatable; as Walser (as cited by Holt, 2007: 4) argues, “nowhere are genre boundaries more fluid than in popular music” due to the fact that “ are ceaselessly creating new fusions and extensions of popular genres.” Therefore, instead of randomly selecting songs of each genre, ten prototypical songs of grunge, disco and singer-songwriter music have been chosen to form the corpus, based on the genre classifications of Last.fm1, Allmusic2 and Wikipedia3. Although the songs have not been selected randomly, the corpus has been assembled as representatively as possible. First, the music recommendation website Last. has been consulted to establish the top ten artists of each genre. The classification of the genres in Last.fm is done through crowdsourcing, which means that genres are attributed by unmonitored users (Diab, Mainero and Watson, 2012: 1). However, although crowdsourced tags are usually considered less accurate, Diab, Mainero and Watson (2012: 1) have concluded that

1 http://www.last.fm/ 2 http://www.allmusic.com/ 3 https://en.wikipedia.org/

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“crowdsourced tags can be effective when done in large enough quantities” which, as they argue, applies to Last.fm. Yet, as genre classifications may vary, the genre attribution of the selected artists on Last.fm has been checked through a comparison with the classification on the music review website Allmusic, which provides an unranked selection of artists per genre. Unlike Last.fm, the genre attribution is based on the music catalogue provided by Rovi Music. As a final check, the genre description of each artist on Wikipedia has been consulted as well. Artists who were not present in three classifications were substituted by the following artists in the Last.fm ranking who were. The singer-songwriter genre, however, formed a peculiar case. As the investigation focuses on prototypical songs of the three genres, the focus on the singer-songwriter genre has been limited to its most popular era in the 60s and 70s, although the genre is still prolific today. As this distinction is not made in Last.fm, the artists of the singer-songwriter genre have been selected from the classification made by Allmusic. Finally, the most popular song of the selected artists has been chosen, based on the popularity ranking on Last.fm. The version of the song that has been analysed is always the original studio version.

Table 1 Songs disco

ABBA – Dancing Queen Andersson, B., Ulvaeus, B. and Anderson, S. (1976). Dancing Queen [recorded by ABBA]. On [MP3 file]. : . Bee Gees – Stayin’ Alive Gibb, B., Gibb, M. and Gibb, R. (1977). Stayin’ Alive [recorded by Bee Gees]. On Saturday : The Original Movie Sound Track [MP3 file]. : RSO Records. Chic – Le Freak Edwards, B. and Rodgers, N. (1978). Le Freak [recorded by Chic]. On C’est Chic [MP3 file]. New York: . Diana Ross – Upside Down Edwards, B. and Rodgers N. (1980). Upside Down [recorded by Diana Ross]. On Diana [MP3 file]. New York: Records. Earth, Wind and Fire – September White, M., McKay, A. and Willis, A. (1978). September [recorded by Earth, Wind and Fire]. On The Best of Earth, Wind and Fire, Vol. 1 [MP3 file]. New York: Columbia Records. KC and the Sunshine Band – Casey, H.W. and Finch, R. (1975). Get Down Tonight [recorded by KC and the Sunshine Band]. On KC and the Sunshine Band [MP3 file]. Miami: TK Records.

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Sister Sledge – We Are Family Edwards, B. and Rodgers, N. (1978). We Are Family [recorded by Sister Sledge]. On We Are Family [MP3 file]. New York: Cotillion Records. The Trammps – Disco Inferno Green, L. and Kersey, R. (1976). Disco Inferno [recorded by The Trammps]. On Disco Inferno [MP3 file]. New York: Atlantic Records.

Table 2 Songs grunge

Alice in Chains – Would? Cantrell, J. (1992). Would? [recorded by Alice in Chains]. On Dirt [MP3 file]. New York: Columbia Records. Bush – Glycerine Rossale, G. (1995). Glycerine [recorded by Bush]. On Sixteen Stone [MP3 file]. New York: Atlantic Records. Hole – Celebrity Skin Love, C., Corgan, B. and Erlandson, E. (1998). Celebrity Skin [recorded by Hole]. On Celebrity Skin [MP3 file]. New York: Geffen Records. Mudhoney – Touch Me I’m Sick Arm, M. (2007). Touch Me I’m Sick [recorded by Mudhoney]. On Live Mud [MP3 file]. : . Nirvana – Smells Like Teen Spirit Nirvana. (1991). Smells Like Teen Spirit. On [MP3 file]. New York: DGC Records. – Alive Vedder, E. and Gossard, S. (1991). Alive [recorded by Pearl Jam]. On Ten [MP3 file]. New York: . Screaming Trees – Nearly Lost You Lanegan, M., Conner, G.L. and Conner, V. (1992). Nearly Lost You [recorded by Screaming Trees]. On [MP3 file]. New York: Epic Records. Soundgarden – Black Hole Sun Cornell, C. (1994). Black Hole Sun [recorded by Soundgarden]. On Superunknown [MP3 file]. Santa Monica: A&M Records. Stone Temple Pilots – Interstate DeLeo, R. and Weiland, S. (1994). Interstate Love Song [recorded by Stone Temple Pilots]. On Purple [MP3 file]. New York: Atlantic Records. Temple of the Dog – Hunger Strike Cornell, C. (1991). Hunger Strike [recorded by Temple of the Dog]. On Temple of the Dog [MP3 file]. Santa Monica: A&M Records.

Table 3 Songs singer-songwriter

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Bob Dylan – Dylan, B. (1965). Like a Rolling Stone. On Highway 61 Revisited [MP3 file]. New York: Columbia Records. Carole King – It’s Too Late King, C. and Stern, T. (1971). It’s Too Late [Recorded by Carole King]. On Tapestry [MP3 file]. Auckland: Ode Records. James Taylor – Fire and Rain Taylor, J. (1970). Fire and Rain. On Sweet Baby James [MP3 file]. Burbank: Warner Bros. Joan Baez – Diamonds and Rust Baez, J. (1975). Diamonds and Rust. On Diamonds and Rust [MP3 file]. Santa Monica: A&M Records. Joni Mitchell – A Case of You Mitchell, J. (1971). A Case of You. On [MP3 file]. New York: Reprise Records. Leonard Cohen – Suzanne Cohen, L. (1967). Suzanne. On Songs of Leonard Cohen [MP3 file]. New York: Columbia Records. Neil Young – Heart of Gold Young, N. (1971). Heart of Gold. On Harvest [MP3 file]. New York: Reprise Records. Simon and Garfunkel – The Sound of Silence Simon, P. (1966). The Sound of Silence [recorded by Simon and Garfunkel]. On Sounds of Silence [MP3 file]. New York: Columbia Records. Van Morrison – Brown Eyed Girl Morrison, V. (1967). Brown Eyed Girl. On Blowin’ Your Mind [MP3 file]. New York: Bang Records.

In conclusion, in order to create a corpus of songs that are representative of each genre, various artist classifications have been compared. By contrasting the classifications made by the music websites Last.fm and Allmusic as well as the popular online encyclopedia Wikipedia, prototypical artists of each genre have been detected. Finally, the most popular song of each artist has been selected as part of the corpus of this investigation.

1.2 Musical genres

The following section will give a brief introduction to the musical genres that will be compared in this investigation: singer-songwriter, disco and grunge music.

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1.2.1 Singer-Songwriter

In its broadest definition, ‘singer-songwriter’ refers to artists who both write and perform their own songs, unbound by genre (“Singer-Songwriter”, 2003: 198). Originally, however, the term was used in reference to a particular movement of artists, rising from the folk tradition that gained popularity in the 1960s and 1970s. More than writing and performing songs themselves, the singer-songwriter movement had become a genre of its own, with its own stylistic and thematic features. The roots of the singer-songwriter genre can be found in . Although, as Cohen (2002: ix) explains, folk was originally “the music of the peasants of the Old world, then of the cowboys, lumberjacks, coal miners, southern mountain folk and chain gangs,” the popularity of early twentieth-century folk artists such as Woodie Guthrie brought the genre to a broader, more urban audience. A was inspired to enter the folk tradition, which lead to a folk revival in the sixties (2002: ix). This folk revival consisted mainly of traditional folk songs, such as child ballads, or songs composed in the typical folk style, following the “more rigidly circumscribed topics” (Frith, 2004: 66; “Singer-Songwriter”, 2002: 198). However, gradually, certain artists to reject the “traditional material, subject matter and song styles” in favor of a “more contemporary style generally dealing with more personal issues” (“Singer-Songwriter”, 2002: 198). A forerunner in this movement was Bob Dylan, whose songwriting had moved away from the typical protest songs to more poetic and personal lyrics (2002: 198). Many artists who had established a career in the folk revival followed his example, resulting in the “golden age” of the singer-songwriter genre in the 60s and 70s, with artists such as Leonard Cohen, Joni Mitchell and James Taylor (Forster, 2011: para. 4). Although the accoustic musical accompaniment remains similar, the lyrical content of traditional folk and singer-songwriter songs shows notable differences. Following Dylan, the singer-songwriter genre lost the “direct or commonplace” images of folk in favor of the “personal and obscure”, no longer limiting itself to traditional ballads and political protest songs (Frith, 2004: 200). Political and social issues, as Carlin (2005: 71) argues, made way for reflection on personal relationships and individual issues, which resulted in a more and confessional type of lyrics. Lyrics became personal narratives, which could range from Joni Mitchell’s “restless search for love in a hedonistic, sexually liberated age” to James Taylor’s “sophisticated, often cryptic personal confessions of emotional disorder” (Holden, n.d.: para. 4). This intimate content is reflected by the minimalistic musical accompaniment, which, as the

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music website Allmusic (“Singer/Songwriter”, n.d.) notes, puts the emphasis on the song itself, rather than the performance. The singer-songwriter genre may have had its peak in the 1960s and 1970s, but it has remained a constant in the pop charts. Artists such as Suzanne Vega and Tracy Chapman blew new life into the genre in the late 80s, resulting in “new popularity and exposure for a new crop of contemporary singer/”, who are no longer bound to the folk genre (“Singer/Songwriter”, n.d.).

1.2.2 Disco

The term ‘disco’ originated as an abbreviation of discothèque, the “ oriented that first appeared in the 1960s”, proving the inseparability of the genre and its party context (Garofalo, n.d.: para. 1). Starting as an underground culture, this beat-driven dance genre, together with “hot tubs, polyester [and] platform shoes” became a quintessential part of the seventies (Echols, 2010: xxiii-xxiv). Despite its eventual success, disco music was initially overlooked by mainstream pop culture. Ignored by radio stations, it “received its first significant exposure in deejay-based underground clubs that catered to black, gay, and Latino dancers”, using dance records instead of live performances as their primary source of music (Garofalo, n.d: para. 2; Lovensheimer, 2010: 289). Disco started as a “mixed bag of dance music,” a combination of the r&b genres that had developed in the previous decade, such as motown, and soul, which deejays skillfully interwove in order to create a continuous stream of music (Converse, 2013: 353). These predominantly African-American influences, as well as Latin rhythms, were fused in the creation of new music aimed at the dance club audience, outlining the defining features of disco (Garofalo, n.d.: para. 3). As disco music reached its first big hits with acts such as Barry White and KC and the Sunshine Band, and the underground clubs became hot spots for yuppies, the disco genre started to enter the mainstream culture (Lovensheimer, 2010 :291; Converse, 2013: 354). Garofalo (n.d.: para. 3) argues that “as the dance-floor mania developed into a more upscale trend, the cruder sensuality of funk was eclipsed by the more

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polished Philadelphia sound4 and the controlled energy of what came to be known as Eurodisco5.” Disco moved away from its underground origins and anchored its place in the mainstream pop charts in the mid seventies with the hit movie , which “made disco ‘safe’ for the white middle class” (Lovensheimer, 2010: 293). As Allmusic (“Disco”, n.d.) describes, “growing out of the increasingly groove-oriented sound of early '70s and funk, disco emphasized the beat above else, even the singer and the song.” The was degraded to while the bass came to the foreground, accompanied by a strong drumbeat (McColl, 2014:174). This beat, which was often fixed to a particular number of beats per minute to ensure a smooth transition between songs, was usually “overlayered with slow-moving, melodic patterns and textured use of string sections and synthesized keyboard work” (Converse, 2013: 354-355). Thematically, disco music reflected the party context that was so essential to the genre, with lyrics that encouraged romance and having fun, and particularly focussed on the act of dancing itself (Sayre & King, 2010: 363; Fulk, 2001: 235). The growing commercialism of the disco genre eventually led to its decline, as the “the turned disco music into a profit-driven machine” (Lovensheimer, 2010: 293); the incessant stream of uninspired disco songs led to oversaturation and a growing aversion to the disco genre (2010: 293). As the early eighties came around, the disco hype waned, although disco music continued to influence a variety of dance genres that followed, such as hip-hop, house and techno (Lovensheimer, 2010: 293; “Disco,” n.d.).

1.2.3 Grunge

Although various terms had been proposed to describe the raw musical genre that sprang up in the early nineties, from ‘punky metalheads’ to ‘post-rap’ and ‘thrash’, the rugged nature of the music as well as the unkempt aesthetics that surrounded it eventually inspired the overarching term grunge (Strong, 2016: 50). Starting out as a cult genre, this musical genre has expanded into the of the early nineties, as it became the musical identity of generation X.

4 Philadelphia sound was marked by “lush and big set to street corner music and doo-wop harmonising” (Gerber, 2014 :162). 5 “Electronics-dominated style of disco that featured mechanical drum machines and ” (Lovensheimer, 2010: 291).

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Grunge started as a local musical development, particularly centered around a small number of Seattle-based bands (Grish, 2014: 236). Essential in shaping the grunge genre was Green River, in particular, that started the grunge sound by combining hardcore punk with heavy metal (2014: 236). Although the band only had a short lifespan, members continued to their mark on the grunge genre, as, separately, they founded what would become two of its most prominent bands: Mudhoney and Pearl Jam (2014: 236). However, the band that transformed grunge from a local cult interest into a pop culture movement is Nirvana (2014: 236). Although the first from the Seattle band did not cause much of a stir, their second album, Nevermind (1991), soared in the pop charts and launched the grunge trend, and was quickly followed by international breakthroughs of other grunge bands such as Pearl Jam and Soundgarden (2014: 236). The two main musical sources, punk and heavy metal, each showed their influence on grunge in . As Campbell (2004: 226) notes “as a punk-heavy rock crossover then, grunge, might well have sourced its monstrous riffs, sheer volume, melodies and vocal posturing from the latter, but lyrically decidedly punky in character, pointed, angry and defiantly anti-pop.” The heavy sound, created by the guitar distortion and heavy drumming, particularly marked the first wave of grunge bands, such as Soundgarden and Mudhoney (“Grunge”, 2011: 177). A “slightly more melodic sound” marked the second wave formed by, amongst others, Nirvana and Pearl Jam (2011: 177). Moreover, Perone (2012: 23) notes that grunge particularly set itself apart from the it was endebted to by “break[ing] up some of the unrelenting volume, distortion an compressed density of punk with moments of near-tenderness.” The lyrics, as mentioned, reflect the anger and defiance of punk. However, more than just anger, the songs express “angst, social alienation, apathy, for freedom, and general disenchantment with society and with the prejudices of society” (Horsfall, 2013: 212). Grunge lyrics reflected the state of mind of generation X, that was born in the seventies and had come of age during “the hangover of the sixties” (Campbell and Brody, 2008: 454). Experiencing a time marked by race riots, inflation and the “squalid end to the Vietnam war”, this generation witnessed the obliteration of the optimism that marked their parents’ generation (2008: 454). As music critic Simon Reynolds (as cited by Marin, 1992: para. 14) described, “there’s a feeling of burnout in the culture at large. Kids are depressed about the future.” Grunge artists rejected the empty materialism and superficiality of the previous decade, and prided themselves on authenticity, which was reflected in both “the unpolished sound” as well as the “disheveled ” (Moore, 2010: 117).

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However, the commercial success created a paradox within the grunge scene; grunge artists, which established themselves as anti-commercial, were now becoming “pawns in a multimillion-dollar industry” (Strong, 2011: 55; Grish, 2014: 236). This led to accusations of inauthenticity on the part of the critics, as well as internal conflict for the artists, tragically exemplified by ’s suicide in 1994 (Strong, 2011: 54; Grish, 2014: 236). Cobain’s death is generally seen as the abrupt end mark of the grunge era, which was already on the decline (Strong, 2011: 55). Despite grunge’s shortlived golden years, it left a strong impact on , as it opened the door for in mainstream pop music. (“Grunge,” n.d.: para. 3)

1.3 Poetic language and performance

In the analysis of the corpus of songs, it is important to note the peculiarity of the type of language that is investigated. In this section, I will discuss the affinity of song lyrics with poetry, and what distinguishes this type of language from non-poetic language. Moreover, I will touch upon the performative nature of songs, as, in order to investigate lyric-driven songs linguistically, it is essential to understand that the language used is part of a larger musical performance.

1.3.1 Song lyrics as poetic language

Whether song lyrics can be considered poetry is a topic open for discussion. Some seem to be in favor of this assertion, as Goldstein’s publication of The Poetry of Rock (1969) shows, while other scholars, such as Ribeiro (2007: 197), disagree because of the often ‘uninspired and hackneyed” types of repetition in song lyrics. However, there is a certain affinity between the two text types, as is shown in an experiment performed by Bickford (2007). He offered his high school students the lyrics of Bob Dylan’s “Down the Highway”, asking them whether they thought it was a poem or a song. “Based on meter, rhyme, the length of lines and of the entire piece, and the song's content”, arguments were made for both sides and there appeared to be no consensus (Bickford, 2007: 464). The showed lyrics share certain formal features with poetry, which can be explained by the fact that lyrics, too, use language “to achieve a variety of aesthetic effects” (Davies and Bentahila, 2008: 3). This aesthetic function of

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language, the “focus on the message for its own sake,” is what Jakobson (1960: 356) calls the poetic function. This investigation will explore the poetic function further, as it is essential to our understanding of the text type of song lyrics. Jakobson, in his larger model, defines the workings of the poetic function in the following way: “the poetic function projects the principle of equivalence from the axis of selection into the axis of combination” (1960: 358). This means that in poetic language, elements are selected and combined based on a relation of equivalence, which is not (or less prominently) found in everyday language. In the following example of everyday language “Joe was too ill to eat dinner last night”, it is clear that there is no relation of equivalence between Joe and dinner, except for the fact that both words are nouns (Waugh: 1980: 64). In poetry, , this is the guiding principle when combining elements: In poetry syllable is equalized with any other syllable of the same sequence; word stress is assumed to equal word stress, as unstress equals unstress; prosodic long is matched with long. and short with short; word boundary equals word boundary, no boundary equals no boundary; syntactic pause equals syntactic pause, no pause equals no pause. Syllables are converted into units of measure, and so are morae or stresses. (Jakobson, 1980: 358) The selection of a word will, for example, be based on the type of syllables that it consists of, so that, through the equation of syllables, a particularmeter is created which is not found in everyday speech. As Waugh (1980: 64) remarks, “there is (…) a radical parallelistic reorientation of all the material as it relates to the building of the sequence”, which can be grammatical, lexical and phonological. The most well-known example discussed by Jakobson is of course the Eisenhower’s presidential slogan “I like Ike”. Jakobson (1960: 357) shows how the appeal of the slogan comes from the parallelism between its elements, as the slogan consists of three monosyllabic words, each with the diphthong /ay/. Moreover, he notes that, in the case of like and Ike, one rhyming word is even completely enveloped in the other (1960: 357). However, not only sameness creates the aesthetic effect of poetic language. As Waugh (1980: 65) explains, “[b]y projecting equivalence (and perforce difference) into the axis of combination, the contrast between or within parallelistic elements comes to the fore and indeed contrast, as much as equivalence, becomes an important part of the structuration of the poem.” It is, in other words, the tension between the principle of equivalence and the principle of

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contrast, between sameness and difference, that results in poetic language. Waugh (1980: 65) notes that this contrast can be found within equational elements as, for example, rhyming words, which consist not only of a rhyming part, but also of a non-rhyming part which creates dissimilarity. Moreover, the contrast can also be found between different equation sets; she gives the example of meter, which in essence is the result of a contrast between stressed and unstressed syllables (1980: 65). The focus on contrast, or more specific deviation, in poetic language is also discussed by Mukarovsky (1932). In his discussion of what distinguishes poetic language from the standard language, he argues that the former is not a mere subclass of the latter, as poetic language can employ all aspects of the standard language (1932: 42). He proposes that poetic language results from “the esthetically intentional distortion of the linguistic components of the work, in other words, the intentional violation of the norm of the standard” (1932: 43). The function of poetic language, according to Mukarovsky (1932: 44), is to foreground an utterance. He describes foregrounding as “the opposite of automization, that is, the deautomization of an act; the more an act is automatized, the less it is consciously executed; the more it is foregrounded, the more completely conscious does it become” (1932: 44). Mukarovsky (1932: 44) stresses that foregrounding, or deviation, is not only a feature of poetic language, as it can also be found in, for example, journalistic style. In these cases, however, the function of foregrounding is to draw attention to the content. In other words, communication is still the primary function. In poetic language the function of foregrounding is, simply, the foregrounding of the expression itself, used “for its own sake”, which resembles Jakobson’s definition of the poetic function (1932: 44). Moreover, just as Waugh argued in relation to Jakobson’s theory, Mukarovsky sees poetic language as an opposition between sameness and difference. This is described as “‘unity in variety’, a dynamic unity in which we at the same time perceive harmony and disharmony, convergence and divergence” (1932: 45). He argues that, in poetry, not everything can be foregrounded, as this would go in against the idea of foregrounding (1932: 44). In the analysis of songs in the following chapters, the poetic nature of the language of song lyrics is an important factor to take into account, as it has a strong influence on the way the language is structured. As Jakobson and Mukarovsky have argued, a poetic effect can be achieved through parallelism as well as deviation. In addition to its poetic nature, the performative aspect of pop music has to be taken into account as well. discussed in the following section.

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1.3.2 Songs as performances

Although song lyrics are closely linked to poetry in the language that is used, songs cannot merely be reduced to the lyrics or an example of ordinary speech. Frith (1989: 90) stresses that “a song is always a performance”, combining verbal and non-verbal devices as means of expression. Not only is this aspect of performance important to understand the semiotic nature of music, but it also shows the necessity to include the musical dimension in the linguistic analysis of songs. In musical performances, language becomes part of a greater unity. As the systems of language and music are combined, each with their own structures and rhythm, they interact and adapt to one another in order to create a balance. “A performance,” as Stanislavski (1950: 182) remarks, “is not one thing, it is a series of large and small conjunctions of varied and variegated rates of speed and measures, harmoniously composed into one large whole.” The term performance has quite a broad application. In its most basic interpretation, performance refers to “certain embodied acts, in specific sites, witnessed by others” (Diamond, 2015: 1). Moreover, in literary and linguistic studies, scholars have defined performativity as “the process by which semiotic expression produces results in the extra-semiotic reality” (Davidson, 2014: 179). Performances, in other words, aim to achieve a particular effect with their audience, through the staging of embodied, physical acts. The study of performance tends to focus on the ritualistic and theatre, but plenty of other acts can be considered performance as well, from the more obvious performing arts – theatre, dance and music- to “the everyday life performances to the enactment of social, professional, gender, race and class roles” (Schechner, 2013: 2). As a performance is supposed to be witnessed by others, the presence of an audience is an important aspect of the concept. Recorded music therefore makes a peculiar case, as there is no direct contact between the performer and the audience. Despite the delay in time and place, Auslander (2004: 5) argues that recorded music can just as much be considered a performance, due to the “direct somatic experience of sound” as well as the “knowledge of the performance conventions of particular genres of music and the performance styles of specific performers” which we gain from live performances. Within the domain of (recorded) musical performance, vocal performances, in particular, have an interesting semiotic nature, as two sign systems, a verbal one and a musical one, are combined. Summarizing the argument of musicologist Francesco (1975) Orlando, Gorlée (2005: 7) describes vocal performance in the following way: The verbal (poetic) material is (…) inserted into the musical material, where both systems coexist and interact meaningfully, while still preserving their own identity (…) And the meaning of

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vocalized verbal language influences, and is influenced by, the elements of musical expression: pitch, duration, loudness, timbre and dynamic, each governed by its own rules. This would mean that (…) the verbal poetry is still an essential and meaningful attribute of the musical performance. (Gorlée, 2005: 7) What makes the performance of songs interesting, in other words, is that, in the act of , it offers the possibility to combine physical (musical) and verbal expression, due to similarities in the phrasing of language and music. Phrasing refers to the organization of auditory streams (Knösche et al., 2005: 1). Both language and music show particular patterns in the production of sounds in the form of rhythm. Interestingly, by combining language with the performance of music, a balance has to be found between the different rhythmic patterns. of speech is determined by the prosodic features of language, which will be discussed in more detail in chapter 2. Generally, however, it can be stated that speech production is divided into groups, phrases, which usually form a syntactic unit (Knösche et al, 2005: 1). Breath pauses are the primary markers of the boundaries of prosodic units, although pitch movements and durational lengthening of a syllable can indicate the boundary of a group as well (Patel 2006: 99). Within these units, speech is further organized through “a ‘metrical’ hierarchy based on stress and prominence”, as stressed and unstressed syllables are alternated (2006: 100). As linguists have noted, music to be organized in a similar way. Musical performances, too, are divided up into musical phrases, with boundaries that are similarly marked by pauses, lengthening and pitch movement (2006: 99). Moreover, music is also organized through the use of stress and prominence, as it displays a “hierarchical organization of beats in which some beats are perceived as stronger than others” (2006: 100). However, language and music do differ when it comes to the regularity of these stress patterns. Patel (2006: 100) notes that musical phrases are marked by an isochronous pulse. Although linguists have attempted to uncover a regular “isochronous pulse based on stresses or syllables” in spoken language, these theories have been disproved and eventually abandoned (2006: 100). Moreover, both in verbal and musical phrasing, melody plays an important role as well. However, the variation in tone serves other purposes in speech than in music. The melody in speech is more commonly referred to as intonation. As Magdics (1963: 326) points out, “the melody of speech is definable, it has an identical meaning for every member of a linguistic community, it is a means of expressing human thoughts.” A change in pitch can, for example, turn a declarative statement into an interrogative clause. The intonation of English will be discussed in more depth in chapter 2. Melody in music, on the other hand, has an aesthetic

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function rather than a communicative one, although Magdics (1963: 326) does note that musical melody can express a particular mood. These similarities between music and speech allow for them to be combined in songs. The concrete ways in which language and music interact are shown through textsetting, the singing or chanting of metrical poetry. As Bickford (2007: 442) notes, “Textsetting involves productive interaction between the different rhythmic systems of music and language.” In an experiment by Hayes and Kaun (as cited by Bickford, 2007: 442), ten informants were asked to put lines of various folksongs to music. In the process of adapting the texts to a particular meter, certain constants could be found: although stress contours and syllable length were usually kept, and coordinated with musical beats, syllable stress was more frequently altered as a result of the phonological phrasing (Bickford, 2007: 442). According to Hayes and Kaun (as cited by Bickford, 2007: 442), “the edges of clitic groups, phonological, and intonational phrases (phonological structures of increasing order) condition processes like ‘metrical inversion’ where, in singing, the spoken stress contour of a word or metrical foot is reversed at a prosodic phrase boundary.” They give the example of the final strong-weak foot of a line, for example, which is often turned into a weak-strong one. Intonation, too, is affected when language is set to music, as both intonation and melody are created by variation in tone. Raposo de Medeiros (2008: 4), who investigated the influence of speech intonation on Brazilian pop music, concludes that intonation is maintained to a certain extent in songs :

In his task, the is offered two ways – linguistic and musical - of saying one thing, and then he has to negotiate constraints of both codes. Musical constraints related to intonation require melodic unit and tuning. Linguistic constraints require specific intonational patterns in order to obtain distinct meanings (…) We conclude that chooses to create (or to follow) prosodic rules that are typical of song competence. These rules do not cancel speech prosodic rules, but rather transform them, in order to guarantee a kind of symbiosis between speech prosody and musical constraints. (Raposo de Medeiros, 2008: 4)

In other words, the combination of language and music appears to be mainly a matter of balance: in the case of both rhythm and melody, a balance has to be found between the prosodic rules of speech and the musical features of the song. As Bickford (2007: 461) wisely remarks, “traditional musicological or poetic analyses to either melody and rhythm or prosody

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and meter would necessarily overlook the important structures that develop out of the interactions between these elements.”

1.3.3 Conclusion

In order to analyse pop music linguistically, in conclusion, it is important to be aware of the ways the language used may deviate from ordinary speech. Naturally, the properties of the language itself still have to be considered, not only phonologically, but also grammatically and semantically. However, song lyrics are also governed by an aesthetic function, which, according to Jakobson, is achieved by submitting language to the effects of parallelism. Moreover, in songs, the language forms part of a larger musical performance. The combination of language and music not only results in an unusual semiotic nature, but also affects the properties, particularly in terms of prosody, of the language used. The aesthetic effect of parallelism and deviation, moreover, does not only apply to the lyrics of songs, but also to the music, and the way the lyrics and the music interact. Although parallelism is typically associated with poetic devices such as meter, rhyme and assonance, it can also be found in the interaction between the different linguistic and musical levels of the song. Aesthetic effect can derive from the convergence of the different levels, as, for example, the grammatical clause coincides with the intonation unit as well as the musical phrase. However, Mukarovsky’s concept of internal deviation can equally be applied. It is possible for performers to deviate from patterns of parallelism to achieve a particular effect, by, for example, avoiding correspondence between the grammatical boundaries and the musical phrase. To conclude, this chapter has introduced certain concepts that are essential to the understanding of the workings of language in music. Firstly, the poetic function of songs has been addressed, which is realized through parallelism and internal deviation. Moreover, I have discussed the importance of the aspect of performance in the analysis of songs, particularly the different aspects of a vocal performance that have to be taken into consideration in the analysis. These concepts will be discussed further in the following chapters, in which a corpus consisting of grunge, disco and singer-songwriter songs will be analysed phonologically, text- typologically and lexically.

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Chapter 2 Phonological analysis

The starting point of the analysis of the three music genres is a phonological analysis of the selected songs of each genre. In this analysis I will mainly focus on the interaction of music and the prosodic properties of the language used, and investigate whether genre-specific tendencies can be discerned. In order to do this I will first briefly introduce the basic rules of English prosody. Then I will discuss how the language of the corpus, in general, may deviate from these rules, and, finally, I will point out possible phonological tendencies which are specific to the different genres.

2.1 Introduction to English Prosody

Before discussing the way language and music interact in the songs of the corpus, I will give a brief introduction to the prosodic properties of spoken English. Prosody refers to the suprasegmental features of speech, such as stress, rhythm and intonation, which structure spoken language (Crystal, 2003: 248). As this investigation deals with poetic language, I will also address the more narrow, literary interpretation of prosody as the study of metrical patterning.

2.1.1 Stress

In order to discuss the rhythm of spoken English, it is first necessary to take a closer look at the distribution of stress within the language, as stress can be considered “the linguistic manifestation of rhythmic structure” (Hayes, 1995: 8). Hayes (1995: 8) notes that it is difficult to define the term stress, as it does not simply correlate with one phonetic variant. Various variables have been proposed as cues for stress in a language, but none of them are invariantly related to stress.

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One possibility was presented by Stetson (as cited by Hayes, 1995: 5), who proposed that stressed syllables result from a more intense breath pulse. In other words, he argues that a stronger contraction of the respiratory muscles causes some syllables to be pronounced more prominently than others. Although studies do show that breath pulses usually coincide with stress, Hayes (1995: 6) notes that plenty of syllables can be considered stressed despite the absence of a breath pulse. Therefore, other factors need to be considered in relation to stress. Fry (as cited by Hayes 1995: 6) investigated various parameters associated with stress, as well as to what degree these parameters influence the perception of stress. This he did by “vary[ing] certain parameters systematically, keeping segmental content the same, and let listeners judge contour was affected” (1995: 6). The parameters that he proposed were loudness, duration and pitch (1995: 6). Remarkably, loudness, which is intuitively associated with stress, had the least impact on the listener’s perception of stress compared to the other factors. The duration of a syllable appeared to have a stronger influence on whether that syllable is perceived as stressed or unstressed, as the test showed that a longer syllable, rather than a louder one, tended to be considered stressed. Pitch variation, finally, showed the correlation with the listener’s perception of stress. Depending on the language, a higher or lower pitch is associated with a stressed syllable (1995: 6). However, in both cases, counterexamples can be found, in which stress is perceived despite the absence of the parameter. Collins and Mees (2013: 129) add one more variable to those presented above, namely vowel quality. They note that the vowel of a stressed syllable is pronounced as the peripheral vowel. However, when the syllable is unstressed, many languages display vowel centralization, which means that the vowel is pronounced in a more centralized manner. This effect is even more radical in English, as the vowels are not more pronounced in a more centralized manner, but they are replaced by another phoneme which can be /ə/, /ɪ/ or /ʊ/. This is called vowel reduction. Collins and Mees (2013: 129) show the opposition between the vowels of stressed and unstressed syllables by comparing the verb (to) present /prə'zent/ with the noun present /'prezənt/. It is clear that when the position of the stress changes, the pronuniation of the vowels changes as well. In both cases, the stressed syllables contain the peripheral vowel /e/, while the unstressed syllables have the centralized vowel /ə/. All of these different parameters can be linked to stress, although there does not appear to be one in particular that results in the perception of stress. What we perceive as stress can be attributed to a combination of factors. Moreover, stress patterns can be distinguished on different levels within a language, namely word stress and sentence stress. When words are pronounced in an isolated manner,

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usually one syllable is pronounced more prominently - which can the case be in various ways, as discussed above - and is therefore stressed, while the other syllables remain unstressed. In certain languages, the position of the stress is more or less fixed. This is called language invariable stress and is the case in, for example, Spanish, where stress is normally on the penultimate syllable (Collins and Mees, 2013: 131). English, however, has lexically designated stress (2013: 131). This means that instead of a general rule of stress, the position of the stress is secured for each individual word. However, there are some guidelines to help non-native speakers of English to determine the correct position of the stress. Collins and Mees (2013: 132) note that words of two or three syllables, for example, tend to have the first syllable stressed, such as 'culture, while longer words display a tendency for stress on the antepenultimate syllable, for example com'municate. Nevertheless, these are no fixed rules. In connected speech, not all potential stresses are pronounced. Collins and Mees (2013: 135) point out that, in connected speech, the words that usually receive stress are words “which carry a high information load”, i.e. content words, while words with little semantic content, function words, usually remain unstressed. However, certain exceptions have to be taken into account. Certain sets of function words do regularly receive stress, namely wh-words - such as where, why or how- and demonstratives (2013: 135). When a contrast is implied, function words also tend to receive stress, as in the following example: Ex.1 I said give ‘her a kiss, not ‘him. [emphasis in the original] (Colins and Mees, 2013: 135) Moreover, Colins and Mees (2013: 135) note that “at more rapid tempo, the number of unstressed syllables will increase.” In conclusion, the perception of stress can be attributed to a variety of factors, namely intensity, loudness, pitch variation, duration and vowel quality. These factors are often combined, but none of them can be univocally linked to the phenomenon of stress in spoken languages. Moreover, a distinction has to be made between word stress and sentence stress, as sentence stress is what can be perceived in spoken language use. It is sentence stress which, as Collins and Mees (2013: 135) note, can be considered “the basis of rhythm” in English.

2.1.2 Rhythm

Not only in music does rhythm plan a prominent role. In spoken languages, too, rhythmic structures can be discerned. Within the study of linguistics, rhythm can be defined as “the recurrence of a perceivable temporal patterning of strongly marked values and weakly marked

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values of some parameter as constituents of a tendentially constant temporal domain” (Gibbon and Gut, 2002: 91). This patterning can be realized in different ways. Naturally, the languages of the world show variation in terms of rhythmic patterns. However, commonly two types of languages are distinguished with respect to rhythm, namely stress-timed languages and syllable-timed languages. This distinction is made based upon the different principles that determine the rhythm of a language. As Gibbon and Gut (2002: 91) note, “stress-timing refers to regularly recurring beats or stresses as in English or German and syllable-timing to regularly recurring syllables as in French.” The difference is, in other words, in the regularity of the stressed syllables. In syllable-timed languages, “each syllable appears to have approximately equal time value” (Collins and Mees, 2013: 135). This means that, in terms of length, there seems to be no notable difference between the stressed syllable and the unstressed syllables. In a stress-timed language such as English, on the other hand, not all syllables are pronounced with equal length. As Colins and Mees (2013: 135) argue, in stress-timed languages “stressed syllables tend to occur at roughly equal intervals of time”, at a regular rhythm, a phenomenon which is called isochrony (Roach, 1982: 74). In order to maintain this regular rhythm, the length of the unstressed syllables is adapted to the number of syllables within the interval of time between two stressed syllables. This can be noted in the following example by Colin and Mees (2013: 135), in which the syllables become more and more compressed as more syllables are added: Ex. 2 The ban’s back in place the banner’s back in place the banister’s back in place /bænz/ /’bænəz/ /’bænɪstəz/ • • • Nishihara and Van de Weijer (2013: 156-157) point out that a larger number of syllables in a syllable-stressed language will result in an utterance that takes longer to pronounce, while in stress-timed languages this is not necessarily the case; if the number of stressed syllables stays the same, there should be no notable difference in it takes to pronounce the utterance.

2.1.3 Intonation

Another aspect of the rhythm of spoken English is the pitch movement or intonation. Pitch refers to the variation in tone in spoken language, which can vary somewhere between high and low. Unlike word stress, intonation operates on the level of clauses and sentences, “supplying types of meaning additional to what is supplied by the words themselves”(Collins and Mees, 2013: 140). In the analysis of intonation, speech production is divided into intonation groups,

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which present “a complete pattern of intonation” (2013: 141). The boundaries of these intonation groups usually coincide with the boundaries of a grammatical clause, although there can be variation. In certain cases, noun phrases (ex. 3) can make an intonation group, as well as adverbial phrases (ex. 4), depending on their length: Ex. 3 This particular part of Pembrokeshire / is at its most beautiful in the spring// (Collins and Mees, 2013: 141) Ex. 4 Regrettably / paedophiles are unlikely to ever reform.// (Collins and Mees, 2013: 141) The boundary of an intonation group can be reflected by a pause as well as punctuation in written language. Within these intonation groups, one syllable is stressed more prominently, usually by "a marked change in pitch” as well as by being pronounced "somewhat longer and louder than the rest”, such as the marked syllable in ex. 5 (Collins and Mees, 2013: 142): Ex. 5 Sophie adores her gorgeous new motorbike. (Collins and Mees, 2013: 142) This more prominent syllable is called the intonation nucleus. The pitch pattern determined by the nucleus, which can be falling or rising, is continued by the tail, the part of the intonation group following the nucleus. Normally, the nucleus is the last strongly stressed syllable of the intonation group. If a syllable in the beginning of the intonation group receives the strongest stress, this adds “a special focussing effect” (Collins and Mees, 2013: 142). However, as Collins and Mees (2013: 145) discuss, there is also some variation in pitch concerning the syllables preceding the intonation nucleus: of an intonation group, usually a high-pitched syllable, the onset, can be situated, while the part between the onset and the intonation nucleus is called the head. In the following example (ex. 6), the onset and head of an intonation group are indicated respectively with (°) and ('). Ex. 6 °Rick boiled a kettle of 'water. (Collins and Mees, 2013: 145) In conclusion, the rhythm of spoken English is determined by a variety of factors. Generally speaking, English is considered a stress-timed language. This means that the principle guiding the rhythm of English is the regularity of stressed syllables. The words receiving stress tend to be the words which transmit the most information, e.g. content words, while function words usually remain unstressed. Moreover, intonation adds another dimension to the rhythm of spoken English, adding a variety in pitch to the stressed syllables. In the analysis of the corpus of songs the rhythm of spoken English can be used to help explain the stress pattern of the songs.

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2.1.4 Meter

As has been established previously, song lyrics can be considered a type of poetic languages, as they aim to be aesthetically pleasing. In the discussion of poetic language, I have pointed out the importance of parallelism to create an aesthetic effect. This is realized, among other techniques, by rhythmic parallelism in the form of meter. The previous section already dealt with the rhythm of spoken language. Spoken language has a particular prosodic organization which patterns the production of speech, grouping constituents together and creating an alternation between strongly marked and weakly marked syllables. Which syllables receive stress is guided by whether a language is stress-timed or syllable-timed. This rich prosodic organization that spoken language naturally displays forms the basis for the more strict patterning that constitutes a meter. Leech (1969) makes the distinction between meter and prose rhythm. Prose rhythm is the natural rhythm of a language as discussed in the previous section, while meter is an ‘ideally regular, quasi mathematical pattern” (1969: 103). However, he notes that the preferred meters in a language are determined by this prose rhythm (1969: 105). Syllable-timed languages already display a tendency towards regularity when it comes to the length of the syllables. Therefore, these languages show a preference for a syllabic meter, in which the rhythmic parallelism is achieved through the repetition of a fixed number of syllables per line, independent of stress. A meter frequently used in French poetry, for example, is the alexandrine, a meter of 12 syllables per line: Ex. 7 /N’esperons plus, mon ame, aux promesses du monde/ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 N’es-pe-rons-plus mon ame aux pro-messes du mon-de (Malherbe apud Appelbaum, 1991: 9) Stress-timed languages, on the other hand, tend to “equalize the time span between primary accents, regardless of the number of syllables” (Adams, 1997 : 4). The meter that is most popular in these languages is therefore a type of accentual meter, which measures the number of accents, stressed syllables per line, although there can be “a greater or lesser degree of regulation of the number of syllables between accents” (1997: 4). The number of stresses per line is reflected in the designation of the various types of meter; a pentameter, for example, contains five stressed syllables. However, as mentioned above, often the unstressed syllables are measured to a certain extent as well. Therefore, it is usually the foot that is considered the basic unit of an accentual meter. According to Hanson and Kiparsky (1996: 289), a foot can be

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defined as a unit, consisting of multiple syllables, which is binary and headed. This means that it consists of two metrical positions, strong and weak. The strong – or stressed - syllable forms the head of the unit. As a stress-timed language, English has an accentual meter. In the early stages of Anglo-Saxon, the meter was still strictly accentual, as it only took the stresses per line into account, while the number of syllables could vary (Leech 1969: 111). However, modern English has developed an accentual-syllabic meter which measures the number of unstressed syllables as well through the use of feet. An example of an accentual-syllabic meter is the iambic pentameter, which consists of five iambic feet, as in the following example1 (ex. 8): Ex. 8 The ploughman homeward plods his weary way The plough|man home|ward plods|his wea|ry way| X / | X / | X / | X / | X / | (Leech, 1969: 113) Because of the nature of the natural rhythm of languages, it is difficult to borrow a meter from another language. Kiparsky (1996: 312) notes that it is, for example, difficult to incorporate the vocabulary of a stress-timed language into a syllabic meter; “syllables that can never be stressed, such as final light syllables cannot be in strong positions. This requirement stands in striking contrast to syllable-based meters, where unstressed syllables can occur in any strong position.” In summary, meter is a means to transform ordinary language into poetic language. Although spoken languages do have a certain rhythm, it is through the use of rhythmic parallelism that an isochronous pattern is created. This is particularly relevant in the discussion of lyric-driven songs, as it is this strict ‘beat’ in language that makes it easier to adapt to music.

1 X = stressed, / = unstressed

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2.2 Phonological analysis of the corpus

The main goal of this chapter is to analyze the language in the corpus of songs phonologically, particularly in terms of rhythm. To a certain extent, the rules of spoken English can be used to explain the rhythmic patterns of the language in the songs. However, as has been discussed previously (cf. 1.3), the language of song lyrics is particular. It differs from everyday spoken language, as it is poetic type of language which is, moreover, performed in combination with music. In spoken language, intonation groups normally form a semantic and syntactic unity as well. In sung lyrics, however, this is not so straightforward. As the language has to adapt to the music, which has its own rhythm, the syntactic, semantic and prosodic unity may be broken up. Moreover, because of the fact that disco, grunge and singer-songwriter music are very distinct genres of music, it can be assumed that, to a certain extent, genre-specific features can be found when it comes to the combination of language and music. Firstly, I will establish how the phonological analysis of the corpus has been conducted. Then I will offer a comparison of the three genres with regards to their phonological features.

2.2.1 General phonological analysis

The starting point of the phonological analysis is the transcription of the corpus2. Essentially, the songs have been divided up into 'intonation units', in the sense that they have been divided into what can be distinguished as phonological units. The boundaries of these units are most prominently marked by breath pauses. However, as in spoken language, the lengthening of the final syllable and a change in pitch can be indicators as well. The boundaries of these intonation units have been marked by slanting lines (/), while double slanting lines have been used to mark longer instrumental interludes in the corpus (//). Marked pauses within an intonation unit, on the other hand, are marked by a double hyphen (--). The boundaries of intonation groups in sung lyrics, however, are not as straightforward as in spoken language. In spoken language, a phonological unit also forms a semantic and syntactic unity, as it usually contains a clause which forms a meaningful unit. As mentioned previously, when analyzing songs, the aspect of performance has to be taken into account, which can jeopardize this unity. Lyrics are sung and

2 The transcription can be found in the appendix of this investigation.

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performed together with accompanying music, which has its own rhythm. It is exactly this tension between language and music that can create interesting effects. At times, the rhythm of the language and music can coincide perfectly, thus creating a harmonious effect. However, when this is not the case, the language has to adapt to the rhythm of the music to a certain extent. This can break up the semantic, syntactic and prosodic unity found in the intonation units of spoken language, which can also have an interesting aesthetic effect. In the first line of the following example, the intonation groups form a syntactic, semantic and prosodic unity; each intonation unit forms a clause with a completed meaning. The second line, however, shows that these boundaries do not always coincide. Although the line again consists of two intonation groups, syntactically and semantically these units are incomplete. Ex. 9 Now, Suzanne takes your hand/ and she leads you-- to the river/ She’s wearing rags and feathers from/Salvation Army counters/ (S-LeC) The next step in the phonological analysis is to determine the stresses within the intonation groups. As mentioned above, the perception of stress can be attributed to a variety of factors, such as the duration of the syllable, loudness and pitch. The syllables which I perceive as stressed have been capitalized in the transcriptions. , too, the language of the songs can vary in the degree in which they coincide with spoken English. As discussed previously, the language of song lyrics can be considered poetic language, with a particular meter. In some cases, the rules of spoken English are taken into consideration in the meter, as is the case in the following example: Ex. 10 //MUST BE your SKIN/That I’m SINking IN/ MUST BE for REAL/ cause NOW I can FEEl// (G-Bus) In this case, the stresses fall on lexical words, as you would expect in spoken English, although they might be more emphatically pronounced. However, in other cases the meter may dominate over the prosodic rules of spoken English. In the line / RANG the PHONE off / (D-DoS), for example, the article, which has very little lexical meaning and is therefore rarely stressed, does receive stress to fit the line into the meter of the lyrics. Moreover, influenced by the meter, there is a tendency in the performances to pronounce usually unstressed syllables more intensely, similar to the pronunciation of words in syllable-timed languages. In the following example (ex. 11), the syllables of stadium are pronounced with equal length, although normally the last syllables would be compressed: Ex. 11 //MAKing LOVE in the GREEN GRASS/ beHIND the STAdiUM// (S-VaM)

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Intonation adds another level of stress to these intonation units. As mentioned above, in spoken language there is usually a more prominently stressed syllable, an intonation nucleus towards the end of the intonation group. These are pronounced with more intensity, and are marked in the transcription in bold font. In certain songs this pattern of stress seems to be dominant: Ex. 12 // it's NIne o'CLOCK ON a SAturDAY/ the REgular CROWD SHUFfles IN/ THERE's an OLD MA::N SITting NEXT / MAkin’ LOVE to his TOnic and GIN// (S-BiJ) As in spoken language, the nucleus can also be found earlier in the intonation unit as a way to focalize a certain way. In the following example (ex. 13), the adverbial here is fronted. Here can be considered the nucleus, despite being located more towards the beginning of the sentence, to focus on the location of the speaker. Ex. 13 // and HERE I SI::T/ HAND on the TElePHO::NE// (S-JoB) However, not all songs follow the typical intonation of spoken English. In some cases, an intonation nucleus cannot be distinguished, as multiple syllables per unit are stressed with equal intensity. In these cases, the meter appears to dominate over the prosodic rules of English, as the following example shows: Ex. 14 //BAby BAby / LET’s GET toGEther/ HOney/ ME AND YOU/ and DO the THINGS /AH DO the THINGS/ THAT WE /LIKE to DO// (D-KCS) Through the meter and, to a lesser extent, the intonation rules of spoken English, regular patterns are established. The patterns may be considered a form of parallelism, which can create a particular aesthetic effect. However, as the discussion of Mukarovsky’s theory showed, aesthetic effect can also be created by deviating from the expected pattern and foregrounding a particular element. In the case of stress, the deautomatization of the act is when an expression does not follow the expected pattern, which is the case in the following example: Ex. 15 //OH – PRINCESS ON a STEEPle and ALL the -- PEOple/ they ALL DRINKin’, THINKin’ that THEY – GOT it MADE/ exCHANGin’ ALL PREcious GIFTS/ but YOU BETter TAKE your DIAmond RING-- you BETter PAWN it BABE// (S-BoD)

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Bob Dylan, who is well known for his unpredictable performances, is equally unpredictable in the distribution of sentence stresses in “Like a Rolling Stone”. Although the stresses cannot be attributed to the meter of the lyrics, they notably deviate from the prosodic rules of English as well. By attributing stress to syllables of the song that are not expected to be stressed, Dylan foregrounds certain words. The extra stresses seem to express Dylan’s disdain for the superficial lifestyle of the protagonist of the song. Another case of foregrounding in "Like a Rolling Stone" is the repeated stress pattern introduced by the tag question in the beginning of the song: /THREW the bums a DIME IN your PRIME – DIDN’T YOU::?/ (S-BoD). Interestingly, this can be considered a case of parallelism and deviation at the same time; initially, the pause followed by a stressed syllable follows the pattern you would expect from a tag question in spoken language. This pattern is then repeated in the verses, which is an example of parallelism. However, when the pattern is repeated, it is applied to elements that do not form a tag question: /you THOUGHT THEY were ALL -- a-KIDdin’ YOU/ (S-BoD). Here, the stress pattern is no longer natural and expected, which can be considered deviation from the expected pattern. Aside from the attribution of stress, performers can use other phonological effects which were not determined by prosodic rules, to foreground elements of the song. The lengthening of a syllable, for example, can put more emphasis on the words already stressed, as in the following example (ex. 16), although they can also foreground words other than the most prominent ones, as is the case in (ex. 17). Ex.16 //THERE’ll BE good TIMES aGAIN for ME AND YOU/ but we JUST CAN’T toGETher DON’T you FEE::L it TOO// (S-CaK) Ex. 17 / O::H, you’re in MY BLOOD LIKE HO::ly WINE/ (S-JoM) Change in pitch can also be used to foreground elements besides those stressed by the intonation pattern or the meter. In Joan Baez’ “Diamonds and Rust” (ex. 18), for example, fall is sung with a notable change of pitch, which quite literally falls. This puts extra emphasis on the word as well as on its semantic content. In “The Sound of Silence” by Simon and Garfunkel (ex. 19), too, the change in pitch, which is not phonologically determined, has a foregrounding effect. In the lines below, the normally unstressed syllables “softly” and ‘was” are highlighted not only by lengthening the vowel, but also through its rising pitch. The repetition of this pattern creates a recognizable melody. Ex. 18 //and HERE I SI::T/ HAND on the TElePHO::NE/ HEARing a VOICE I’d KNO::WN/ a COUPLE of LIGHT YEARS aGO::/

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HEADing STRAIGHT for a FA::LL/ (S-JoB) Ex. 19 //beCAUSE a VISion SOFTLY:: CREEPING/ LEFT its SEEDS WHILE i WA::S SLEEPING// (S-SiG) Moreover, the sound effects created by stylistic devices such as rhyme, alliteration and anaphora can also be used to foreground words in the songs. In “Like a Rolling Stone”, by Bob Dylan (ex. 20) , for example, the internal rhyme puts extra emphasis on words that are already stressed, such as “time” and “fine”. The impact of the effect of rhyme can be seen when looking at the third line; although “bound” is pronounced with more intensity, there is a tendency to label “fall” as the stressed syllable, because it rhymes with the preceding stressed words “call” and “doll”. Ex. 20 //ONCE upON a TIME you DRESsed so FINE/ THREW the bums a DIME IN your PRIME – DIDN’T YOU::?/ PEOple CALL “BEWARE DOLL you’re BOUND to FALL/ you THOUGHT THEY were ALL -- a-KIDdin’ YOU// (S-BoD) In the aforementioned lines by Joan Baez, too, rhyme and deviation from the rhyme scheme are used to foreground particular elements. In the second to fourth line, a pattern is created through end rhyme. By deviating from this pattern in the final line, the last word, fall, which is already highlighted through the pitch, receives extra stress. Alliteration and anaphora, too, foreground certain words. This can, again, be to foreground the meaning of certain words, as in “Like a Rolling Stone”, where Bob Dylan almost seems to spit out the p in “princess”, “pretty” and “people” to express his disdain (ex. 21). In Soundgarden's "Black Hole Sun", anaphora can be found in the first lines. The repetition of in not only creates a pleasing aesthetic effect, but also add to the negative feeling of the song, as in can be associated with negation. Ex. 21 //OH – PRINCESS ON a STEEple and ALL the -- PRETty PEOple/ they ALL DRINKin’, THINKin’ that THEY – GOT it MADE// (S-BoD) Ex. 22 //IN my EYES/ INdisPOSED/ IN disGUISes/ // (G-Sou) Finally, what needs to be taken into account, is that determining which syllable is more emphatically accentuated, which is essential in determining the prosodic nature of the songs, is ultimately not a clear-cut objective task. The methods of foregrounding certain words and syllables, as mentioned above, can sometimes cause confusion when determining which syllables are most prominently stressed. The main difficulty is that the parameters associated with stress - such as the duration of the syllable, variation in pitch and loudness – are features

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that can also be used creatively by the performer, to foreground certain words or to create a particular effect. The fact that the attribution of stress is somewhat subjective, is shown in the following experiment, in which ten trial subjects had to determine which syllable was most prominently stressed.

Table 4 attribution of stress by trial subjects well I'll be damned I’ll = 7 DAMN = 3 here comes again fHERE = 1 GHOST = 7 ‘GAIN = 2 but that's not unusual THAT = 3 ‘US = 6 ‘AL = 1 it's just that the moon is full THAT = 2 MOON = 7 FULL = 1 and you happened to call HAP = 5 CALL = 5

The lack of agreement between the trial subjects reflects the subjective nature of the activity of determining stresses. The stress pattern in “Diamonds and Rust” is close to the rhythm of spoken language, except for the extended pronunciation of the last syllables. Therefore, the nucleus of the intonation group competes with these stretched syllables when it comes to determining which syllable is most prominent. However, in most cases there does appear to be a preference for a particular syllable. When in doubt, the syllable considered most prominent by the majority of listeners has been selected. However, when the syllable appears to be explicitly foregrounded, it has been marked as stressed as well. In summary, as language becomes part of a musical performance, the extent in which the prosodic rules still apply may vary. The rhythm of the music and the rhythm of the language are combined, which appears to result in one of the two taking precedence. The corpus shows cases in which the rules of spoken English continue to be dominant. Although all lyrics are structured by a certain meter, the meter appears to be adapted to the typical intonation pattern of spoken English. In other songs, however, it is the meter that dominates, disregarding certain prosodic rules. Moreover, aside from the larger rhythmic patterns of the songs, other phonological peculiarities can also be explained as ways to create an aesthetic effect. As Jakobson and Mukarovsky have argued, the aesthetic nature of poetic language is created respectively through parallelism and deviation, and these techniques are applied in the performance of songs as well. However, there is variation in the way language and music are combined, which may be related to the genre the songs belong to. This will be discussed in the following section.

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2.2.2 Comparison of the three genres

As previously mentioned, the genres that constitute the corpus are very distinct types of music. It is therefore not far-fetched to assume that the differences in the way language and music are combined in the corpus may be linked to the different genres. In the transcriptions, the singer-songwriter songs distinguish themselves from the other genres by their affinity to the prosodic rules of spoken English. As discussed previously, the intonation units in spoken English form a prosodic, syntactic and semantic unity. This means that a full intonation group usually contains a full clause which is semantically complete. Singer-songwriter songs bear the closest resemblance to this in the rhythmic organization of the language. The intonation units tend to consist of entire clauses, unlike the other genres, which explains why the units are remarkably longer. The average length of an 'intonation unit' of a singer-songwriter song is eight syllables. Because of the tendency to preserve the clause boundary as the boundary of the intonation group, the intonation groups of singer-songwriter songs have a high rate of syntactic and semantic completion, as can be noted in the following example: Ex. 23 //now JOHN at the BAR is a FRIEND o’ MINE/ he GETS me my DRINKS / and he’s QUICK with a JOKE -- or to LIGHT up your SMOKE/ but there’s SOMEPLACE that HE’d // (S-BiJ) Moreover, the rhythm of the songs within this genre predominantly bears a close resemblance to the rhythm of spoken language. Although, as has been established, song lyrics are a type of poetic language and have a certainmeter, the meter of singer-songwriter songs tends to not overrule the natural rhythm of spoken English. The patterning of stressed and unstressed syllables might be more regular than in spoken language, and stresses might be added as a means of foregrounding, but in the majority of the songs, the meter does not overpower the natural patterns of speech. The intonation pattern of spoken English can still be discerned, including the intonation nucleus, as can be noted in the aforementioned excerpt of Billy Joel's "Piano Man". There are, however, exceptions. Unlike the other genres, the singer-songwriter songs do not always have a chorus, but when they do, it tends to be more metrical than the verses, as "Piano Man" and “Heart of Gold” show: Ex. 24 //SING us a SONG YOU’re the piAno MAN/ SING us a SONG toNIGHT/ WELL, we’re ALL in the MOOD FOR a MEloDY/

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and YOU’ve GOT us FEELin’ alRIGHT// (S-BiJ) Ex. 25 //KEEP me SEARCHin’ FOR a HEART of GOLD/ you KEEP me SEARCHin’ ’m GROWin’ OLD/ (S-NeY) Moreover, two songs of the singer-songwriter genre of the corpus are generally more metrical, namely Simon and Garfunkel's "Sound of Silence" (ex. 26) and Leonard Cohen's "Suzanne" (ex. 27). In these cases, the meter is notably more dominant. The stress pattern of spoken English, with an intonation nucleus, is substituted for multiple equally stressed syllables per unit, which clearly distinguishes these songs from the more conversational rhythm of, for example, Joni Mitchell and Joan Baez. Ex. 27 // DARKness, / I’ve COME to TALK with YOU aGAIN/ beCAUSE a VIsion SOFTLY:: CREEPING/ LEFT its SEEDS WHILE i WA::S SLEEPING// (S-SiG) Ex. 28 //and JUST WHEN you MEAN to TELL her/ that you HAVE to GIVE her/ then she GETS you on her WAVElength/ and she LETS the RIver ANswer// (S-LeC) Finally, as I have already discussed, "Like a Rolling Stone" by Bob Dylan also forms a peculiar case. Dylan is known for performing his songs in various and unpredictable ways, which is reflected in the irregular stress pattern of "Like a Rolling Stone". Although the nature of the language does appear to be more conversational, many additional stresses have been added. These stresses can be considered a means to foreground particular words and meanings in the song, as argued above. In the disco genre, some tendencies can be discerned as well. Unlike the singer-songwriter genre, disco music is marked by notably shorter intonation units. The average number of syllables per unit is five. Because of the often limited length of these units, they tend not to coincide with the the semantic and grammatical units. Clauses are frequently split up, except for the particularly short ones, as the following excerpt shows: Ex. 29 //HAVE you HEARD/aBOUT the NEW DANCE CRAZE/ LISten to US/ i’m SURE you’ll BE / BIG FUN/ to be HAD by EveryONE/ It’s UP to YOU/ it SUREly CAN be DONE// (D-Chi) This division of intonation units results in a rhythm that deviates from spoken language, as the inserted pauses would sound awkward in everyday language use. Instead, the short units add to

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the upbeat rhythm of disco songs. The dominance of rhythm over the rules of spoken language is also reflected in the distribution of stresses. In the majority of the disco songs of the corpus, an intonation nucleus cannot be discerned, as multiple syllables are equally stressed. These stresses are not determined by the prosodic rules of English, but by the meter of the lyrics, as can be noted in ABBA's "Dancing Queen": Ex. 30 //FRIday NIGHT AND the LIGHTS are LO::W/ LOOKing OUT FOR a PLACE to GO::// (D-ABB) The exception to this are “Hot Stuff”, “We Are Family” and “September”. However, “We Are Family” does show a strong preference for metre in the chorus, while the short nature of the intonation units of “September” begs the question whether the stressed syllables can actually be considered intonation nuclei. Ex. 31 //EveryONE CAN SEE WE’re toGEther/ AS we WALK ON BY:: (AND)/ AND we FLY BIRDS of a FEATHER/ ’t TELL NO LIE:: (ALL)// (D-SiS) Ex. 32 //do YOU reMEMber/ the TWENtyFIRST NIGHT of sepTEMber// (D-EWF) Moreover, disco songs are less likely to foreground elements besides the prosodically or metrically determined stressed syllables. This can be attributed to the focus on a strict meter, as foregrounded syllables could disrupt the tight rhythmic pattern, which is less of a concern for singer-songwriter music. The exception to this is “Disco Inferno”. Ex. 33 //TO MY surPRISE (LISten)/ one HUNdred STOries HI::GH/ PEOPLE:: getting LOOSE y’all/ getting DO::WN ON (you HEAR)/ FOLKS are SCREAming/ OUT of conTRO::L/ It was SO:: ENterTAIning/ when the BOOGIE STARted to exPLODE/ (D-Tra) As the multiple stresses per intonation unit are not regular, they do not appear to be determined by meter. Instead, the additional stresses appear to be the result of foregrounding. Grunge songs, ultimately, appear to fall somewhere between singer-songwriter songs – which strongly resemble spoken English - and the disco genre – which is more beat-driven. Similarly to disco music, grunge songs mainly consist of short intonation groups, with an average of five syllables. These intonation groups may coincide with clauses, when these are

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short and simple. Longer and more complex clauses are usually split up over multiple intonation groups. However, more frequently in grunge music there appears to be no full clause. Grunge music appears to be marked by fragmentary description, which results in lyrics consisting of phrases rather than clauses. Soundgarden’s “Black Hole Sun”, for example, presents a lot of images through noun phrases and prepositional phrases, with the occasional full clause. In these cases, the semantic and styntactic unity are not necessarily broken up, but there is semantic and syntactic elipsis: Ex. 34 //IN MY SHOES/ a WALKING SLEEP/ and MY YOUTH I PRAY to KEEP// (G-Sou) In terms of stress patterns, too, grunge is more ambiguous than the disco and singer-songwriter genre. While the stress pattern of singer-songwriter songs tends toward the more conversational pattern, and disco music is more explicitly metric and beat driven, grunge falls somewhere in the middle. In the majority of the cases the units contain an intonation nucleus, which indicates that the meter is not as dominant as in the disco genre. However, grunge songs do resemble disco music in the strong tendency towards parallelism that both genres display. Although parallelism, as an essential part of poetic language, can be found in all three genres, the extent to which it is used can vary. Singer-songwriter music, for one, displays quite a lot of variation and deviation, with more complex sentence structures and less fixed stress patterns. Grunge, on the other hand, similarly to disco, consists of more simple grammatical structures, namely short phrases and clauses, as the following excerpt from "Smells Like Teen Spirit" shows: Ex. 35 //our LITTLE group/ has ALways BEEN/ and ALways WILL / unTIL the END// (G-Nir) As mentioned in regard to the “September”, the shortness of the intonation units does raise the question whether, despite the prominent stress per unit, these can actually be considered a reflection of the prosodic rules of English. Ultimately, the tendency towards parallelism in the grunge genre results in a stress pattern which is more regular than in the singer-songwriter genre but not as metrical as in the disco genre. It can be concluded that the different genres, indeed, combine language and music in different ways, which can be linked to the different priorities of the genres. In the case of singer- songwriter music, the rhythm of language appears to dominate. Although it is still more metrical than ordinary spoken language, the rhythm does remain close to natural spoken English. The rhythm of the music is not dominant, but rather accompanying the rhythm of the speech. This

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focus on the language can be linked to the nature of the genre. As discussed in the introduction of the musical genres (cf. 1.2), singer-songwriter music is marked by an understated, accoustic performance, which puts the focus on the vocals and the lyrics, the personal narrative that the performer shares. In disco music, on the other hand, the lyrics are often rather secondary to the music. The main purpose of disco music is to entice the audience to dance, which can explain the dominance of rhythm and meter over the natural prosody of English. Grunge, finally, can be found in between these two extremes. This may be linked to the fact that, although grunge is not quite as beat driven as the disco genre, the musical accompaniment in the form of a strong guitar and drum sound is more prominent than in the singer-songwriter genre. Grunge music does show more affinity with the rhythm pattern of spoken English, although to a lesser extent than singer-songwriter music, than with the beat-driven disco rhythm.

2.2.3 Conclusion

The phonological analysis shows that the prosodic features of English continue to be present in the performance of the songs of the corpus. However, they are not the only determining factor in the way the language is rendered. Aesthetic effect in the form of parallelism and deviation also have a strong impact on the language of the pop songs, causing it to deviate from the standard prosodic rules. This, most noticeably, affects the rhythm of the language, as the prosodic rules of English may be disregarded in favor of a particular meter. Moreover, other methods of foregrounding, such as the lengthening of a syllable or a change in pitch to create an aesthetic effect, also contribute to the unusual phonological properties of language used in music, which deviates from ordinary speech. However, the corpus does show variation in the extent to which the language is affected by the combination with music. Certain songs of the corpus remain closer to ordinary speech than others, which, as I have argued, can be related to the genre the song belongs to. The singer- songwriter genre, for one, shows a preference for a rhythm close to that of spoken language. The songs of this genre present, more than the other genres, intonation units that coincide with clause boundaries, as is usually the case in ordinary speech. Moreover, the typical pattern of intonation, featuring an intonation nucleus, is also dominant in this genre. This conversational nature of singer-songwriter music can be linked to its more conversational, narrative content. Disco, on the other hand, tends to have a more metrical language and a stronger focus on rhythm, which may be explained by its nature as dance music. Grunge songs appear to be less

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straightforward with regard to their phonological features. They do show a preference for one prominent stress per intonation unit, which brings them closer to the rhythm of spoken language. However, the succession of short intonation units that grunge presents can create a sense of metrical regularity. Therefore, I have argued that the prosodic organization of the language in the grunge genre tends to be closer to the rhythm of speech, but not to the extent that singer songwriter music is. In conclusion, this chapter has established that the language of the songs in the corpus shows variation in terms of its phonological features. Moreover, in the phonological variation that the corpus displays, generic preferences may be distinguished.

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Chapter 3 Text-typological analysis

This chapter will focus on another essential aspect of pop music, namely the lyrics. This part of the study aims to investigate in what ways the three genres distinguish themselves lyrically. An interesting way to study the textual variation in the corpus is through a text-typological analysis of the lyrics, as this deals with "the recognition and classification of features that recur in a class of texts because they are in some principled way related to the communicative situation and function of the text" (Suter, 1993: 30-31). First, I will discuss what will be considered a text type in this investigation. Then I will present a selection of prominent typological models. Next, a text-typological classification will be applied to the corpus.

3.1 What is a text type?

In order to study the various text types present in the corpus, it is necessary to establish what will be understood by text types in this investigation. As Suter (1993: 29-30) notes, “the term text type covers fundamentally different phenomena,” which makes an unambiguous definition of the term difficult. Text type is often coined together with other terms of text analysis such as genre and discourse type, and is at times even used interchangeably, depending on the linguistic model. Dingwall (1992: 86) argues that a distinction has to be made between four essential aspects of the text type phenomenon, namely genre, text type, register and discourse type. She notes that the difference between text type and genre is mainly who categorizes the text. Genre, for one, is the “folk or everyday classification of speech varieties” (1992: 86). The categories are known within the speech community and can be referred to by a term that is commonly known, such as a newspaper article. Text types, on the other hand, are the classifications of texts made by linguists based on certain criteria. These criteria can vary, as some linguists base their classification on “the clustering of linguistic features emerging from computer analyses”, while others use “basic rhetorical text functions” as a criterium (Suter, 1993: 32). Dingwall (1992: 86) notes that the classifications made by linguists do not necessarily differ from the intuitive classification made by non-linguists. Register, on the other hand, “refer[s] to the

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language forms typically associated with a text type” (1992: 86). Discourse type, finally, is described as the term used to classify texts based on their communicative and functional differences, as the focus shifts to the process of production and its wider social context (1992: 86). Dingwall (1992: 87) gives the example of a letter and a telephone answering machine message; because of the different processes of production, the results are two different discourse types. She remarks that text type and discourse type are actually quite similar, the difference being that the classification of text types depends on internal characteristics of the text, while discourse types are according to text-external criteria, including factors such as the speaker, the listener and the intention (1992: 86). Moreover, Dingwall (1992: 87) remarks that these different features are not isolated from one another as “one would expect particular discourse types to be associated with distinctive text types and thus to employ separate registers.” Suter (1993: 31), moreover, argues that the above classification, and particularly the opposition between genre and text type, shows two conflicting views on text types within the field. According to Suter, two general conceptions of text types can be distinguished: the everyday usage concept of text type and the theoretical re-definition concept of text type (1993: 31). The everyday usage concept of text type, which he also calls the traditional text type, refers to "a certain number of text classes [that] are recognised, accepted, used (and often given names) as integral element of ordinary language behaviour" and can therefore be linked to what Dingwall calls genre (1993: 31). This classification happens more or less intuitively and is shared by the average language user. The theoretical re-definition concept of text type, on the other hand, Suter (1993: 31) describes as the classification created by linguists, "on the basis of explicit, clearly specified linguistic features", which fits Dingwall's desciption of a text type. Trosborg (1997: 12), finally, remarks that "genres and text types are clearly to be distinguished, as linguistically distinct texts within a genre may represent different text types, while linguistically similar texts from different genres may represent a single text type.” Unlike genre, which is a classification applied to completed texts, the text type is one of the “properties of a text” and therefore “cut[s] across genres” (1997: 12). Trosborg (1997: 12) points out that this is often considered a point of weakness in the classification of texts according to genre; genres can display a great deal of linguistic variation that is not dealt with, as the “underlying text functions of English” are neglected. The topic of analysis in this investigation will therefore be the study of what Dingwall describes as the text type, and Suter as the theoretical re- definition concept of text type. In terms of genre, the corpus is quite uniform, as it consists of only one text genre, namely song lyrics. However, within this genre, the texts do show notable

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linguistic variation which appears to be linked to the musical genre3 -grunge, disco or singer- songwriter - it belongs to. Therefore, in this chapter I will analyse whether particular text types can be linked to the different musical genres discussed in this investigation.

3.2 Text-typological theories

As discussed in the previous section, text types classify texts according to principles established by linguists. However, it has been noted that various linguistic criteria can be used as the basis of a text type model; Suter (1992: 32) notes that some linguists draw their criteria from general text theory, while others use rhetorical text functions or computational analysis of formal elements as the basis of their text type model. This investigation will focus on the rhetorical text functions, a way to classify texts which goes back to Aristotle. Trosborg (1997: 12) points out that the two main traditions of classifying texts, according to purpose or type (or mode), were already discussed in his work “Rhetoric”. Purpose refers to the communicative purpose of the text, as texts may have different aims; Aristotle (350 BC/2004: 4) describes the different purposes of discourse, as “all men attempt to discuss statements and to maintain them, to defend themselves and to attack others.” Theories concerned with the communicative functions of discourse have elaborated on this idea, and pay particular attention to the language process, as Trosborg (1997: 12) notes, especially focussing on the speaker, listener, the thing referred to and the linguistic material. This approach to the classification of texts can be found in Jakobson’s famous functions of language, discussed previously, in which he attributes the different functions of language to the focus on a particular component of the language process. Type or mode, on the other hand, refers to the rhetorical purpose, “the rhetorical strategies which constitute the mode of discourse realized through text types” (Trosborg, 1997: 14). It can be noted that the communicative and rhetorical purpose are closely linked, as rhetorical functions are used to achieve a particular communicative goal. They do differ, however, in the fact that, in order to discern the communicative purpose, a context needs to be provided, while this is not necessary to determine the rhetoric purpose. Although Trosborg (1997: 14) argues that, unlike genre, text types form a closed set, with a limited number of

3 Not to be confused with text genre

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categories, there is variation in terms of what exactly constitutes these categories; Aristotle originally distinguished between four rhetorical purposes of discourse based on the level of probability of what it the speaker wants to express (Nelson, 2007: 24). Absolute “truth” is expressed in what Aristotle calls the scientific mode, whereas probable “truth” is conveyed through the dialectical mode (2007: 24). Rhetorical use of language, on the other hand, a discourse focussed on persuading the listener, presents seemingly probable “truth” (2007: 24). Aristotle also distinguishes a poetic use of language, which presents internally probable “truth” (2007: 24). This initial classification of rhetorical text functions has been further explored in the twentieth-century models of Kinneavy, Werlich and Longacre.

3.2.1 James L. Kinneavy

Within his larger theory on communication described in “A Theory of Discourse”, Kinneavy (1971) discerns four modes of discourse, “strategies that a speaker or writer uses to develop ideas for a particular aim in a particular kind of discourse” (D’Angelo, 1987: 139). The basis of this classification is the perception of reality that a discourse conveys. As Kinneavy (1971: 36) explains, the modes he distinguishes are “grounded in certain philosophic concepts of the nature of reality considered as being or becoming.” Firstly, Kinneavy distinguishes between a static and a dynamic view of reality, as a statement can either address a particular point in time or a changing reality (Trosborg 1997: 14). A statement that expresses a static view of reality, according to Kinneavy’s theory, can address an individual existence or the relationship between multiple entities, which he respectively calls description and classification (Trosborg, 1997: 14). A dynamic view of reality, on the other hand, can be expressed through the narrative mode, which describes a changing reality (Trosborg, 1997: 14). A view that sees the potential for reality to be different, too, belongs within this group, and is expressed in the mode of evaluation (Trosborg, 1997: 14). Kinneavy (1971: 37) does note that “in actuality, it is impossible to have a pure narration, description, evaluation or classification”, although he argues that usually a dominant mode can be discerned.

3.2.2 Egon Werlich

Another prominent model of rhetorical text typology has been proposed by Werlich (1976), who has based his classification of text types on the internal constitution of texts, noting patterns of dominance. Although typology theories usually focus on the level of texts, Werlich notes

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that the classification can equally be made on sentence level. Therefore, he distinguishes between three levels in his typological model, from an idealized form to text level and sentence level. Werlich (1976: 39) sees a text type as an “idealized norm of distinctive text structuring.” These are prototypical conceptions which only exist as “a deep structural matrix of rules and elements” in the language user’s mind (1976: 39). Werlich’s model distinguishes five text types: description, narration, exposition, argumentation and instruction. Similarly to Kinneavy, Werlich relates the distinction between description and narration to a static or dynamic view of reality. He defines description as the text type which reflects ‘the cognitive process of perception in space”, dealing with factual phenomena (1976: 39). Narration, on the other hand, is related to “the cognitive process of perception in time” (1976: 39). Werlich (1976: 40) describes the third type, exposition, as the text type used to establish how concepts are related to one another, which can be linked to “the cognitive process of comprehension.” Argumentation, too, is a text type used to mark relationships “between concepts of phenomena” (1976: 40). Here, however, an evaluative note is added as a judgement is made. Unlike exposition, these relationships do not constitute objective truth but “propositions in explicit or implicit opposition to deviant or alternative propositions” (1976: 40). The final text type that Werlich distinguishes is the instruction, the use of communication to make an action happen. Werlich (1976: 40) notes that this can be linked to the cognitive function of planning, as the speaker plans future behavior, which can be either his own or someone else’s. According to Werlich, these prototypical text types are realized on a text level in a natural language in the shape of text forms. These are the manifestations of text types which “are conventionally considered as the dominant manifestations of that particular type” (1976: 46). Werlich distinguishes multiple text forms for each text type, generally distinguishing between the objective or subjective point of view from which the speaker forms his message, such as the objective narrative text form of report versus the subjective narrative. Moreover, he further distinguishes different text form variants, “manifestations of a text form which are composed in accordance with a conventionally fixed compositional plan” (1976: 46). As these text forms appear to coincide more or less with the concept of genre discussed previously, I will not go into them in depth. As previously mentioned, Werlich argued that the classification of text types can be extended to the level of the sentence. The realization of text types on sentence-level is what he calls the text idiom, which displays “a set of structural features which reflect the constituent features of text type” (1976: 253). They function as the prototypical sentences in which text

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types manifest themselves, expressing the thematic base of the text type. The descriptive text idiom, according to Werlich, is the phenomenon-registering sentence, which consists of a stative verb and adverb of place or adverbial of place in an adverbial group (ex. 1) However, there are also notable variants of this descriptive text idiom. Werlich refers to the there is/was- sentences (ex. 2) as well as the continuous action-recording sentences (ex. 3), which has a non- static verb but is also used to set the scene. Ex. 1 Thousands of pilgrims were on the Grand Trunk Road in Allahabad. (Werlich, 1976: 253) Ex. 2 There was a file of camels. (Werlich, 1976: 253) Ex. 3 They were travelling on two-wheeled pony-carts with canopies, in motor buses and cars, and on bicycles. (Werlich, 1976: 253) The narrative text idiom, on the other hand, consists of action-recording sentences in sequence, which contain transitive (ex. 4) or intransitive verbs of change (ex. 5). Ex. 4 At 7:51 A.M., EST, on December 21, Apollo 8 took off from Cape Kennedy on man’s first flight to the moon. (Werlich, 1976: 255) Ex. 5 On December 24 the crew fired the rocket engine (…) (Werlich, 1976: 255) Werlich notes that, in the case of the expository text idiom, two prototypical sentence types can be discerned: the phenomenon-linking sentence, which forms an analytic exposition (ex. 6), and the phenomenon-identifying sentence, which consists of a synthetic exposition (ex. 7). However, an equivalent of these sentences is the non-continuous action-recording sentence, if the verb is in the timeless present (ex. 8). As Werlich (1976: 257) notes, this construction “refers to a change which is the permanent behavior of the phenomenon.” Ex. 6 The brain has a network of switches. (Werlich, 1976: 256) Ex. 7 These are the nerve-cells or neurones. (Werlich, 1976: 256) Ex. 8 [Cancer cells] detach from their original site, disseminate through the body (…) (Werlich, 1976: 257) The argumentative text type is realized on the sentence level through the prototypical negated simple quality-attributing sentence (ex. 9). Werlich notes that the phenomenon-identifying sentence, which is typically associated with the expository text idiom, is also frequently used in the argumentative text idiom when identification is combined with qualification. This is the case when the pre- or postmodification of the identifying nominal group (ex. 10) which functions as the complement, or when the complement is a non-situational lexeme (ex. 11): Ex. 9 Endurance is one quality among many. (Werlich, 1976: 259) Ex. 10 It is a clever tactic. (Werlich, 1976: 260)

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Ex. 11 an ass. (Werlich, 1976: 260) The prototypical sentence of an instructive text, finally, is the simple action-demanding sentence, which can be intensified by the presence of a vocative (ex. 12). Werlich (1976: 265) notes that “whether an instructive text is intended for immediate action or for information about virtual action, depends on the decoder’s interpretation of its illocutionary function in a specific communication situation.” Moreover, other constructions can function as equivalents of the action-demanding command. Elaborations of commands, such as an and-linked pair of verbs , an emphasizing ‘do’ and the ellipsis of the verb can equally be considered realizations of the instructive text type (ex. 13). Moreover, statements and questions can also function as equivalents; If-marked conditional clauses in which the verbal group is modified by could, would or can, can also function as variants of the commands, as well as statements expressing a speaker’s will (ex.14). Questions in which could, would or can are used can equally be considered equivalents of the action-demanding command (ex. 15). Ex. 12 Keep off the grass, John. (Werlich, 1976: 266) Ex. 13 Try and carefully! / Do drive carefully! / Careful! (Werlich, 1976: 266) Ex. 14 If you would drive more carefully, I’d be much obliged / I would like you to drive more carefully. (Werlich, 1976: 266) Ex. 15 Could you drive more carefully? (Werlich, 1976: 266) Werlich’s model, in other words, offers an elaborate multi-layered view on rhetorical text typology, distinguishing between five types which are applicable to various levels of the text.

3.2.3 Robert E. Longacre

Another typology often mentioned alongside those of Kinneavy and Werlich has been proposed by Longacre (1983). Longacre (1983: 1), who was also a historical linguist, brought attention to the importance of discourse typology within the larger language typology, noting that different types of discourse may affect the word order and “comparison between two or more languages can be vitiated by the failure to control this difference.” In his typological model, he makes a distinction between notional (or deep) structures, “which relate more clearly to the overall purpose of the discourse,” and surface structures, which apply to the formal characteristics of a discourse (1983:3). Longacre (1983: 3) distinguishes two basic parameters to classify “all possible discourses”: contingent temporal succession and agent orientation. He defines contingent temporal succession as “a framework of temporal succession in which some (often most) of

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the events or doings are contingent on previous events or doings, while agent orientation “refers to orientation towards agents with at least a partial identity of agent reference running through the discourse” (1983: 3). These two parameters allow Longacre to create four typological categories: narrative, procedural, behavioral and expository discourse. Narrative discourse, according to Longacre, is marked by the presence of both features. The procedural type of discourse, which Longacre (1983: 3) summarizes in “how to do it, how it was done, how it takes place” does display a contingent temporal succession, giving the successive of a procedure, but there is no orientation towards the agent. The category of behavioral discourse is described as “a broad category including exhortation, eulogy and political speeches of candidates”, which do display agent orientation, as it focusses on “giv[ing] advice to somebody else orally or urge him a change of conduct”, but there is no sense of temporal contingency (1983: 3; 10). In the expository discourse, finally, “which can range from the familiar essay to the scientific article”, neither of the two features are present (1983: 10). Longacre further subdivides these classifications through the addition of two more parameters: projection, which refers to the anticipation but non-realization of a situation or action, and tension, which is the presence of a sense of struggle leading up to a climax (1983: 4). Projection, for example, can be used to distinguish between the narrative text types of a prophecy and a story, or the expository budget proposal and a scientific paper (1983: 5). As these subclassifications appear to head towards a distinction between genres, I will not treat them in more detail. The realization of these notional structures is marked by “typical surface structure markings which encode notional parameters" (1983: 6). This can be seen in the features of the verbs, which, in the case of the narrative story, for example, typically have a non-durative preterit or historical present (1983: 8). Pronouns also show certain tendencies associated with the type of discourse they are used in; narrative discourse, for one, frequently displays first or third person pronouns, while in expository discourse, “which is oriented towards themes instead of participants”, there appears to be a preference for the third person pronoun, as well as deictics (1983: 8). The way paragraphs are linked, too, tend to be a reflection of the underlying text type (1983: 9). Longacre argues that narrative discourse mainly uses head-head or tail-head linkage4, while, in expository discourse, linkage is realized through sentence topics and parallelism of

4 Head-head linkage is the structure in which “the first sentence of one paragraph cross-references to the first sentence of the following paragraph” while, in tail-head linkage, “the last sentence of one paragraph cross-references to the first sentence of the following paragraph” (Longacre, 1983: 9).

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content. However, despite these formal characteristics, Longacre (1983: 10) notes that the relation between the surface and notional structure is not always transparent, as “a given notional structure type may encode in the form of a differing surface structure type.” What appears to be a narrative text, particularly, often has a different underlying function. Longacre explains this through the principle of vividness; he argues that text types show different levels of vividness, with the narrative discourse being most vivid and the expository and hortatory text types notably less. In order to appeal to the listener or reader, the expository and hortatory discourse may therefore adopt the more vivid, entertaining narrative surface structure, which he exemplifies through the literary forms of the fable and the parable. Moreover, the text types further affect one another as surface structures of a different type may be embedded in another type of discourse. Longacre, in conclusion, offers clear parameters to distinguish the various text types in his classification. Although these text types have their prototypical features, he allows a certain flexibility through the distinction between the notional structure and the surface structure of text types, which may not transparent.

3.2.4 Comparison

The three theories discussed above offer various interesting perspectives on the rhetorical classification of texts, as they form different parameters. Kinneavy and Werlich appear to have a more cognitive approach to text typology, deducing the different types of discourse from the different ways the senses interact with reality. This cognitive aspect is less explicit in Longacre’s classification, who’s approach appears to be more inductive. Yet, agent-orientation and contingent succession actually do bear a resemblance to the parameters proposed by Kinneavy, as they also involve the focus on the individual as well as the succession of time, and therefore the dynamic nature of the events described. However, adding the parameters of projection and tension, Longacre’s classification appears to be more impressionistic, less cohesive than the other models. However, the different typological models do intersect in certain ways. One text type that all three theories agree upon, is the narrative text type, which is used to relate a dynamic reality. There appears to be less unanimity when it comes to the other text types, although there are noticeable overlaps. A more factual, scientific type of language, which establishes relationships between entities, is described in the three models in the form of the classificatory

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(Kinneavy) and expository (Werlich; Longacre) text type. Persuasive language, too, tends to be distinguished, more noticeably in Werlich’s argumentative text type and Longacre’s behavioral discourse, although Kinneavy’s description of evaluative language, which treats “the potential for reality to be different” can be grouped with these text types as well (Trosborg, 1997: 14). The extent of these similar classes may, however, be different; Werlich, for example, distinguishes a fifth category, the instructive text type, which is aimed at making people act. This type of language would be classified as respectively evaluative or behavioral discourse in Kinneavy and Longacre’s typologies. The extent of the classes of argumentation and instruction in Werlich’s classification, therefore, are more limited than the broader categories proposed by the other two models. Moreover, Fludernik (2000: 276) remarks the absence of a descriptive discourse in Longacre’s classification, linking this to the difficulty of finding texts that are “exclusively descriptive in character.” She argues that “descriptive passages serve a crucial expository function within narrative, in procedural (instructional) and in argumentative texts since they define and introduce the phenomena with which the reader then engages narratively, procedurally or argumentatively” (2000: 276). The application of the typologies differs as well. While Kinneavy talks of general ‘strategies’ used in discourse, Werlich and Longacre distinguish different levels on which the discourse can be analyzed. Both models present the idea of a ‘deep structure’, a ‘matrix’, and a more concrete manifestation of those notional structures in sentences. However, in Longacre’s typology, the main focus is clearly on the underlying text type, as he argues the surface structure may show the features of one text type but still be a realization of another text type, albeit in an intransparent manner. This has also been remarked by Fludernik (2000: 277), who states that Longacre “is more interested in the ideal text type than in the sentence-by-sentence categorization of textual surface structure.” Werlich, on the other hand, appears to make a distinction between the larger text type and the typological features of particular sentences. Taking this into consideration, the most appropriate model to use as a basis in this investigation appears to be Werlich’s classification of text types, as it offers the most practical approach to text typology. More than the other typologies, Werlich clearly defines and exemplifies the categories, as well as offers clear formal features to distinguish the different classes. Moreover, as Fludernik (2000: 276) argues, “Werlich’s typology makes it easy to analyze texts on a sentence-by-sentence level.” This makes it an interesting introduction to the rhetorical functions of song lyrics; as discussed previously, all song lyrics are aimed to be aesthetically pleasing, but they may vary in terms of rhetorical purpose. A sentence-by-sentence

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approach may display emerging patterns of dominant text types and thus shed some light on the larger rhetorical purpose of the song lyrics.

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3.3 Text-typological analysis of the corpus

3.3.1 General text-typological analysis

In this section, the corpus will be approached from a text-typological point of view. As mentioned previously, the corpus consists of texts from one particular linguistic genre, namely song lyrics. These lyrics are far from linguistically uniform. However, as the songs do belong to different musical genres, this might account for some of the variation in the way the lyrics are constructed. Therefore, in this chapter I will analyse whether the rhetorical variation of the lyrics can be linked to the specific musical genre they belong to. As the previous section established, communicative and rhetorical purpose are closely linked, as certain rhetorics are used functionally to a particular linguistic purpose. Although the specific objective of the songwriter cannot always be known, the nature of the three genres does allow for some assumptions to be made in terms of purpose; e.g. disco, as dance music, aims at making people move. Singer-songwriter songs, on the other hand, which originated from folk music, continue the tradition of telling stories. Grunge, finally, originated from a sense of discord with society and has a more nihilist approach, with the music functioning as an outlet for these frustrations. It is interesting to see whether these assumptions are confirmed by the recurrent rhetorical features of the song lyrics, which is the goal of this section. Following the discussion of various rhetorical text-typological models, Werlich’s typology has been established as the most interesting framework to start from, due to its practical nature; not only does he present well defined types, he also distinguishes between the different text types on the basis of concrete linguistic features at sentence level. Werlich considers the dominance of a particular type of text idiom as the reflection of the larger rhetorical text type, which allows for a more factual and less intuitive assessment. Due to the particular nature of song lyrics, which do not always consist of full sentences, clauses have been considered the basic units of analysis, which, in this text, will be separated by a slanted line (/).5 These clauses may be elliptical, missing the main verb or the subject (ex. 16). Coordinated clauses have been analysed as two separate units (ex. 17), unlike subordinate clauses, which have been considered part of the main clause (ex. 18). Ex. 16 Leavin’ on a southern train/

5 The classification of the clauses of each song can be found in the appendix.

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Only yesterday you lied/ Promises of what I seemed to be/ Only watched the time go by/ All of you said to me/ (G-STP) Ex. 17 Come on along/ and have a real good time/ (D-Chi) Ex. 18 You used to ride on the chrome horse with your diplomat, who carried on his shoulder a siamese cat/ (S-BoD) Grunge, in particular, has a strongly elliptical nature, which at times blurs the distinction between an adverbial subclause and a main clause. Therefore, clauses which can modify the preceding or following verb have been treated as subclauses (ex. 19). If this is not the case, they have been interpreted as elliptical main clauses (ex. 20). Ex. 19 In my eyes, indisposed, in disguises no one knows, hides the face/lies the snake/ (G-Sou) Ex. 20 Boiling heat/summer stench/ ‘neath the black the sky looks dead/ (G-Sou) As the verb of the first example (ex. 19) requires an adverbial phrase due to the subject-verb inversion, the preceding adverbial phrases can be considered part of the clauses headed by the verb “hides”. The predicate that follows, “lies”, forms a new clause, in which the same adverbial phrases are implied. The noun phrases “boiling heat” and “summer stench” of the second example (ex. 20), on the other hand, do not function as adverbial phrases modifying the verb “looks”, and are therefore interpreted as separate elliptical clauses. After the clause boundaries have been established, the rhetorical nature of each clause has been determined, using Werlich’s typology. The previous examples have been classified in the following way:6 Ex. 21 Leavin’ on a southern train/ (narrative) Only yesterday you lied/ (narrative) Promises of what I seemed to be/ (argumentative) Only watched the time go by/ (narrative) All of these things you said to me// (narrative) (G-STP) Ex. 22 Come on along/ (instructive) and have a real good time/ (instructive) (D-Chi) Ex. 23 You used to ride on the chrome horse with your diplomat, who carried on his

6 The tekst idiom has been put between brackets.

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shoulder a siamese cat/ (narrative) (S-BoD) The clauses of ex. 21 have mainly been interpreted as narrative, as they describe the progression of actions in time. However, “promises of what I seemed to be” forms a more ambiguous case; since this noun phrase cannot be linked to the preceding or following verb, it is an elliptical clause. Because of the ellipsis of the predicate, the classification of the clause is more open to interpretation; however, as the preceding line states “you lied”, a plausible interpretation of the elliptical sentence is that this “you” broke the “promises of what I seemed to be.” This way, the clause can be considered a reproach, and therefore it is classified as an argumentative statement. The imperative verb forms of ex. 22, on the other hand, allow for the classification of the clauses as instructive. The final example (ex. 23) can again be seen as an example of a narrative clause, as it describes an action in the past, albeit expressed in figurative language. After the classification of the clauses, the most frequent text idiom of each song has been determined to see which type is dominant within each particular genre. Moreover, the absolute frequency of each of the text idioms per genre has been determined as well, to see which text idioms are globally most frequent. A first, broad look at the results of the quantitative analysis, displayed in table 5 , already gives a general idea of the rhetorical properties of each genre.

Table 5 Dominant text idiom per song per genre argumentative descriptive expository instructive narrative Singer-Songwriter7 45,00% 0,00% 0,00% 0,00% 55,00% Disco 60,00% 10,00% 0,00% 30,00% 0,00% Grunge 60,00% 10,00% 0,00% 10,00% 20,00%

As mentioned previously, the nature of each genre creates certain expectations. The story- telling tradition of the singer-songwriter genre creates the expectation of the dominance of the narrative text idiom. The results of the quantitative analysis confirm that narrative text idiom is the most frequent (55%), although it is closely followed by the argumentative text type (45%). The disco genre, on the other hand, is intended to make people dance, which leads one to assume that the instructive text idiom will be dominant. However, the argumentative type is most frequently used (60%), followed by the instructive text idiom (30%). Grunge, finally, features

7 In “Diamonds and Rust” the narrative and the argumentative tekst idiom were equally dominant.

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the dominant theme of performer’s frustrations, which should be reflected in a dominance of the argumentative text idiom. This is confirmed by the results of the quantitative analysis (60%), while the narrative text idiom follows (20%). It is, however, interesting to look at the general frequency of the different text idioms per genre, shown in table 6, to put these results in perspective.

Table 6 General percentage of text idioms per genre

argumentative descriptive expository instructive Narrative Singer-Songwriter 48,14% 7,76% 0,93% 5,59% 37,58 Disco 41,67% 17,65% 0 % 33,09% 7,60% Grunge 43,53% 22,71% 0,32% 21,14% 12,30%

These show, for example, that in all three genres, the argumentative text idiom is most frequently used (48,14% in singer-songwriter, 41,67% in disco and 43,53% in grunge). This may be explained by the generally expressive nature of lyrical texts; Reiss (2004: 124), for example, argues that “the communication of artistically organized content” belongs to the expressive type of language. This also explains the negligible number of expository text idioms, which constitutes the most neutral type of language. While this most frequent type of sentence seems to be characteristic of song lyrics in general, the text type next in frequency appears to be more specific to the . In the case of singer-songwriter music, this is the narrative text idiom (37,58%). In the disco genre, the instructive type reaches a percentage close to the argumentative text type (33,09 %). The second most frequent type of sentence in the grunge songs, finally, is the descriptive text idiom (22,71%). However, unlike the other genres, this percentage does not differ as notably from the other text idioms, such as the instructive type (21,14%) and the narrative (12,30%). This seems to confirm the more generally argumentative nature of grunge lyrics. These results show that the different genres do show emerging rhetorical patterns in accordance with their assumed communicative functions. Looking more closely at the lyrics of the singer-songwriter genre, the dominant rhetorical text types, which are argumentative and narrative, can be linked to the thematics of the songs. The songs tend to narrate events of the past, most often a past relationship, on which the protagonist reflects in the present, offering his or her judgement (ex. 24). Ex. 24 I remember that time you told me you said “Love is touching souls”/ (narrative) Surely you touched mine ‘cause part of you pours out of me in these lines to time/ (argumentative) (S-JoM)

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However, the lyrics do not necessarily deal with romance, as Bob Dylan’s social critique in “Like a Rolling Stone” shows (ex. 25). Ex. 25 You used to be so amused at Napoleon in rags and the language that he used/ (narrative) Go to him now/ (argumentative) He calls you/ (narrative) ’t refuse/ (argumentative) When you ain’t got nothing, you got nothing to lose/ (argumentative) (S-BoD) These stories told in the singer-songwriter songs tend to be quite specific, dealing with determined past events rather than the past in general, compared to the more vague content described in the disco and grunge genres. Exceptions to this are Carole King’s “It’s Too Late” (ex. 26) and Neil Young’s “Heart of Gold” (ex. 27), which consist of more general statements and observations: Ex. 26 / (argumentative) I wanna give/ (argumentative) I’ve been a miner for a heart of gold/ (narrative) (S-NeY) Ex. 27 It used to be so easy, livin’ here with you/ (argumentative) You were light and breezy/ (argumentative) And I knew just what to do/ (argumentative) Now you look so unhappy/ (argumentative) And I feel like a fool/ (argumentative) (S-CaK) Moreover, it can be noted that the other sentence types are often used in function of the dominant text type. Descriptive sentences, for example, tend to be used to set the scene in which the story takes place (ex. 28), while instructive sentences often function as an implicit between the characters in the song. In Billy Joel’s “Piano Man”, for example, the exclamations are made by the implicit crowd in the bar (ex. 29) Ex. 28 Now Suzanne takes your hand/ (narrative) And she leads you to the river/ (narrative) She’s wearing rags and feathers from Salvation Army counters/ (descriptive) (S- LeC) Ex. 29 Sing us a song/ (instructive) You’re the piano man/ (expository) Sing us a song tonight/ (instructive) (S-BiJ)

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Besides the emerging rhetorical patterns of the singer-songwriter genre, which goes back and forth between the narration of (past) event and the interpretation of those events, these examples show how the predominantly narrative nature of the singer-songwriter lyrics influences the interpretation of its non-narrative elements, such as the descriptive and instructive types of sentences. A closer look at the rhetorical characteristics of the disco genre also offers some interesting insights. As has been established, the lyrics of the disco genre are marked by the high level of instructive sentences. Moreover, as in the singer-songwriter genre, the different rhetorical types of sentences seem to adapt to this underlying text type, as non-instructive sentences can also attain a more instructive value. This effect is particularly noticeable in the case of repetitive descriptive sentences. Isolated, these lines describe a state, and do not incite action of any kind (ex. 30). Ex. 30 a. Whether you’re a brother or whether you’re a mother, you’re stayin’ alive/ (descriptive) (D-BeG) b. You are the dancing queen/ (descriptive) (D-ABB) However, through the repeated chanting of the same line, it achieves an almost incantatory quality, turning the description into a kind of mantra, enticing the listeners to act accordingly. This can be linked to the instructive text type, which Werlich defines as expressing the planning of actions in the future. Grunge, finally, does seem to be predominantly argumentative. As is the case with the previous genres, the other text idioms appear to function around the dominant one. This can be noted with, for example, the descriptive sentences. Unlike in the singer-songwriter genre, descriptive clauses do not appear to set the scene for a particular narrative. Instead, they describe isolated pictures, flashes of images without an actual narrative binding them together, which shows in the low number of narrative sentences within the genre (12,2%). This is particularly noticeable in “Smells Like Teen Spirit”. The following excerpt consists of multiple elliptical clauses, which can be interpreted as a series of impressions registered by the performer. Following this interpretation, the ellipted part of the clauses is a presentational construction, such as “there is”, which allows for a descriptive classification: Ex. 31 a mulatto/ (descriptive) an albino/ (descriptive) a mosquito/ (descriptive) my libido/ (descriptive) (G-Nir)

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Rather than forming the background for some sort of narrative, these images created through descriptive sentences appear to reflect the consciousness of the singer, giving them a more subjective, expressive and therefore argumentative undertone. “Smells Like Teen Spirit”, for example, reflects Cobain’s frustration with society, as he had the following comment to make: 's apathy. I’m disgusted with it. I’m disgusted with my own apathy too, for being spineless and not always standing up against racism, sexism and all those other -isms the counterculture has been whining about for years. (Cobain as cited in Snodgrass, 2012: 35) The different images described may reflect the apathy Cobain is talking about, the lack of focus and the indifference towards these different impressions. Moreover, the descriptive sentence is also used in a way similar to its use in the disco genre; through the almost ritualistic repetition of descriptive text the lines obtain an extra dimension. A good example is the chorus of Pearl Jam’s “Alive”: Ex. 32 Oh, I, oh, I’m still alive/ (descriptive) Hey, I, oh, I’m still alive/ (descriptive) Hey, I, oh, I’m still alive/ (descriptive) Yeah, Oh/ (G-PeJ) There is a certain argument behind this descriptive statement, as if the speaker is trying to convince himself of the fact that he is still alive, as well as lamenting this fact. The statement becomes existential rather than descriptive. This existential dimension of grunge music is also reflected in the use of the expository sentence in “Smells Like Teen Spirit”: Ex. 33 Our little group has always been and always will until the end/ (G-Nir) The instructive sentences, too, function differently in the context of the grunge genre, as they do not express the sense of inclusion of the listener found in disco.8 Instead, the instructive sentences add to the sense of alienation; the instructions come across as a challenge, a way of the speaker to distance himself, rather than being inclusionary. Ex. 33 a. Touch me/i’m sick/ (G-Mud) b. Try to see it once / (G-AIC) Moreover, in the case of “Black Hole Sun” and “Glycerine”, the imperatives are directed at the inhuman entities mentioned in the song titles. Ex. 34 a. Black hole sun/ won’t you come and wash away / (G-Sou)

8 “Smells Like Teen Spirit”, with its lines “Here we are now/entertain us”, is the exception

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b. Don’t let the days go by/ Glycerine/ (G-Bus) The argumentative nature of grunge, in other words, and more specifically its expression of discord with the world, influences the interpretation of non-instructive sentences as well.

3.3.2 Pronouns

The dominant rhetorical functions of the different genres seem to confirm the assumptions made about the larger communicative objectives of each genre. Moreover, adding to the effect created by the different rhetorical strategies, are certain tendencies in the use of pronouns. As established previously (cf. 3.2), the difference in text functions is often related to different aspects of the process of communication. This difference in focus appears to be reflected in the pronouns used. A first major distinction in terms of communicative function can be made between the disco genre on one hand, and singer-songwriter music and grunge on the other; While the latter primarily aim to transmit a certain artist reality, disco appears to be more set on making its audience act rather than making it see something. Disco seems to focus on the listener; this not only shows through the more prominent use of imperatives. When imperatives are not as strongly present, as is the case in ABBA’s “Dancing Queen” and “September” by Earth, Wind and Fire, the audience is still addressed through the prominent use of pronouns in the second person. As Stirling and Manderson (2011: 1583) describe, “grammatical descriptions of English personal pronouns still represent you as the form used for second person singular and plural reference, and (rightly) present as primary the deictic referential use of this form to identify a specific addressee or group containing the addressee.” However, they add that a more generalized interpretation of the pronoun is possible as well, extending from the prototypical use, in which the referent remains indetermined (2011: 1583). According to Bolinger, the referential flexibility of you “enables the speaker to generalize and personalize at the same time” (Bolinger as cited by Sterling and Manderson 2011: 1585). This ambiguity allows for disco songs to have a more narrative content while still including the audience: although the lyrics of “Dancing Queen” and “September” describe a (vague) story line in which a determined person is referred to as you, the second person pronoun equally functions in a broader way, addressing the audience and including it in the action: Ex. 35 a. You can dance/ (descriptive) You can jive/ (descriptive) Having the time of your life/ (argumentative) (D-ABB)

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b. My thoughts are with you/ (argumentative) Holding hands with your heart to see you/ (argumentative) (D-EWF) Although the expected result of a quantitative analysis of the frequency of the first, second and third person pronouns was the dominance of the second person, the analysis shows different results, as presented in Table 3: Table 7 Types of pronouns per genre 1st person 2nd person 3rd person Singer-Songwriter 46,49% 36,56% 16,95% Disco 60,20% 35,03% 4,76% with imperatives included 42,75% 53,86% 3,38% Grunge 60,44% 34,89% 4,67%

The first person comes up as the most frequent form (60,2%), while second person pronouns form 35%. However, this result does have to be nuanced by the fact that the imperative forms do not occur in combination with a pronoun, although they are presupposed. If the second person pronouns implied by the imperatives are added, the percentage raises to 53,9%. Moreover, the first person plural, too, can include the audience. As Zupnik (1994: 340) notes, “first-person plural deictic pronouns may fulfill a powerful persuasive function since they have the potential to encode group memberships and identifications.” We, therefore, can also be used to address and appeal to the audience. In Sister Sledge’s “We Are Family”, for example, a mantric effect is created through the continuous repetition of the descriptive line which also forms the title of the song. This way, the descriptive sentence acquires an argumentative undertone, as it seems to argue that this “we” not only refers to the group, but includes the audience as well, arguing that they, too, are part of the family created through the song. The aspect of communication which is focussed on in grunge and singer-songwriter music, on the other hand, is the speaker, as shows from the high frequencies of the first person pronouns in the songs of the two genres (46,5% in singer-songwriter; 60,4% in grunge), which function as “the most fundamental form of self expression” (Maitland and Wilson, 1987: 498). However, despite the focus of both genres on conveying a certain artist-reality, the rhetorical analysis shows a distinction between the more narrative-oriented singer-songwriter genre and the predominantly argumentative grunge. While grunge veers more towards the purely expressive nature, singer-songwriter songs, although also being strongly expressive, include a referential aspect. Grunge lyrics have a closer resemblance to a type of monologue intérieur, which the Encyclopedia Britannica (“Interior Monologue”, 2007) defines as a “narrative

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technique that exhibits the thoughts passing through the minds of the protagonist. These ideas may be either loosely related impressions approaching free association or more rationally structured sequences of thought and emotion.” Grunge lyrics, too, present series of “loosely related impressions”, combining at times incoherent descriptions and images that seem to reflect the troubled mind of the singer. This is underlined by the notable prominence of the first person pronoun (60,4%). Ex. 36 Into the flood again/ Same old trip it was / So I made a / Try to see it once my way/ (G-AIC) Singer-songwriter songs, on the other hand, tend to refer to specific events and characters, which they then interpret, thus alternating between an expressive and a referential nature. This referential nature is further underlined by the higher frequency of third person pronouns: Ex. 37 Now John at the bar is a friend o’mine/ He gets me my drinks for free/ And he’s quick with a joke or to light up your smoke/ But there’s some place that he’d rather be/ (S-BiJ) Pronouns, in other words, can be associated with a particular communicative function and therefore also with the rhetorical text type it is related to. This correlation between pronouns and text types has already been noted by Longacre. As discussed previously, Longacre distinguishes between notional text types and its formal realization in surface structure types. These different surface structure types are marked by typical formal characteristics, amongst which Longacre distinguishes the person selection of pronouns. He argues that the behavioral type of discourse, which can be linked to the instructive and argumentative text types in Werlich’s classification, has “an essential second person component”, while narrative language “is regularly characterized by first or third person pronouns” (1983: 8). These observations strongly coincide with the ones made in this section, with the exception of the association of the first person pronoun with the argumentative text type. However, it can be noted that, in Longacre’s typology, emotionally expressive language is not explicitly taken into consideration. With the behavioral type of discourse, he does acknowledge a subjective type of language which a language user can employ to express personal thoughts, although, according to Longacre (1983: 3), this discourse “deals with how people did or should behave.” Longacre, in other words, seems to be overlooking language of a more expressive nature, which explains his association of subjective language with the second person pronouns.

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3.3.3 Conclusion

In conclusion, this analysis has shown that the lyrics do show variation related to the genre of the song. Starting from the premise that the three genres have different communicative functions, aside from a poetic one, the goal of this chapter was to investigate whether this functional variation can be reflected in the text through rhetorical text-typological analysis. The application of Werlich’s text-typological model has offered some interesting insights into the corpus. Firstly, it should be noted that, although his theory offers clearly distinguishable classes, the boundaries of his classification become blurred when applied to actual texts. As the analysis of the corpus showed, there were no absolute instances of a particular text type; the songs tended to show notable variation in terms of text idioms. The text types can therefore be considered idealizations, rather than actual types of texts. This, however, has been noted in the different typological theories discussed above. Kinneavy already pointed out the impossibility of a text displaying only one text type. Moreover, this is also reflected in the distinction between the deep structure, the idealized type, and the surface structure, the realization of that type, that Werlich and Longacre make in their textual analysis. Although no absolute classification can be made, tendencies and patterns of dominance can be discerned. In Werlich’s model, this is the text idiom that is most frequently used within a text. Through a classification of the clauses of each song, it has been shown that, although the three groups of texts in the corpus share a preference for the argumentative text type, more genre-specific traits can be discerned as well. The narrative text type plays an important role in the construction of singer-songwriter lyrics, while the instructive text type is more prominent in disco music. Grunge lyrics, finally, are marked by the lack of a rivaling dominant text type besides the argumentative one. A typological analysis, therefore, allows for a distinction to be made between the different genres in terms of rhetorical purpose, although not a categorical one. However, the simultaneous presence of other, non-dominant text idioms does not create a sense of internal conflict. Instead, these appear to work in support of the more prominent text type. The dominant rhetorical function appears to transfer to the other types of sentences and influences the way they are interpreted, to a certain extent; descriptive sentences in grunge, for example, achieve an argumentative undertone, due to the overall argumentative nature of grunge lyrics. The dominant text type appears to function as the rhetorical foundation of a text, determining the way we employ other rhetorical functions within that text.

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Finally, this analysis has also discussed the observation that the rhetorical text type is further underlined by the type of pronouns used. Although Werlich’s classification of text idioms focusses mainly on the type of predicate used in a sentence, the variation in use of pronouns can also offer interesting insights in terms of text type. Longacre already touched upon the subject in his discussion of the surface structure of text types. The predominantly instructive language of disco, for one, can be linked to the second person pronouns. Grunge lyrics, which have an argumentative, and more particularly expressive nature, are characterized by first person-centered lyrics. The narrative language of singer-songwriter music, finally, is also marked by predominantly I-centered lyrics although, different from grunge, they also show an elevated level of third person pronouns, as the content is to a lesser degree argumentative, and more narratively oriented. This chapter has shown, in other words, that singer-songwriter music, disco and grunge can be distinguished lyrically, based on the complex tendencies of each genre towards a different rhetorical function.

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Chapter 4 Lexical analysis

The final chapter of this investigation deals with the lexical content of the three musical genres. The previous analysis has already established that the lyrics differ in terms of the rhetorical techniques that are used. This section will explore the lyrics further, and more particularly the vocabulary used, with the objective to discern lexical tendencies which are specific to the different genres. First, I will investigate the lexical richness of each genre in the corpus by determining the lexical variation as well as the lexical density. Then I will discuss possible patterns in the lexical choices of the three genres, by means of a word count that will be visually represented in the form of word clouds.

4.1 Lexical richness

In order to get a general idea of the vocabulary used, I will first focuss on the lexical richness of each genre, a measure which reflects the lexical range and sophistication of spoken or written texts (Lu, 2012: 190). The lexical richness of a text offers some insight into the style of the author, which makes it an interesting approach to the comparison and classification of texts. As Smith and Kelly (2002: 411) argue: The hope is that a quantification of either a text’s complete vocabulary or the number of rarely occurring word types can numerically express the linguistic complexity or simplicity of one text relative to other texts and give an indication of the lexical similarity or difference between authors or between sections of a single author’s literary output. (Smith and Kelly, 2002: 411) Instead of focusing on the style of individual authors, this investigation compares the linguistic characteristics of musical genres. However, an analysis of the lexical richness of the grunge, disco and singer-songwriter songs of the corpus may reveal genre-specific tendencies in terms of vocabulary. Again, the nature of the different genres allows for certain assumptions to be made concerning their lexical complexity, which this analysis will put to the test. Disco, being primarily dance music, is expected to show a lower level of lexical complexity, while the singer-

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songwriter genre’s stronger narrative content, established in the previous chapter, creates the expectation of a more elaborate vocabulary. Due to the expressive but elliptical nature of grunge, this genre is expected to have a more central position in terms of lexical richness. Lexical richness, according to Johansson (2008: 62), is a multidimensional concept, as there are multiple factors which can contribute to the lexical complexity or simplicity of a text. Although her analysis mainly focusses on lexical density and lexical variation, Laufer and Nation (1995: 309-310) argue that other popular measures include lexical originality and lexical sophistication. As they explain, lexical density is determined by measuring the number of lexical items in a text. Lexical variation, on the other hand is concerned with the number of unique words used in a text. Lexical originality determines the percentage of words an author uses that are unique in the corpus, not used by other authors, while the analysis of the lexical sophistication of a text deals with the percentage of ‘advanced’ words used in a text, although what is considered advanced is determined by the author and is therefore quite subjective. However, as this is an introductory analysis within a larger linguistic comparison of the three musical genres of the corpus, this investigation will only focus on lexical variation and lexical density. In the selection of these two factors, I have followed Johansson’s reasoning concerning lexical richness: Neither lexical diversity nor lexical density is the one and only measure. However, both measures are easily accessible and easy to apply to corpora of different kinds. No doubt they also provide important insights into the texts, and as long as the measures are not used as the to judge a text qualitatively, they are very useful. (Johansson, 2008: 62) As Johansson states, the analysis of the lexical variety and density does not offer a complete view of the lexical richness of a text, and therefore only allows for careful observations to be made. However, they can give an interesting introductory insight into the vocabulary of the different genres.

4.1.1 Theoretical discussion of lexical variation and lexical density

Before discussing the results of the quantitative analysis, I will give a brief theoretical background on the two measures. I will also discuss certain complications that may arise when applying these measurements to a corpus.

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Lexical variation, as mentioned previously, is determined by measuring the number of unique words in the vocabulary of a text. This is done by establishing the type-token ratio. As Graesser, McNamara, Louwerse and Cai (2004: 198) explain, “each unique word in a text is a word type”, while “each instance of a particular word is a token.” The type-token ratio, then, is the number of unique words divided by the number of tokens, which is the total number of words in a text. A high type-token ratio indicates greater lexical diversity, and, as Graesser et al. (2004: 198) note, this makes a text comparatively more difficult to comprehend. A low type- token ratio, on the other hand, indicates a great deal of repetition of words, which makes the text relatively easier to process (2004: 198). In this analysis, the type-token ratio will be determined using the program Antconc. However, in the interpretation of the results, certain issues have to be taken into account. Variation in length of the texts, for one, can affect the representativeness of the results. Although longer texts cause both the number of types as the number of tokens to increase, “it is often necessary for the writer or speaker to re-use several function words in order to produce one new (lexical) word” (Johansson, 2008: 63). However, due to the particular format of song lyrics, there should be no excessive variation in length in the corpus. Laufer and Nation (1995: 310), moreover, point out that the type-token ratio of a text depends on what exactly is considered a unique word. Typically, within this type of analysis, derivatives are considered distinct words. However, if derivatives are counted as tokens of a particular type, this will result in a lower level of lexical variation. In the program used in this investigation, Antconc, derivatives have been counted as individual words. Lexical density, on the other hand, measures the proportion of lexical words in a text, which is done by dividing the number of lexical words by the total number of words in a text. This measure has been introduced by Ure (1971), who argues that, in a text, a distinction can be made between words which have lexical properties, i.e. “content words”, and words which do not, and instead “possess a more grammatical-syntactic function than the lexical items” (Johansson, 2008: 65). The latter are called function words. According to Johansson (2008: 65), the measure of lexical density can shed light on the information packaging of a text: “a text with a high proportion of content words contains more information than a text with a high proportion of function words (prepositions, interjections, pronouns, conjunctions and count words).” However, Johansson (2008: 66) points out that there is some debate as to which words can be classified as lexical. Ure distinguishes nouns, verbs and adjectives as lexical words, arguing that they belong to an open class, while grammatical words form a closed class, in

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which new items are rarely added (Johansson, 2008: 66). However, Halliday has brought attention to the ambiguous nature of some lexical items, such as the phrasal verb and adverbs; whereas Ure classifies phrasal verbs such as turn up as two separate words, namely a lexical word and a function word, Halliday argues that it should be considered one lexical item (Johansson, 2008: 66). Moreover, Halliday argues that certain adverbs can equally be considered lexical items, although he does point out some cases which border between a lexical and grammatical content, such as the modal adverbs always and perhaps (Johansson, 2008: 66). However, this is not necessarily a problem in the comparison of texts. As Johansson (2008: 67) summarizes, “the important thing is to be consistent in drawing the line between 'lexical' adverbs and 'grammatical' adverbs, but it matters less where the line is drawn.” In this investigation, the lexical density of the genres in the corpus is determined by the online analyzer Analyze My Writing.9 Regarding the debate between Ure and Halliday, due to the limits of the software, this analyzer counts phrasal verbs as two separate words, while contractions, such as he’s, are considered single words (“Lexical Density,” 2016). Adverbs are considered part of the class of lexical words (“Lexical Density,” 2016). Moreover, the interpretation of the results of the lexical density measure, according to Laufer and Nation (1995: 309), have to be nuanced to a certain extent: The lexical density index does not necessarily measure lexis, since it depends on the syntactic and cohesive properties of the composition. Fewer function words in a composition may reflect more subordinate clauses, participial phrases and ellipsis, all of which are not lexical but structural characteristics of a composition. (Laufer and Nation, 1995: 309) The lexical density, in other words, does not necessarily or only reflect the informative content of a text, but can also be linked to the way the sentences are structured. Finally, Johansson (2008: 61) notes that lexical diversity and lexical density often appear to correlate; as Ure (1971) and Halliday (1985) have shown, lexical diversity and lexical density are both higher in written texts than in spoken language. However, Johansson (2008: 61-62) adds that, in theory, the possibility exists that “a text has high lexical diversity (i.e. contains many different word types), but low lexical density (i.e. contains many pronouns and auxiliaries rather than nouns and lexical verbs), or, vice

9 http://www.analyzemywriting.com/index.html

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versa, that a text has low lexical diversity (i.e. the same words or phrases are repeated over and over) but high lexical density (i.e. the words that are repeated are nouns, adjective or verbs).” Applying the measures of lexical variation and lexical density to the corpus should give some general insight into the lexical richness of the different musical genres it consists of, and, moreover, allow for a comparison of the lexical properties of the three genres to be made.

4.1.2 Analysis of lexical richness in the corpus

In the this section, the measures of lexical variation and lexical density are applied to the corpus in order to compare the lexical richness of the musical genres of singer-songwriter, grunge and disco music in the corpus. As mentioned previously, the lexical variation is determined by means of the program Antconc, while the lexical density is analyzed through an online lexical density calculator, analyzemywriting.com. As has been noted in the previous section, the lexical variation is determined by calculating the type-token ratio10. As the aim of this analysis is to compare the three genres lexically, the approach that has been taken in this investigation is to calculate the TTR per genre, grouping the ten songs of each genre together as one textual unit. Again, there are certain expectations, based on the properties of the three genres. Due to the stronger focus on lyrics, and its narrative tendency, the singer-songwriter genre is expected to have the highest TTR. Disco, on the other hand, has been established to be strongly instructive, less aimed at sharing a particular story and more at appealing to the audience and making them dance, and therefore, a more simple and repetitive language is expected. Grunge, finally, with its expressive nature, is assumed to fall in between these two extremes in terms of lexical variation. These expectations appear to be confirmed, as is shown in Table 8:

Table 8 Lexical variation by means of type-token ratio per genre Token Type TTR Disco 2505 404 0.16

10 Hereinafter referred to as TTR.

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Grunge 2053 456 0.22 Singer-songwriter 2849 715 0.25

Before interpreting the results of each genre individually, a general remark can be made. As discussed previously, lexical variation reflects the level of repetition in a text; the higher the TTR, the lower the level of lexical repetition. Considering that the average TTR of the speech of an adult hovers around 0.50, the ratios of the three genres are relatively low, and therefore imply a high degree of repetition (Bates, Bretherton & Snyder, 1991: 163). This can be attributed to the fact that repetition forms an essential part of the construction of song lyrics, particularly with regard to chorus. The stressing of elements through repetition can be linked to the nature of popular music as a performative act. Butler’s definition of performativity as the “reiterative power of discourse” stresses the performative aspect of repetition. (Butler, 2011: xxviii). Moreover, the performative nature of repetition has particularly been stressed in the context of ritual poetry (“Repetition,” 2012: 1169). Therefore, the argument can be made that genres that have a stronger repetitive pattern have a more performative nature. The results show that there is notable variation in terms of the TTR of the different musical genres. As expected, the lowest TTR can be found in the disco genre (0.16), indicating that it contains the least varied and therefore most repetitive lexicon. This can be linked to the high level of performativity of the genre, as, more than in the genres of grunge and singer- songwriter music, there is a strong focus on the physical, on movement and expression. As Hubbs (2007: 241) describes, “disco served, too, as soundtrack for a big party among various little people, a ritual of radical embodiment enacted by radically stigmatised bodies”, citing Gill’s reference to disco music as a musical discourse with the power “both to describe and to induce rapture” (as cited by Hubbs, 2007: 241). These features, namely the strong sense of embodiment as well as the instigation of an effect in the audience, give disco music a strongly performative character. The singer-songwriter genre, on the other hand, shows the highest TTR (0.25), and therefore the relatively highest level of lexical variation. As mentioned above, this was expected due to the narrative nature of the genre which has been discussed in the previous chapter. More than the other genres, singer-songwriter songs are focussed on narrative progression, in which new information is introduced, rather than repetition. Although still performative in nature, the narrative function of the genre appears to dominate. Grunge, finally, is expected to have a TTR that falls in the middle. Grunge is not quite as narratively oriented as singer-songwriter music, as the previous chapter established its tendency towards

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argumentative language. Rather than sharing a progression of events, I have argued that grunge music is aimed at expressing the underlying sentiment of the singer. However, it is also lacks the strong focus on the physical and, therefore, the performative found in the disco genre. Grunge’s expressive, argumentative nature results in the expectation of an intermediate position in terms of lexical variation, which is confirmed by the results (0.22). As the the previous section has pointed out, Ure (1971) and Halliday (1985) have established that the levels of lexical variation and lexical density of written or spoken language tend to correlate. Therefore, similar results to those of the TTR are expected in the analysis of the lexical density of the texts. The calculation of the lexical density of the three genres shows the following results (Table 9):

Table 9 Lexical density per genre LD Disco 56,67% Grunge 49,95% Singer-songwriter 45,65%

Compared to the results of lexical variation, the ranking order appears to be reversed in the results of the lexical density of the three genres. Disco has the highest level of lexical density (56,67%) while the singer-songwriter genre scores the lowest (45,65%). As lexical density is a measure to determine the informativeness of a text, these results go in against the expectations created by the singer-songwriter genre’s story-telling content and the strong tendency towards repetition in disco. However, it has to be noted that calculating the proportion of content words does not necessarily give an objective view of the informativeness of a text, as the repetition of those words is not taken into account. Therefore, the results may show the disco genre to be the most lexically dense (56,67%), but an argument can be made about whether it is the most informative genre. As Laufer and Nation (1995: 309) pointed out, the lexical density of a text may be a reflection of its structural characteristics as well. Disco’s high level of lexical density can be explained by the tendency of the genre to use short, nuclear phrases (ex. 1). These consist mainly of content words and, due to the simplified and at times elliptical grammatical constructions, present few function words. Singer-songwriter songs, on the other hand, have more elaborate grammatical constructions (ex. 2) which results in a larger number of function words. Moreover, the singer-songwriter genre has also been established to be more

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conversational11, closer to spoken language, which tends to have a relatively lower lexical density compared to written language (Johansson, 2008: 64). Grunge, finally, remains in the intermediate position in terms of lexical density. However, it can be noted that the lexical density of the grunge genre, too, is affected by a strongly elliptical nature, as function words are often omitted (ex. 3). Ex. 1 Burn baby burn / disco inferno/ (D-Tra) Ex. 2 Oh you never turned around to see the frowns on the jugglers and the clowns when they all did tricks for you/ (S-BoD) Ex. 3 Bad moon white again/ (G-Bus) The lexical density, in other words, may not reflect the informative load; as Laufer and Nation already pointed out, the analysis can say more about the structural properties rather than the lexical properties of a text. It also does not take the repetition of words into account, which does not add new information. However, despite the fact that, in this case, the lexical density of the genres does not allow for statements on informativeness to be made, it does give some interesting insight in the structural properties of the different genres.

4.1.3 Conclusion

This section has calculated the lexical variation and lexical density of three musical genres in the corpus, in order to get some insight into the general lexical richness. This allows for an introductory comparison between grunge, singer-songwriter music and disco in terms of the lexical content of the lyrics. The lexical variation has been established as relatively low in the corpus, due to the repetitive nature of song lyrics in general. However, there is notable variation between the three genres, which can be linked to the differences in text type as well as the performative nature of the genre. Disco music shows the lowest level of lexical variation, as it is most performative and its aim to make the audience act also translates into a more simple language. Singer- songwriter music, on the other hand, is less focussed on the physical and performative. Although the genre is still repetitive to a certain extent, there is a stronger emphasis on narration, on sharing the progression of a story. Grunge can be found in the middle of the spectrum, not

11 In chapter 2, the affinity of the singer-songwriter genre with spoken language has been established in terms of phonology.

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quite as focussed on the physical and performative as disco, but not as narratively oriented as singer-songwriter music either. Although similar results are expected when analyzing the lexical density of the corpus, the analysis shows a reversal in the ranking. The singer-songwriter genre has the lowest lexical density, while the results are notably higher in grunge and particulary disco. However, I have argued that this does not appear to be a reflection of the informativeness of the genre, but rather of its grammatical complexity. Singer-songwriter lyrics, which reflect conversational language, display more elaborate grammatical structures and therefore a lower lexical density, while the more simple, nuclear sentences of grunge and disco result in a higher level of lexical density. In conclusion, the analysis of the lexical richness of disco, grunge and singer-songwriter music does allow for some genre-specific tendencies to be discerned. Singer-songwriter and disco music appear to be on the two ends of the spectrum, with the first displaying a more varied vocabulary, while being less lexically dense, and the latter consisting of a simpler, less varied language, but a strong tendency towards nuclear sentences with content words. Grunge, finally, can be found in the middle of the spectrum, both in terms of lexical variation and lexical density.

4.2 Content analysis

In order to systematically investigate the lexicon of each genre of the corpus, content analysis offers an interesting approach, as it “classifies textual material, reducing it to relevant, manageable bits of data” (Weber, 1990: 5). This type of analysis proves to be particularly attractive due to its use of computerized methods, as programs can be used to classify the content of the texts. Within this field, the most prominent points of investigation are word count, key-word-in-context and concordances, dictionaries, language structure and readability (Riff, Lacy and Fico, 2014: 168). In this investigation, the content analysis will be limited to the method of word count, as this chapter is part of larger linguistic classification of the texts of the corpus. Although word count is “the simplest form of computer content analysis”, Riff et al. (2014: 168) argue that it can be interesting to give an introductory, general idea of the content of a text. However, in order to draw thoroughly substantiated conclusions, further, more specific content analysis would be needed.

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4.2.1 Theoretical discussion of word count

As this investigation is an introductory analysis of the different linguistic aspects of the musical genres, the content analysis remains quite superficial. However, to get a general idea of the lexical content of the three genres, and possible themes the vocabulary of each genre may present, the lyrics will be submitted to content analysis in the form of word count, visualized in the form of a word coud. The method of word count, as the name implies, consists of counting the words of a text, and establishing their frequency of occurrence. This allows for inferences to be made about the general themes of the text and its creators (Riff et al., 2014: 168). Weber, for example, compared the language use of Democrats and Republicans through the method of word count, uncovering the dominance of military and defense terms in Republican discourse (Riff et al., 2014: 168). Moreover, the results of a word count can be represented in a word cloud, which “demonstrates a and visually rich way to enable researchers to have some basic understanding of the data at hand” (McNaught and Lam, 2010: 630). Word clouds visually reflect the frequency of words, using the size of the font to reflect the prominence of certain words in the corpus. In the interpretation of word counts, however, Popping (2000: 41-43) notes that certain limitations of the method have to be taken into account. Firstly, in each text, certain function words such as a and the will be highly frequent, although they do not offer any insight into the themes of the text. However, are usually listed and automatically omitted by computer programs. Moreover, the average word count program also does not classify derivatives of a word as instances of that one particular word, considering them as separate words. Contractions, too, such as can’t, are often counted as separate words instead of one unit. Popping also points out that, although the focus in this method is usually on high-frequency words, it can be equally interesting to see which words are notably low in frequency, as these may be consciously avoided. Finally, he notes that it may be interesting to take into consideration that certain words may belong to a broader group which can be more linguistically relevant; individual names of girls and in a text, for example, may not be linguistically relevant, but their instances as or girl names can be, according to Popping. Computerized content analysis, in conclusion, offers a useful approach to the comparison of the lyrics of the different genres in the corpus in terms of lexicon. Although a word-frequency count is quite a blunt approach to the discussion lexical content of a corpus, it is the ideal method to get a general insight as part of a larger linguistic analysis. In the following section, the word

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clouds of each genre will be discussed, with a particular focus to patterns which may point at larger themes of the musical genres.

4.2.2 Content analysis of the corpus

In order to discuss the general thematic tendencies of the three genres, the lyrics of the songs of each genre will be submitted to a word count, which will be visually represented in the form of a word cloud. This will be used as the basis for a general discussion of the lexical content of grunge, disco and singer-songwriter music, as it will give some insight into possible emerging thematic patterns specific to the different genres. The word count has been realized through the online program Worditout, which presents the 100 most frequently used terms in a word cloud.12 Commonly used function words such as pronouns and modal verbs are omitted from the list. Each genre will be treated separately, as the results will be interpreted in more depth. Moreover, in the interpretation of the word frequencies, the generally repetitive nature of song lyrics which has been discussed in 4.1. has to be taken into account again. The repetition of language in lyrics, particularly in the chorus, but often also in other parts of the songs, may cause the high frequency of a specific word. This would cause the word cloud to reflect particularly repetitive songs rather than the broader lexical content of the genres. To reduce this effect, the chorus of each song has been included only once. Although word clouds are not sufficiently sophisticated to make firm statements concerning the thematic content of the genres, this analysis will be limited to a presentation of interesting leads that the word clouds offer. Further, more specific content analysis would be needed in order to map grunge, disco and singer songwriter music semantically.

12 http://worditout.com/

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Figure 1 Word cloud grunge

A first general observation concerning the word cloud grunge lyrics (fig. 1), is the strong presence of words with a negative connotation, such as black, alone, sick, die and wrong . This can be linked to the origins of grunge, which is rooted in frustration and anger. Although the most frequent words remain quite neutral, such as hello, now and come, the vocabulary of the grunge genre does appear to be filled with negatively charged words, such as black, sick, alone, wrong and gone. Moreover, even seemingly optimistic words, such as hello and alive, gain a negative edge within the grunge genre. Hello, which gets its high frequency from its repetition in Nirvana’s “Smells like teen spirit”, is repeated until it is distorted into . Low can be linked to Lakoff and Johnson’s conceptual metaphor SAD IS DOWN, and therefore does have a more pessimistic connotation (1980: 462). The frequency of alive, on the other hand, can be attributed to its prominence within the song “Alive” by Pearl Jam. However, a closer look at the lyrics shows that, instead of of life, the adverb still implies a closeness to death and suffering. Within this predominantly negative vocabulary, a sense of existential nihilism can be discerned. Labang (2014: 31) argues, with reference to W.H. Auden’s poetry, that nihilism “holds that the world, especially in relation to human existence, is without objective meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth or essential value”, a sentiment which is rooted in frustration with human life. This lack of meaning and purpose of life is reflected in the frequency of words underlining mere existence in the lyrics. The word cloud shows the prominence of words such as now, here, alive, die and alone. These can be linked to the existential indifference of nihilism; as Slocombe (2013: 207) argues in his discussion of nihilism and the sublime postmodern: “there is only awareness of identity in the “now-here”/nowhere – the world is absurd, time is meaningless, and we are nothing but a sublime presence in the space of absence.” Together, the

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aforementioned words present a larger sentiment of simply being here, alive, going through the motions of life apathetically. Linked to this theme is the imagery of darkness and light which is reflected in the word cloud as well. Lakoff and Johnson’s theory of conceptual metaphors, which was briefly touched upon in the previous paragraph, states that metaphors are not just features of literary language, but “concepts that we live by”, as “our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature” (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980: 453; 454). One of the conceptual metaphors that Lakoff and Johnson (1980: 470) propose is IDEAS ARE LIGHT-SOURCES, which can be found in statements such as “Could you elucidate your remarks?.” One of the most explicit links between light and ideas can be found in the Enlightenment, “The Age of Reason”, which opposes itself semantically to the Dark Ages, “The Age of Faith” (Grant, 2001: 4). The strong conceptual link between light and reason can be extended to the interpretation of the grunge lyrics. Notably prominent in the word cloud is the word black, which opposes itself to the (less frequent) references to sun and white, terms that can be associated with light. Following Lakoff and Johnson’s interpretation of this opposition, the opposition between light and darkness can be linked to the philosophical undercurrent of the grunge genre. Choosing darkness over light, grunge music appears to denounce the idea of enlightenment, of great ideas that claim to shed light on the human existence, in favor of nihilism, which exchanges ‘enlightened’ views and absolute truths for the meaninglessness Labang refers to.

Figure 2 Word cloud singer-songwriter

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A global look at the word cloud of the singer-songwriter lyrics, on the other hand, shows the prominence of temporal words. Now and time, in particular, stand out, while never and morning can also be discerned. This focus on time in singer-songwriter music can be linked to its narrative nature, as Werlich (1976: 39) defined the narrative text type as a reflection of “the cognitive process of perception in time.” As argued in the previous chapter (3.3), the singer- songwriter songs of the corpus show a pattern in terms of theme, as they tend to present a reflection on the past, particularly a past relationship. This statement seems to be confirmed by the word cloud. Firstly, the opposition between past and present is reflected in the form of the many verbs in the past tense (said, thought, touched, made, turned, used, knew, etc.) which stand in contrast with the imposing presence of the word now. Moreover, the tendency towards reflection in the songs of the corpus also comes through in the word cloud, through the prominence of cognitive verbs such as know, thought, remember and feel. Other words of the word cloud can also be linked to the idea of reflection, if they are interpreted in a more metaphorical way. One example is light, which, as discussed in the previous paragraph, can be linked to insight and understanding. The same can be said about the word see, as Lakoff and Johnson (1980: 470) present SEEING IS UNDERSTANDING as another conceptual metaphor. Finally, the prominence of words referring to others, be it vaguer terms such as people, man or girl or specific names such as Suzanne, show a tendency to focus on relationships and interaction with others, which may be a romantic relationship, as the word up in the word cloud as well.

Figure 3 Word cloud disco

Disco, finally, shows a mainly optimistic vocabulary with, most prominently, the word love. A first link that can be made between the more frequent words of the word cloud, is the sense of

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inclusion they express. The inclusive nature of disco music has already been discussed in the previous chapter in relation to the pronouns used in the genre, and it is confirmed through the prominence of words such as all, family, together and everybody. There appears to be a strong focus on interaction with others in disco music, which may explain the dominance of the word love in the word cloud. Moreover, there is a general sense of high energy reflected in the vocabulary, which can, again, be linked to the rhetorical function of the genre previously discussed. Disco is notably instructive, aimed at making people act, and particularly, dance. Therefore, it is not surprising that the words dance and dancing show a high frequency in the word count. The strong energetical theme of the genre is also reflected metaphorically, through references to heat as in hot and burn. Furthermore, a sense of inhibition can be found in the word choice of the genre as well, as words of mental instability such as freak, and (possibly) high make their appearance in the word cloud. The dominant temporal references in the word cloud, finally, are notably focussed on the present moment, now or tonight. Linked to the other prominent words of the word cloud, this focus can reflect a type of carpe diem philosophy underlying the disco genre. It can also be a reflection of the fact that, due to the instructive nature of a lot of the lyrics of the genre, an instantaneous reaction is expected as a dimension of direct address. Comparing the word clouds of the three genres, there appears to be genre-specific vocabulary, which shows some interesting leads in terms of themes which are central to the different genres. A first thing that can be noted is the emotionally charged language of the grunge and disco songs of the corpus. However, they do form clear opposites in terms of the dominant emotion. A tendency towards dark and negative words can be discerned in the grunge songs of the corpus, while the word cloud of the disco songs shows a preference for words with a positive, energetic meaning. The singer-songwriter word cloud, on the other hand, displays words of cognition and reflection, rather than emotion. This difference in stance may be linked to the different rhetorical functions of the genres discussed in the previous chapter. Both grunge and disco are more concerned with arousing particular emotions; the lyrics of grunge, which is particularly argumentative, can be argued to share the (often dark) emotions of the performer, while disco music, with its more instructive lyrics, aims at affecting the audience, putting them in an excited state of mind. Although singer-songwriter music may just as well cause an emotional effect, it appears to do so in a less explicit manner; rather than using emotion-laden words, the singer-songwriter music of the corpus, with its narrative nature, shows a preference for words of reflection and remembrance. The emotional dimension of singer-songwriter lyrics, therefore, may be more implicitly found in the events that are recounted instead of being directly

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reflected in explicit lexical choices. Moreover, it can be noted that certain words are shared by the different genres, and contribute to different, and at times even quite opposite themes in connection to other words. A clear example is the word now, which can be linked to the theme of reflection in singer-songwriter music, while also adding to the sense of existential nihilism in grunge and the topic of carpe diem in disco.

4.2.3 Conclusion

This section has offered a general insight into the lexicon of the three genres through the use of word clouds. Due to the very basic form of content analysis counts, and, in extension, word clouds offer, the ideas presented in this section should be considered as interesting leads towards further analysis rather than presenting hard facts, as further content analysis is needed to make stronger claims concerning the lexicon and the thematic content of disco, grunge and singer-songwriter music. What the word clouds have shown is that grunge, singer-songwriter and disco music do show some notable variation in terms of lexicon. The grunge lyrics of the corpus showed a preference for negatively charged words. Moreover, the word cloud presented possible lexical patterns, which may be an indication of larger themes in the lyrics of grunge music, such as a tendency towards light-darkness imagery and an underlying philosophy of nihilism. Very different from the lexicon of grunge, is the disco genre with its predominantly energetic word selection. The combination of words in the disco word cloud reflects a certain joie de vivre through words of energy, love and inclusion. As has been argued, the singer-songwriter vocabulary shows less of an inclination towards emotionally charged words, and instead shows a prominence of more neutral words of perception and cognition, and a strong emphasis on the progress of time, which is reflected through the past-presence opposition established by verbs and temporal referents. Furthermore, a possible connection between the lexicon and the different rhetorical properties of the genres has been proposed. In conclusion, the analysis of the word clouds does present some genre-specific tendencies in terms of vocabulary. However, further content analysis would be needed to support the ideas presented in this section.

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Conclusion for word counts and word clouds

This chapter has provided a closer look into the lexicon of grunge, disco and singer-songwriter lyrics. The first section of the chapter has focussed on the lexical richness of grunge, singer- songwriter and disco music, by determining the lexical variation and lexical density. Then content analysis in the form of a word count has been used to find possible thematic patterns in the lexicon of each genre. The most lexical variation could be found in the singer-songwriter genre. A possible explanation for this is the narrative nature of singer-songwriter lyrics, as the description of a progression of events implies the sharing of new information. Moreover, following the argument that the degree of repetition reflects the performativeness of the genre, singer- songwriter music can be considered the least performative out of the three genres. Singer- songwriter songs appear to be more conversational, which also shows from the results of lexical density. As discussed in this chapter, lexical density in this investigation appears to reflect the grammatical construction of the lyrics rather than their informativeness, as repetition is not taken into account. In the case of the singer-songwriter genre, the low level of lexical density implies a higher level of function words, which may be linked to the more elaborate, conversational sentences used in the lyrics. A closer look at the vocabulary, finally, shows a focus on the progress of time, both through the tense of verbs and temporal references, as well a prominence of words which imply reflection. Both can be linked to the narrative nature of the genre. Disco shows the lowest level of lexical variation, which implies a more simple and repetitive lexicon. Moreover, this high level of repetition reflects the strongly performative nature of the genre. Against expectations, the lexical density of the genre was the highest, which, again, may be a reflection of the grammatical structures rather than informativeness. The low number of function words may be attributed to the more nuclear sentences that form the lyrics of the genre. The word cloud, finally, showed a prominence of positively charged words, related to energy and inclusion. Considering disco music is dance music, the sense of excitement expressed in the lyrics may be seen as a way to entice its audience to dance, in addition to the instructive language. The grunge songs of the corpus, finally, find themselves in an intermediate position in terms of lexical variation, as grunge is not quite as performative as the disco genre, but not as close to conversational language as singer-songwriter music either. An analysis of the lexical

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density of the genre shows the same result, which, in this case, may be attributed to the elliptical nature of grunge lyrics. A closer look at the most prominent words used in grunge lyrics, which have a more negative undertone, points at the possible larger themes of apathy and nihilism. This ties in with the argument of the previous chapter, which argued that grunge music, rooted in a sense of frustration, is mainly argumentative, expressing its dissatisfaction with the world. The comparison of the lexicon of the three genres, in conclusion does allow for distinctions to be made between the different genres, as genre-specific traits can be discerned in the corpus, both in terms of the extent of the lexicon as in word choice. However, due to the size of the corpus and the basic form of content analysis in the form of a word count, this chapter has mainly presented interesting leads, that would need to be further analyzed using a more extensive corpus and more specific content analysis.

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Conclusion

Musically, grunge, disco en singer-songwriter music have a very distinct identity. What this master thesis set out to investigate, is whether the generic differences of these three musical genres can be extended their linguistic features. In particular, this investigation has focussed on the phonological, text-typological and lexical features of each genre. This has been studied in a corpus of thirty songs, consisting of ten prototypical songs of each genre. Firstly, this investigation has taken a closer look at the phonological properties of the songs in the corpus. In vocal performances, language becomes part of a musical performance, which can affect its prosodic organization. In the analysis of the corpus, I have established that there is variation across the genres regarding the rhythm of the vocals.The singer-songwriter genre, for one, shows a preference for the conversational rhythm of language, maintaining the traditional intonation pattern. The analysis of the disco genre, on the other hand, showed that this genre favored a more metrical rhythm. The prosodic nature of grunge, however, has been established as less straightforward. Despite the preservation of a more traditional intonation pattern, the shortness of and parallelism between intonation units does create a more metrical effect. The next step of this investigation was to look at the way the lyrics of the different genres are constructed, through a text-typological analysis. The application of Werlich’s classification of text types to the corpus has given some insight into the rhetorical nature of the different musical genres. Although the analysis has shown that all genres are primarily argumentative in nature, they show underlying rhetorical tendencies which do appear to be more genre-specific. While the singer-songwriter genre is more narratively oriented, disco is marked by a notably instructive type of language. Grunge, finally, shows no competing text type besides the argumentative one, which underscores the strongly expressive nature of the genre. The lexical analysis, finally, has offered some insight into the lexical richness as well as the word choice of each genre. Lexically, the singer-songwriter songs of this corpus present the most varied vocabulary, but also the least dense, which has been attributed to its conversational nature. Disco forms the opposite case, as the lyrics contain the most repetitive language but the highest lexical density, reflecting the more simplified syntax of the genre. Grunge finds itself in between disco and singer-songwriter music in terms of lexical richness, with its low lexical density attributed to the strongly elliptical nature of the lyrics. Content analysis through the

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interpretation of word clouds, finally, allowed for certain patterns to be discerned in the lexicon of each genre, which give some insight into the central themes of the three genres. Grunge lyrics showed a strong presence of negatively charged language which point at an underlying sense of nihilism in the songs. Disco music, on the other hand, is filled with words that express optimism, energy and inclusion. The singer-songwriter genre, shows a vocabulary that is more related to cognition than emotion, which hints at the prominence of reflection in the songs. Moreover, as has been pointed out in the course of the investigation, the different linguistic aspects of each genre in a way confirm one another. Singer-songwriter music, as stated in the introduction of the genres, is fueled by personal narratives. The narrative nature of this genre is not only confirmed in the text-typological analysis, but also in the preservation of the conversational rhythm as well as in the focus on reflection in the lyrics. Disco, on the other hand, is dance music, aimed at action rather than narration. This is reflected in the strong rhythm of the vocals, rather than a more conversational intonation pattern. The instructive text type, as well as the energetic vocabulary can be linked to the nature of disco as dance music as well. The grunge genre, finally, as discussed in the introduction, is mainly rooted in anger and frustration. The argumentative nature of the lyrics, as well as the word choice can be linked tot this expression of (negative) emotion. The desire to express rather than to narrate, moreover, may explain the less conversational rhythm of grunge. To conclude, this investigation is of an introductory nature, offering analytical approaches to a linguistic comparison of pop music. Based on the corpus of this study, genre-specific tendencies regarding certain linguistic features have been uncovered. However, as I have stated before, the limited nature of this corpus affects its representativeness of the three musical genres. Although the selected songs can be considered prototypical of each genre, further quantitative analysis applied to a larger corpus would be necessary to confirm the observations made.

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Appendix

Phonological transcription of the corpus with text-typological classification

DISCO Chic – Le Freak //A::H FREAK OUT/ Instructive

le FREAK – c’est CHIC/ Argumentative

FREAK OUT// Instructive

//A::H FREAK OUT/ Instructive

le FREAK – c’est CHIC/ Argumentative

FREAK OUT// Instructive

//HAVE you HEARD/ Argumentative

aBOUT the NEW DANCE CRAZE/

LISten to US/ Instructive

i’m SURE you’ll BE aMAZED/ Argumentative

BIG FUN/ Argumentative

to be HAD by EveryONE/

It’s UP to YOU/ Argumentative

it SUREly CAN be DONE/ Argumentative

YOUNG and OLD / Descriptive

are DOing it I’m TOLD/

JUST one TRY / Argumentative

and YOU TOO WILL be SOLD/

it’s CALLED le FREAK / Descriptive

they’re DOing it NIGHT and DAY/ Descriptive

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alLOW US / Instructive

WE’ll the WAY// Instructive

//AH FREAK OUT/ Instructive le FREAK – c’est CHIC/ Argumentative

FREAK OUT// Instructive

// PRESsure / Descriptive

GOT you DOWN/

HAS your HEAD / Descriptive

SPINning ALL aROUND/

FEEL the RHYTHM / Instructive

CHECK the RIDE/ Instructive

COME ON aLONG / Instructive and HAVE a REAL good TIME/ Instructive

LIKE the DAYS OF/ Descriptive

STOMping AT the saVOY/

NOW we FREAK / Descriptive

OH WHAT a JOY/ Argumentative

JUST COME ON DOWN / Instructive to FIFty FOUR/

FIND a SPOT / Instructive

OUT //

A::H FREAK OUT/ Instructive le FREAK – c’est CHIC/ Argumentative

FREAK OUT// Instructive now FREAK// Instructive

(instrumental interlude)

I SAID FREAK// Instructive

(instrumental interlude) now FREAK// Instructive

(instrumental interlude)

87

ALL that PRESsure / Descriptive

GOT you DOWN/

HAS your HEAD / Descriptive

SPINning ALL aROUND/

FEEL the RHYTHM / Instructive

CHECK the RIDE/ Instructive

COME ON aLONG / Instructive

and HAVE a REAL good TIME/ Instructive

LIKE the DAYS OF/ Descriptive

STOMping AT the saVOY/

NOW we FREAK / Descriptive

OH WHAT a JOY/ Argumentative

JUST COME ON DOWN / Instructive

to FIFty FOUR/

FIND a SPOT / Instructive

OUT ON the FLOOR//

A::H FREAK OUT/ Instructive

le FREAK – c’est CHIC/ Argumentative

FREAK OUT// Instructive

A::H FREAK OUT/ Instructive

le FREAK – c’est CHIC/ Argumentative

FREAK OUT// Instructive

A::H FREAK OUT/ Instructive

le FREAK – c’est CHIC/ Argumentative

FREAK OUT// Instructive

Donna Summer – Hot Stuff

//SITtin’ HERE EATin’ my HEART OUT Narrative WAITIN’/

WAITin’ FOR some LOver to CALL/

DIALED aBOUT a THOUsand NUMbers LATEly/ Narrative

88

ALmost RANG the PHONE off THE WALL/ Narrative

Argumentative LOOKin’ FOR SOME HOT STUFF BAby this EveNIN’/

I NEED some HOT STUFF BAby toNIGHT/ Argumentative

I WANT some HOT STUFF BAby this EveNIN’/ Argumentative

GOTta HAVE some HOT STUFF/ Argumentative

GOTta HAVE some LOVE toNIGHT/ Argumentative

HOT STUFF/ Argumentative

I NEED HOT STUFF/ Argumentative

I WANT some HOT STUFF/ Argumentative

I NEED HOT STU::FF// Argumentative

LOOKin’ FOR a LOver who NEEDS anOTHER/ Argumentative don’t WANT anOTHER NIGHT on MY OWN/ Argumentative

WANna SHARE my LOVE with a WARM blooded Argumentative LOver/

WANna BRING a WILD MAN BACK HOME// Argumentative

Argumentative //GOTta HAVE some HOT LOVE BAby this EveNIN’/

I NEED some HOT STUFF BAby toNIGHT/ Argumentative

I WANT some HOT STUFF BAby this EveNIN’/ Argumentative

GOTta HAVE some LOVin’/ Argumentative

GOTta HAVE some LOVE toNIGHT/ Argumentative

HOT STUFF/ Argumentative

I NEED HOT STUFF/ Argumentative

HOT LOVE/ Argumentative

LOOKIN’ for HOT LOVE// Argumentative

HOT HOT HOT HOT – STU::FF/ (interjection)

HOT HOT HOT/)

HOT HOT HOT HOT – STU::FF/

HOT HOT HOT//

89

HOW’s aBOUT some HOT STUFF BAby this Instructive EveNIN’/

I NEED some HOT STUFF BAby toNIGHT/ Argumentative

LOOKin’ for my HOT STUFF BAby this EveNIN’/ Argumentative

I NEED some HOT STUFF BAby toNIGHT YEAH Argumentative YEAH/

I WANT some HOT STUFF BAby this EveNIN’/ Argumentative

I WANT some HOT STUFF BAby toNIGHT/ Argumentative

I WANT some HOT STUFF BAby this EveNIN’/ Argumentative

I WANT some HOT STUFF BAby toNIGHT/ Argumentative

I WANT to HAVE some HOT STUFF BAby this Argumentative EveNIN’//

KC and the Sunshine Band – Get Down Tonight

//BAby BAby / Instructive

LET’s GET toGEther/

HOney HOney/

ME AND YOU/

and DO the THINGS / Instructive

AH DO the THINGS/ Instructive

THAT WE /

LIKE to DO//

//OH DO a LITTLE DANCE/ Instructive

MAKE a LITTLE LOVE/ Instructive

GET DOWN toNIGHT/ Instructive

GET DOWN toNIGHT/ Instructive

DO a LITTLE DANCE/ Instructive

MAKE a LITTLE LOVE/ Instructive

GET DOWN toNIGHT/ Instructive

GET DOWN toNIGHT/ Instructive

//BAby BAby / Instructive

I’ll MEET YOU/

90

SAME PLACE /

SAME TIME/ where WE CAN OH/ Argumentative

GET toGEther/

And EASE UP / Argumentative

OUR MIND//

//OH DO a LITTLE DANCE/ Instructive

MAKE a LITTLE LOVE/ Instructive

GET DOWN toNIGHT/ Instructive

GET DOWN toNIGHT/ Instructive

DO a LITTLE DANCE/ Instructive

MAKE a LITTLE LOVE/ Instructive

GET DOWN toNIGHT/ Instructive

GET DOWN toNIGHT/ Instructive

(instrumental interlude)

//OH DO a LITTLE DANCE/ Instructive

MAKE a LITTLE LOVE/ Instructive

GET DOWN toNIGHT (WOW)/ Instructive

GET DOWN toNIGHT (HEY)/ Instructive

DO a LITTLE DANCE/ Instructive

MAKE a LITTLE LOVE/ Instructive

GET DOWN toNIGHT (WOW)/ Instructive

GET DOWN toNIGHT (Baby)/ Instructive

(instrumental interlude)

//GET DOWN GET DOWN GET DOWN GET Instructive DOWN GET DOWN toNIGHT BAby/

GET DOWN GET DOWN GET DOWN GET Instructive DOWN GET DOWN toNIGHT BAby/ (

GET DOWN GET DOWN GET DOWN GET Instructive DOWN GET DOWN toNIGHT BAby/

GET DOWN GET DOWN GET DOWN GET Instructive DOWN GET DOWN toNIGHT BAby/

91

GET DOWN GET DOWN GET DOWN GET Instructive DOWN GET DOWN toNIGHT BAby/ (

GET DOWN GET DOWN GET DOWN GET Instructive DOWN GET DOWN toNIGHT BAby/

GET DOWN// Instructive

Sister Sledge – We Are Family

//WE ARE FA::MILY/ Descriptive

I GOT ALL MY SISters WITH ME / Descriptive

WE ARE FA::MILY/ Descriptive

GET UP EveryBOdy and SING / Instructive

//WE ARE FA::MILY/ Descriptive

I GOT ALL MY SISters WITH ME / Descriptive

WE ARE FA::MILY/ Descriptive

GET UP EveryBOdy and SING / Instructive

//EveryONE CAN SEE WE’re toGEther/ Argumentative

AS we WALK ON BY:: (AND)/

AND we FLY JUST like BIRDS of a FEAther/ Argumentative

I won’t TELL NO LIE:: (ALL)/ Argumentative

ALL of the PEOPLE – aROUND US they SA::Y/ Narrative

CAN THEY BE THAT CLOSE/

JUST LET ME STATE for the RECORD/ Argumentative

WE’re GIving LOVE IN a FAmily DO::SE//

//WE ARE FA::MILY ( HEY Descriptive YAH)/

I GOT ALL MY SISters WITH ME (OH AH OH Descriptive AH)/

WE ARE FA::MILY/ Descriptive

GET UP EveryBOdy and SING (SING IT TO ME)/ Instructive – Instructive

WE ARE FA::MILY/ Descriptive

I GOT ALL MY SISters WITH ME/ Descriptive

WE ARE FA::MILY/ Descriptive

GET UP EveryBOdy and SING/ Instructive

92

LIvin’ LIFE is FUN and WE’ve / Argumentative

TO get our SHA::RE -- of this WORLD’ DELI::GHTS (HIGH)/

HIGH HOPES we HAVE -- FOR the FUture/ Argumentative

AND our GOAL’s in SIGHT (WE)/ Argumentative

NO we DON’T get dePRESsed/ Argumentative

HERE’s what we CA::LL – OUR GOLden RULE/ Argumentative

HAVE FAITH in YOU AND the THINGS you DO/ Instructive

YOU WON’T GO WRONG (OH NO)/ Argumentative

THIS IS OUR FAmily JE::wel/ Argumentative

//WE ARE FA::MILY (YEAH SING IT TO ME)/ Descriptive – instructive

I GOT ALL MY SISters WITH ME (SING IT TO Descriptive – instructive ME)/

WE ARE FA::MILY (OH I CAN’T HEAR YOU Descriptive – argumentative NOW)/

GET UP EveryBOdy and SING (OEH)/ Instructive

WE ARE FA::MILY (HAVE FAITH IN YOU Descriptive – instructive AND THE THINGS YOU DO HEY HEY)/

I GOT ALL MY SISters WITH ME (OH YEAH)/ Descriptive

WE ARE FA::MILY (GET UP -- GET UP NOW)/ Descriptive – instructive

GET UP EveryBOdy and SING// Instructive

Bee Gees – Stayin’ Alive

//well YOU can TELL by the WAY i USE my Argumentative WALK/

I’m a ’s MAN –-no TIME to TALK/

Music LOUD and WOmen WARM/ Argumentative

I’ve been KICKED aROUND since / Narrative

and NOW it’s -- IT’s OK/ Argumentative – argumentative

and YOU may LOOK the Other WAY/ Instructive

WE can TRY – to UNderSTAND/ Instructive

the NEW york TIMES efFECT on MAN/

WHEther you’re a BROther or WHEther you’re a Descriptive MOther/

93

you’re STAYin’ aLIVE – STAYin’ aLIVE/

FEEL the City BREAKin’ and EveryBOdy Instructive SHAkin’/ and we’re STAYin’ aLIVE-- STAYin’ aLIVE/ Descriptive

HA HA HA HA STAYin’ aLIVE/ Descriptive

HA HA HA HA STAYin’ aLI::VE// Descriptive

//well now I get LOW and I get HIGH/ Descriptive and if i CAN’T get EIther i REALly TRY/ Argumentative got the WINGS of HEAven ON my SHOES/ Argumentative

I’m a DANCin’ MAN and i JUST CAN’T LOSE/ Argumentative

You know it’s ALL RIGHT – IT’s OK/ Argumentative – argumentative

I’ll LIVE to SEE anOther DAY/ Descriptive

WE can TRY – to UNderSTAND Instructive the NEW york TIMES efFECT on MAN/

WHEther you’re a BROther or WHEther you’re a Descriptive MOther/ you’re STAYin’ aLIVE – STAYin’ aLIVE/

FEEL the City BREAKin’ and EveryBOdy Instructive SHAkin’/ and we’re STAYin’ aLIVE-- STAYin’ aLIVE/ Descriptive

HA HA HA HA STAYin’ aLIVE/ Descriptive

HA HA HA HA STAYin’ aLI::VE// Descriptive

(AH)// (interjection)

//life GOin’ NOwhere / Argumentative / Instructive someBOdy HELP me YEAH/ Instructive life GOin’ NOwhere/ Argumentative someBOdy HELP me YEAH (STAYin’ aLI::VE)// Instructive well YOU can TELL by the WAY i USE my Argumentative WALK/

I’m a WOman’s MAN –-no TIME to TALK/

Music LOUD and WOmen WARM/ Argumentative

94

I’ve been KICKED aROUND since I WAS BORN/ Narrative

and NOW it’s ALL RIGHT -- IT’s OK/ Argumentative – argumentative

and YOU may LOOK the Other WAY/ Instructive

WE can TRY – to UNderSTAND/ Instructive

the NEW york TIMES efFECT on MAN/

WHEther you’re a BROther or WHEther you’re a Descriptive MOther/

you’re STAYin’ aLIVE – STAYin’ aLIVE/

FEEL the City BREAKin’ and EveryBOdy Instructive SHAkin’/

and we’re STAYin’ aLIVE-- STAYin’ aLIVE/ Descriptive

HA HA HA HA STAYin’ aLIVE/ Descriptive

HA HA HA HA STAYin’ aLI::VE// Descriptive

(AH)// (interjection)

life GOin’ NOwhere / Argumentative

someBOdy HELP ME/ Instructive

someBOdy HELP me YEAH/ Instructive

life GOin’ NOwhere/ Argumentative

someBOdy HELP me YEAH/ Instructive

i’m STAYin’ aLI::VE/ Descriptive

life GOin’ NOwhere / Argumentative

someBOdy HELP ME/ Instructive

someBOdy HELP me YEAH/ Instructive

life GOin’ NOwhere/ Argumentative

someBOdy HELP me YEAH/ Instructive

i’m STAYin’ aLI::VE/ Descriptive

life GOin’ NOwhere/ Argumentative

someBOdy HELP me YEAH/ Instructive

Boney M. – Daddy Cool

//She’s CRAzy LIKE a FOO::L/ Argumentative

What aBOUT it DADdy COO::L// Argumentative

95

She’s CRAzy LIKE a FOO::L/ Argumentative

What aBOUT it DADdy COO::L/ Argumentative

I’m CRAzy LIKE a FOO::L/ Argumentative

What aBOUT it DADdy COO::L/ Argumentative

DADdy/ (apostrophe)

DADdy COO::L/

DADdy/

DADdy COO::L/

DADdy/

DADdy COO::L/

DADdy/

DADdy COO::L//

She’s CRAzy LIKE a FOO::L/ Argumentative

What aBOUT it DADdy COO::L/ Argumentative

I’m CRAzy LIKE a FOO::L/ Argumentative

What aBOUT it DADdy COO::L/ Argumentative

DADdy/ (apostrophe)

DADdy COO::L/

DADdy/

DADdy COO::L/

DADdy/

DADdy COO::L/

DADdy/

DADdy COO::L//

(instrumental interlude)

She’s CRAzy aBOUT her DADdy/ Argumentative

OH SHE beLIEVES in HIM/ Argumentative

SHE LOVES her DADdy// Argumentative

She’s CRAzy LIKE a FOO::L/ Argumentative

What aBOUT it DADdy COO::L/ Argumentative

96

I’m CRAzy LIKE a FOO::L/ Argumentative

What aBOUT it DADdy COO::L/ Argumentative

DADdy/ (apostrophe)

DADdy COO::L/

DADdy/

DADdy COO::L/

DADdy/

DADdy COO::L/

DADdy/

DADdy COO::L/

Diana Ross – Upside Down

//I said UPside DOWN you’re TURNing ME Narrative

YOU’re GIving LOVE/ Argumentative

inSTINCTiveLY/

ROUND and ‘ROUND you’re TURNing ME// Argumentative

UPSIDE DOWN/ Argumentative

BOY you TURN ME/

INSIDE OUT/

AND --ROUND and ROUND/

UPSIDE DOWN/ Argumentative

BOY you TURN ME/

INSIDE OUT/

AND --ROUND and ROUND/

inSTINCTiveLY YOU GIVE to ME/ Argumentative

the LOVE THAT I NEED/

i CHErish the MOments WITH YOU/ Argumentative

resPECTfulLY I SAY to THEE/ Narrative

I’m aWARE THAT you’re CHEATin’/

When NO one MAKES me FEEL like YOU DO/ Argumentative

97

UPSIDE DOWN/ Argumentative

BOY you TURN ME/

INSIDE OUT/

AND --ROUND and ROUND/

UPSIDE DOWN/ Argumentative

BOY you TURN ME/

INSIDE OUT/

AND --ROUND and ROUND/ you GOT CHARM AND apPEAL/ Argumentative you ALways PLAY the FIELD/ Descriptive i’m CRAzy to THINK YOU’re ALL MINE/ Argumentative as LONG as the SUN/ Argumentative conTINues to SHINE/ there’s a PLACE in my HEART for YOU/

THAT’s the BOTtomLINE/

UPSIDE DOWN/ Argumentative

BOY you TURN ME/

INSIDE OUT/

AND --ROUND and ROUND/

UPSIDE DOWN/ Argumentative

BOY you TURN ME/

INSIDE OUT/

AND --ROUND and ROUND/ inSTINCTiveLY YOU GIVE to ME/ argumentative the LOVE THAT I NEED/ i CHErish the MOments WITH YOU/ Argumentative resPECTfulLY I SAY to THEE/ Narrative

I’m aWARE THAT you’re CHEATin’/

When NO one MAKES me FEEL like YOU DO/ Argumentative

UPSIDE DOWN/ Argumentative

98

BOY you TURN ME/

INSIDE OUT/

AND --ROUND and ROUND/

UPSIDE DOWN/ Argumentative

BOY you TURN ME/

INSIDE OUT/

AND --ROUND and ROUND/

UPSIDE DOWN/ Argumentative

BOY you TURN ME/

INSIDE OUT/

AND --ROUND and ROUND/

UPSIDE DOWN/ Argumentative

BOY you TURN ME/

INSIDE OUT/

AND --ROUND and ROUND/

UPside DOWN you’re TURNing ME/ Argumentative

YOU’re GIving LOVE/ Argumentative inSTINCTiveLY/

ROUND and ‘ROUND you’re TURNing ME/ Argumentative i SAY to THEE/ Narrative resPECTfulLY/

UPside DOWN you’re TURNing ME/ Argumentative

YOU’re GIving LOVE/ Argumentative inSTINCTiveLY/

ROUND and ‘ROUND you’re TURNing ME/ Argumentative i SAY to THEE/ Narrative resPECTfulLY/

I SAID UPside DOWN you’re TURNing ME/ Narrative

YOU’re GIving LOVE/ Argumentative inSTINCTiveLY/

99

ROUND and ‘ROUND you’re TURNing ME/ Argumentative

i SAY to THEE/ Narrative

resPECTfulLY/

UPside DOWN you’re TURNing ME/ Argumentative

YOU’re GIving LOVE/ Argumentative

inSTINCTiveLY/

ROUND and ‘ROUND you’re TURNing ME/ Argumentative

i SAY to THEE/ Narrative

resPECTfulLY/

UPside DOWN you’re TURNing ME/ Argumentative

The Trammps - Disco inferno

//BU::RN baby BURN/ Instructive

BU::RN baby BURN/ Instructive

BU::RN baby BURN/ Instructive

BU::RN baby BURN/ Instructive

//TO MY surPRISE (LISten)/ Argumentative

one HUNdred STOries HI::GH/ Descriptive

PEOPLE:: getting LOOSE y’all/

getting DO::WN ON the ROOF (you HEAR)/ Descriptive

FOLKS are SCREAMing/ Descriptive

OUT of conTRO::L /

It was SO:: ENterTAIning / Argumentative

when the BOOgie STARTed to exPLODE/

I HEARD someBODY say/ Narrative

BU::RN baby BURN/ Instructive

DISco inFERno/ Argumentative

BU::RN baby BURN / Instructive

BURN that MOther DOWN/ Instructive

BU::RN baby BURN/ Instructive

DISco inFERno/ Argumentative

100

BU::RN baby BURN / Instructive

BURN that MOther DOWN/ Instructive

SA::tisFACtion / Narrative

CAME in a CHAIN reACtion (BURNin’)/ i COULDn’t GET eNOUGH / Argumentative

so i HA::D to SELFdesTRUCT/ Argumentative the HEAT was O::N/ Descriptive

RI::sing to the TOP/

EveryBOdy GOing STRONG / Descriptive and THA::T is when my SPARK GOT HOT/ Narrative

I HEARD someBODY say/ Narrative

BU::RN baby BURN/ Instructive

DISco inFERno/ Argumentative

BU::RN baby BURN / Instructive

BURN that MOther DOWN/ Instructive

BU::RN baby BURN/ Instructive

DISco inFERno/ Argumentative

BU::RN baby BURN / Instructive

BURN that MOther DOWN/ Instructive

//up aBOVE my HEA::D/ Narrative

I HEAR MUsic IN the AI::R/

THAT MAKES ME KNO::W/ Argumentative

THERE’s A PARty SOMEWHE::RE//

SA::tisFACtion / Narrative

CAME in a CHAIN reACtion (do you HEAR) i COULDn’t GET eNOUGH / Argumentative

so i HA::D to SELFdesTRUCT/ Argumentative the HEAT was O::N/ Descriptive

RI::sing to the TOP/

EveryBOdy GOing STRONG / Descriptive

101

and THA::T is when my SPARK GOT HOT/ Narrative

I HEARD someBODY say/ Narrative

BU::RN baby BURN/ Instructive

DISco inFERno/ Argumentative

BU::RN baby BURN / Instructive

BURN that MOther DOWN/ Instructive

BU::RN baby BURN/ Instructive

DISco inFERno/ Argumentative

BU::RN baby BURN / Instructive

BURN that MOther DOWN/ Instructive

BU::RN baby BURN / Instructive

BU::RN baby BURN (A::H YEAH)/ Instructive

BURN that MOther DOWN/ Instructive

BU::RN baby BURN / Instructive

DISco inFERNO::/ Argumentative

ABBA – Dancing Queen

//OE::H/ (interjection)

YOU can DA::NCE/ Descriptive

YOU can JI::VE/ Descriptive

HAVing the TIME OF your LI::FE/ Argumentative

O::H SEE that GIRL/ Instructive

WATCH that SCENE/ Instructive

DIGging the DANCing QUEE::N// Argumentative

FRIday NIGHT AND the LIGHTS are LO::W/ Descriptive

LOOKing OUT FOR a PLACE to GO::/ Narrative

WHERE they PLAY the RIGHT MUSIC /

GETting IN the SWING/ Narrative

YOU COME to LOOK FOR a KING/

AnyBOdy could BE THAT GU::Y/ Argumentative

NIGHT is YOUNG and the MUsic’s – HI::GH/ Argumentative

102

WITH a BIT of ROCK MUSIC / Argumentative

EveryTHING is FINE/

YOU’re in the MOOD for a DANCE/ Descriptive

AND WHEN YOU GET the CHA::NCE/ Argumentative

YOU ARE the DANCing QUEEN/

YOUNG and SWEET/ Descriptive

ONly SEvenTEE::N/ Descriptive

DANCing QUEEN/ Argumentative

FEEL the BEAT / Instructive

FROM the TAMBOURI::NE OH YEAH/

YOU can DA::NCE/ Descriptive

YOU can JI::VE / Descriptive

HAVing the TIME of your LI::FE/ Argumentative

OH SEE THAT GIRL / Instructive

WATCH THAT SCENE / Instructive

DIGgin’ the DANCing QUEE::N// Argumentative

YOU’re a TEAser you TURN ‘em O::N/ Argumentative

LEAVE them BURning and THEN YOU’re – Narrative GO::NE/

LOOKing OUT for anOther / Narrative

AnyONE will DO/ Argumentative

YOU’re in the MOOD FOR a DANCE/ Descriptive

AND WHEN YOU GET the CHANCE/ Argumentative

YOU ARE the DANCing QUEEN/

YOUNG and SWEET/ Descriptive

ONly SEvenTEE::N/ Descriptive

DANCing QUEEN/ Argumentative

FEEL the BEAT / Instructive

FROM the TAMBOURI::NE OH YEAH/

YOU can DA::NCE/ Descriptive

YOU can JI::VE / Descriptive

103

HAVing the TIME of your LI::FE/ Argumentative

OH SEE THAT GIRL / Instructive

WATCH THAT SCENE / Instructive

DIGgin’ the DANCing QUEE::N// Argumentative

Earth Wind and Fire – September

//do YOU reMEMber / Argumentative

the TWENtyFIRST NIGHT of sepTEMber/

LOVE was CHANGing the MINDS of preTENders/ Narrative

WHILE CHAsing the CLOUDS aWA::Y/

/OUR HEARTS were RINGing/ Narrative

In the KEY that our SOULS were SINGing/

AS we IN the NIGHT –reMEMber/ Narrative – instructive

How the STARS stole the NIGHT aWA::Y/

BA DE YA -- SAY do YOU reMEMber/ Argumentative

BA DE YA -- DANCing IN sepTEMber/

BA DE YA -- NEver WAS e CLOUdy DA::Y/ Descriptive

BA DUDA BA DUDA BA DUDA BADU/ (interjection)

BA DUDA BADU BA DUDA BADU/

BA DUDA BADU BA DUDA DA/

MY THOUGHTS are WITH YOU/ Argumentative

HOLDing HANDS with your HEART to SEE YOU/

ONly BLUE TALK and LOVE – reMEMber/ Argumentative – instructive

HOW we KNEW LOVE was HERE to STA::Y/

NOW deCEMber/ Narrative

FOUND the LOVE we SHARED in sepTEMber/

ONly BLUE TALK and LOVE – reMEMber/ Argumentative – instructive

the TRUE LOVE we SHARE toDA::Y/

BA DE YA -- SAY do YOU reMEMber/ Argumentative

BA DE YA -- DANCing IN sepTEMber/

BA DE YA -- NEver WAS e CLOUDy DA::Y/ Descriptive

104

there WAS a / Argumentative

BA DE YA –SAY do YOU reMEMber/

BA DE YA – DANCing IN sepTEMber/

BA DE YA – GOLden were SHIny Argumentative DA::YS/

THE BELL WAS RINGING – AHA/ Narrative

OUR SOULS were SINGING/ Narrative do YOU reMEMber/ Argumentative

NEver a CLOUDy DAY/ Descriptive there WAS a/ Descriptive

BA DE YA -- SAY do YOU reMEMber/ Argumentative

BA DE YA -- DANCing IN sepTEMber/

BA DE YA -- NEver WAS e CLOUdy DA::Y/ Descriptive there WAS a / Descriptive

BA DE YA –SAY do YOU reMEMber/ Argumentative

BA DE YA – DANCing IN sepTEMber/

BA DE YA – GOLden DREAMS wer SHIny Argumentative DA::YS/

BA DE YA DE YA DE YA/ (interjection)

BA DE YA DE YA DE YA/

BA DE YA DE YA DE YA/

DE YA/

BA DE YA DE YA DE YA/

BA DE YA DE YA DE YA/

BA DE YA DE YA DE YA//

105

GRUNGE

Nirvana – Smells Like Teen Spirit

//Load UP ON GUNS/ Instructive

BRING your FRIENDS/ Instructive

it’s FUN to LOSE/ Argumentative

and TO preTEND/

she’s OVER-BORED/ Argumentative

and SELF-asSURED/

oh NO i KNOW/ Argumentative

a DIRty WORD/

HELLO HELLO HELLO HOW LOW/ (interjection)

HELLO HELLO HELLO HOW LOW/

HELLO HELLO HELLO HOW LOW/

HELLO HELLO HELLO/

WITH the LIGHTS OUT/ Argumentative

IT’s less DANgerOUS/

HERE we ARE NOW/ Descriptive

ENterTAIN US/ Instructive

I feel STUPID/ Argumentative

AND conTAGIOUS/

HERE we ARE NOW / Descriptive

ENterTAIN US/ Instructive

A muLATTO / Descriptive

AN alBINO/ Descriptive

A mosQUITO / Descriptive

MY liBIDO/ Descriptive

YEAH --- HEY/ (interjection)

HEY//

//I’m WORSE AT WHAT/ Argumentative

I do BEST/

106

and FOR this GIFT/ Argumentative i FEEL BLESSED/ our LITTLE group/ Expository has ALways BEEN/ and ALways WILL / unTIL the END/

HELLO HELLO HELLO HOW LOW/ (interjection)

HELLO HELLO HELLO HOW LOW/

HELLO HELLO HELLO HOW LOW/

HELLO HELLO HELLO/

WITH the LIGHTS OUT/ Argumentative

IT’s less DANgerOUS/

HERE we ARE NOW/ Descriptive

ENterTAIN US/ Instructive

I feel STUPID/ Argumentative

AND conTAGIOUS/

HERE we ARE NOW / Descriptive

ENterTAIN US/ Instructive

A muLATTO / Descriptive

AN alBINO/ Descriptive

A mosQUITO / Descriptive

MY liBIDO/ Descriptive

YEAH --- HEY/ (interjection)

HEY//

//And I FORGET/ Argumentative just WHY i TASTE/

Oh YEAH i GUESS/ Argumentative it MAKES me SMILE/ i FOUND IT HARD / Argumentative

It’s HARD to FIND/ Argmentative

107

oh WELL WHATEver/ Argumentative

NEver MIND/ Instructive

HELLO HELLO HELLO HOW LOW/ (interjection)

HELLO HELLO HELLO HOW LOW/

HELLO HELLO HELLO HOW LOW/

HELLO HELLO HELLO/

WITH the LIGHTS OUT/ Argumentative

IT’s less DANgerOUS/

HERE we ARE NOW/ Descriptive

ENterTAIN US/ Instructive

I feel STUPID/ Argumentative

AND conTAGIOUS/

HERE we ARE NOW / Descriptive

ENterTAIN US/ Instructive

A muLATTO / Descriptive

AN alBINO/ Descriptive

A mosQUITO / Descriptive

MY liBIDO/ Descriptive

A deNIAL/ Descriptive

A deNIAL/ Descriptive

A deNIAL/ Descriptive

A deNIAL/ Descriptive

A deNIAL/ Descriptive

A deNIAL/ Descriptive

A deNIAL/ Descriptive

A deNIAL/ Descriptive

A deNIAL// Descriptive

Soundgarden – Black Hole Sun

//IN my EYES/ Descriptive

108

INdisPOSED/

IN disGUISes NO ONE KNOWS/

HIDES the FACE/

LIE::S the SNAKE/ Descriptive

And the SUN IN MY disGRACE/ Descriptive

BOIling HEAT / Descriptive

SUMmer STENCH/ Descriptive

NEATH the BLACK THE SKY LOOKS DEA::D/ Descriptive

CALL my NAME/ Instructive

THROU::GH the CREAM/ and I’LL HEAR YOU aGAI::N/ Argumentative

BLACK hole SUN/ Instructive WON’T you COME/

And WASH aWAY the RAIN/

BLACK hole SUN/ Instructive

WON’T you COME/

WON’T you COME/ Instructive

WON’T you COME/ Instructive

STUTterING / Descriptive

COLD and DAMP/ Descriptive

STEAL the WARM WIND TIRED FRIEND/ Instructive

TIMES are GONE/ Argumentative for HO::nest MEN/

And someTIMES FAR TOO LONG for SNAKES/

IN MY SHOES/ Descriptive a WALKING SLEEP/ and MY YOUTH I PRAY to KEEP/ Argumentative

HEAven SENT/ Narrative

HE::LL aWAY/

NO ONE SINGS LIKE YOU AnyMO::RE/ Narrative

109

BLACK hole SUN/ Instructive

WON’T you COME/

And WASH aWAY the RAIN/

BLACK hole SUN/ Instructive

WON’T you COME/

WON’T you COME/ Instructive

BLACK hole SUN/ Instructive

WON’T you COME/

And WASH aWAY the RAIN/

BLACK hole SUN/ Instructive

WON’T you COME/

WON’T you COME/ Instructive

WON’T you CO::ME (BLACK HOLE SUN – Instructive BLACK HOLE SUN)/

WON’T you CO::ME (BLACK HOLE SUN – Instructive BLACK HOLE SUN)/

WON’T you CO::ME (BLACK HOLE SUN – Instructive BLACK HOLE SUN)//

(musical interlude)

HANG MY HEAD/ Narrative

DROWN MY / Narrative

TILL YOU ALL JUST DISAPPEAR/

BLACK hole SUN/ Instructive

WON’T you COME/

And WASH aWAY the RAIN/

BLACK hole SUN/ Instructive

WON’T you COME/

WON’T you COME/ Instructive

BLACK hole SUN/ Instructive

WON’T you COME/

And WASH aWAY the RAIN/

BLACK hole SUN/ Instructive

110

WON’T you COME/

WON’T you CO::ME (BLACK HOLE SUN – Instructive BLACK HOLE SUN) /

WON’T you CO::ME (BLACK HOLE SUN – Instructive BLACK HOLE SUN)/

WON’T you CO::ME (BLACK HOLE SUN – Instructive BLACK HOLE SUN)/

WON’T you CO::ME (BLACK HOLE SUN – Instructive BLACK HOLE SUN)/

WON’T you CO::ME (BLACK HOLE SUN – Instructive BLACK HOLE SUN)/

WON’T you CO::ME (BLACK HOLE SUN – Instructive BLACK HOLE SUN)/

WON’T you CO::ME/ Instructive

WON’T you CO::ME// Instructive

Pearl Jam – Alive

//SO::N she SAID/ Narrative

HAVE i GOT a LITtle STOry for YOU/

what YOU THOUGHT was your DADDY/ Narrative

was NOTHIN’ BUT a…/

WHILE you were SITting/ Narrative

HOME aLONE at AGE THIRTEEN/

your REAL DADdy was DYIN’/

SORry you DIDN’T SEE HIM/ Narrative

But I’m GLAD we TALKED/ Narrative

O::H I:: O::H I’M STILL aLIVE / Descriptive

HE::Y I:: O::H I’M STILL aLIVE / Descriptive

HE::Y I:: O::H I’M STILL aLIVE / Descriptive

YEA::H O::H//

//OH SHE WALKS SLOWLY/ Narrative

aCROSS a YOUNG MAN’s ROOM/

she SAID i’m READY / Narrative

111

for YOU/

I CAN’T reMEMber/ Argumentative

AnyTHING to THIS VEry DAY/ cept / the LOOK/

OH YOU know WHERE/ Argumentative

NOW I CAN’T SEE::/ Narrative

I just STA::RE/ Narrative

O::H I:: O::H I’M STILL aLIVE/ Descriptive

HE::Y I:: O::H I’M STILL aLIVE/ Descriptive

HE::Y I:: O::H I’M STILL aLIVE/ Descriptive

HE::Y I:: O::H I’M STILL aLIVE/ Descriptive

YEA::H – OH YEA::H/ (interjection)

YEAH YEAH YEAH/

O::H//

//IS SOMEthing WRONG SHE SAI::D/ Narrative

Of COURSE THERE IS/ Narrative

YOU’re STILL aLIVE she SAI::D/ Narrative

OH deSERVE to BE/ Argumentative

IS THAT the QUESTION/ Argumentative

AND IF SO::/ Argumentative

IF SO::/

WHO ANSWERS/

WHO ANSWERS/

I:: O::H I’M STILL aLIVE/ Descriptive

I:: O::H I’M STILL aLIVE/ Descriptive

HE::Y I:: O::H I’M STILL aLIVE/ Descriptive

HE::Y I:: O::H I’M STILL aLIVE/ Descriptive

YEAH YEAH YEAH/ (interjection)

O::H/

112

YEAH OH/

WAH OH/

YEAH OH/

YEAH YEAH YEAH YEAH/

AH///

Alice In Chains – Would?

// WOU::LD// (interjection)

//know ME:: BROken BY MY MASter/ Instructive

teach THEE:: ON CHILD of LOVE hereAFter/ Instructive

INTO the FLOOD aGAI::N/ Argumentative

SAME old TRIP it was BA::CK THE::N/ Argumentative

SO i MADE a BIG misTA::KE/ Argumentative

TRY to SEE it ONCE MY WA::Y/ Instructive

drifTING BODY it’s SOLE deSERtion/ Descriptive

flyING not YET QUITE the NOtion/ Descriptive

INTO the FLOOD aGAI::N/ Argumentative

SAME old TRIP it was BA::CK THE::N/ Argumentative

SO i MADE a BIG misTA::KE/ Argumentative

TRY to SEE it ONCE MY WA::Y/ Instructive

INTO the FLOOD aGAI::N/ Argumentative

SAME old TRIP it was BA::CK THE::N/ Argumentative

SO i MADE a BIG misTA::KE/ Argumentative

TRY to SEE it ONCE MY WA::Y/ Instructive

AM i WRO::NG/ Argumentative

HAVE i RUN to GET home/ Argumentative

HAVE i GO::NE/ argumentative

And LEFT YOU HERE aLO::NE/

AM i WRO::NG/ Argumentative

113

HAVE i RUN TOO FAR to GET home/ Argumentative

HAVE i GO::NE/ argumentative

And LEFT YOU HERE aLO::NE/

IF—I-- WOULD --COULD --YOU/ Argumentative

Stone Temple Pilots – Interstate Love Song

//WAITING – AFterNOO::N/ Narrative

For WHA::T I:: READ beTWEEN the LINE::S/

your LIE::S/

FEELIN’ – LIKE a HAND in RUSted SHAME/ Argumentative

So DO:: YOU LAUGH at THOSE who ::/ Argumentative

rePLY::/ Instructive

LEAVI::N’ ON a SOUTHern TRAIN/ Narrative

ONLY YESterDAY -- you LIE::D/ Narrative

PROmiSES of WHAT i SEEMED to BE/ Argumentative

ONLY WATCHED the TIME --go BY::/ Narrative

ALL of THE::SE THINGS you SAID to ME// Narrative

BREATHING – is the HARdest THING to DO::/ Argumentative

WITH A::LL I::’ve SAID and ALL that’s DEAD for YOU::/

you LIED/ Narrative

good BYE/ Narrative

LEAVI::N’ ON a SOUTHern TRAIN/ Narrative

ONLY YESterDAY -- you LIE::D/ Narrative

PROmiSES of WHAT i SEEMED to BE/ Argumentative

ONLY WATCHED the TIME --go BY::/ Narrative

ALL of THE::SE THINGS i SAID to YOU// Narrative

Bush – Glycerine

//MUST BE your SKIN/ Argumentative

114

That I’m SINking IN/

MUST BE for REAL/ Argumentative

Cause NOW I can FEEL/

I didn’t MIND/ Argumentative

It’s NOT MY KIND/ Argumentative

It’s NOT MY TIME/ Argumentative

To WONder WHY/

EveryTHING’s gone WHITE/ Descriptive and EveryTHING’s GREY/ Descriptive

NOW YOU’re HERE/ Descriptive

NOW YOU’re aWAY/ Descriptive

I DON’T WANT THIS/ Argumentative reMEMber THAT/ Instructive i’ll NEver forGET / Argumentative

WHERE YOU’re AT/

DON’T LET THE DAYS GO:: BY::/ Instructive

GLYcerINE/ (apostrophe)

GLYcerINE/

I’m NEver aLONE/ Descriptive

I’m aLONE ALL the TIME/ Descriptive

ARE YOU at ONE/ Argumentative or DO you LIE/ Argumentative we LIVE IN a WHEEL/ Descriptive

WHERE EveryONE STEALS/ but / Argumentative it’s LIKE a STRAWBERry FIELD/ if i TREATed YOU BAD/ Narrative you BRUISE MY FACE/ couldn’t LOVE you MORE/ Argumentative you GOT a BEAUtiFUL TASTE/ Argumentative

115

DON’T LET THE DAYS GO:: BY::/ Instructive

COULD have BEEN EASIer ON YOU/ Argumentative

I COULDN’T CHANGE THOUGH i WANted TO/ Argumentative

SHOULD I have been EASIer by THREE/ Argumentative

OUR OLD FRIEND FEAR and /

GLYcerINE/ (apostrophe)

GLYcerINE/

DON’T LET THE DAYS GO:: BY::/ Instructive

GLYcerINE/ (apostrophe)

DON’T LET THE DAYS GO:: BY::/ Instructive

GLYcerINE/ (apostrophe)

GLYcerINE/

MMM GLYcerINE/

GLYcerINE/

BAD MOON WHITE aGAIN/ Descriptive

BAD MOON WHITE aGAIN/ Descriptive

And she FA::LLS aROUND ME/ Narrative

I NEEDed you MORE/ Argumentative

YOU WANTed US LESS/ Argumentative i COULD NOT KISS/ Argumentative

JUST REGRESS/ it MIGHT just be ME/ Argumentative

CLEAR SIMple and PLAIN/ well THAT’s / Argumentative

THAT’s JUST ONE of MY NAMES/ Argumentative

DON’T LET THE DAYS GO:: BY::/ Instructive

COULD have BEEN EASIer ON / Argumentative

GLYcerINE/ (apostrophe)

GLYcerINE/

GLYcerINE/

116

GLYcerINE//

Screaming Trees – Nearly Lost You

DID you HEAR the DIStant CRY/ Argumentative

CALling me BACK to my SIN/

LIKE the ONE you KNEW beFORE/ Argumentative

CALling me BACK ONCE aGAIN/

I NEARLY/ Argumentative

I NEARly LOST YOU THERE/

And it’s TAken US SOMEWHERE/ Argumentative

I NEARly LOST YOU THERE/ Argumentative

LET’s TRY to SLEEP NOW/ Instructive

DRAG me FAR / Instructive

i’m BLIND Every MILE THAT you BURN/

THERE’s a RIder that’s FALlen AND/ Narrative

it’s CLEAR there’s no TIME to reTURN/ Argumentative

I NEARLY/ Argumentative

I NEARly LOST YOU THERE/

And it’s TAken US SOMEWHERE/ Argumentative

I NEARly LOST YOU THERE/ Argumentative

LET’s TRY to SLEEP NOW/ Instructive

//DID you HEAR the DIStant LIE/ Argumentative

CALling me BACK to my SIN/

LIKE the ONE you KNEW beFORE/ Argumentative

CALling me BACK ONCE aGAIN/

I NEARLY/ Argumentative

I NEARly LOST YOU THERE/

And it’s TAken US SOMEWHERE/ Argumentative

I NEARly LOST YOU THERE/ Argumentative

LET’s TRY to SLEEP NOW/ Instructive

117

I NEARly LOST YOU THERE/ Argumentative

I NEARly LOST YOU / Argumentative

I NEARly LOST YOU THERE/ Argumentative

I NEARly LOST YOU THERE/ Argumentative

I NEARly LOST YOU THERE/ Argumentative

OH YEAH-- OH YEAH/ (interjection)

NEARly LOST you THERE// Argumentative

Mudhoney – Touch Me I’m Sick

//OOH/ (interjection)

WO::W/

well I feel BAD/ Argumentative

And I’ve FELT WORSE/ Argumentative

I’m a CREEP YEAH/ Argumentative

and I’m a JERK/ Argumentative

come ON/ Instructive

TOUCH ME I’m SICK/ Instructive – argumentative

WO::W/ (interjection)

I WON’T live LONG/ Argumentative

And i’m FULL of ROT/ Argumentative

GONna GIVE YOU – GIRL/ Argumentative

EveryTHING I GOT/ Argumentative

TOUCH ME I’m SICK/ Instructive – argumentative

TOUCH ME I’m SICK/ Instructive – argumentative

COME on BAby now COME with ME/ Instructive

if YOU DON’T COME/ Argumentative

if YOU DON’T COME/ Argumentative

if YOU DON’T COME/ Argumentative

YOU’ll DIE aLONE/

WO::W/ (interjection)

118

OH/ (interjection)

I’m disEASED / Argumentative

I don’t MIND/ Argumentative

I’ll MAKE you LOVE ME/ Argumentative

‘till the DAY YOU DIE/

Come ON/ Instructive

TOUCH ME I’M SICK/ Instructive – argumentative

TOUCH ME I’M SICK/ Instructive – argumentative

COME on BAby now COME with ME/ Instructive

if YOU DON’T COME/ Argumentative

if YOU DON’T COME/ Argumentative

if YOU DON’T COME/ Argumentative

YOU’ll DIE aLONE//

Hole – Celebrity Skin

//Oh OVER/ Instructive

I’m ALL i WANT to BE/ Argumentative

a WALKing STUDY/

in DEmonOloGY/

HEY SO glad YOU could MAKE it/ Argumentative

YEAH NOW you REALly MADE It/ Argumentative

HEY SO glad YOU could MAKE it NO::W // Argumentative

//Oh LOOK at MY FACE / Instructive

MIGHT have BEEN/ Argumentative

my NAME is NEver WAS/ Argumentative

my NAME’s forGOTten/ Argumentative

HEY SO glad YOU could MAKE it/ Argumentative

YEAH NOW you REALly MADE It/ Argumentative

HEY there’s ONly US left NO::W// Argumentative

//WHEN i / Argumentative

IN my MAKE UP/

119

It’s TOO EARly /

FOR THAT DRESS/

WILted and FAded / Descriptive someWHERE in / i’m GLAD i CAME HERE/ Argumentative

WITH your POUND of FLESH/

No SEcond BILling / Argumentative

Cause YOU’re a STAR NOW/

Oh CINderELLA/ Argumentative

THEY aren’t SLUTS LIKE YOU/

BEAUtiFUL GARbage/ Argumentative

BEAUtiFUL DRESSES/ Argumentative

CAN you STAND UP/ Argumentative

Or WILL you JUST FALL DOWN/ Argumentative

YOU BETter WATCH OUT/ Instructive

For WHAT you WISH for/

It BETter BE WORTH it/ Instructive

SO MUCH to DIE for/ argumentative

HEY SO glad YOU could MAKE it/ Argumentative

YEAH NOW you REALly MADE It/ Argumentative

HEY there’s ONly US left NOW// Argumentative

//WHEN i WAKE UP/ Narrative

IN my MAKE UP/

HAVE you Ever FELT/ Argumentative

SO USED UP AS THIS/

It’s ALL so SUgarLESS/ Argumentative

HOOKer WAITress/

MOdel ACtress/

OH just GO nameLESS/ Instructive

HOneySUCKle / Argumentative

120

she’s FULL of POIson/

SHE obLIterAted / Argumentative

EveryTHING she KISSED/

NOW she’s FAding/ Descriptive

someWHERE in HOLlyWOOD/

i’m GLAD i CAME here / Argumentative

WITH your POUND of FLESH/

You WANT a PART of ME/ Argumentative

well I’m not SELling CHEAP/ Argumentative

no I’m not SELling CHEAP// Argumentative

Temple of the Dog – Hunger Strike

//well I don’t MIND STEALing BREAD/ Argumentative

FROM the MOUTHS of DEcaDE::NTS/

but I can’t FEED on the POwerLESS/ Argumentative

when my CUP’s alREADY:: OverFI::LLED/

YEAH/ (interjection)

BUT it’s ON the TAble/ Descriptive

the FIRE’s COOKi::ng/ Descriptive

and they’re FARming BAbies/ Descriptive

the SLAVES ARE all WORKI::NG/ Descriptive

BLOOD is ON the TAble/ Descriptive

the MOUTHS are all CHOKI::NG/ Descriptive

but I’m GOing HUNGRY::/ Narrative

YEAH/ (interjection)

I don’t MIND STEALING BREAD/ Argumentative

FROM the MOUTHS Of DEcaDE::NTS/

but I can’t FEED ON the POwerLESS/ Argumentative

when my CUP’s alREADY OverFI::LLED/

BUT it’s ON the TAble/ Descriptive

121

the FIRE’s COOKi::ng/ Descriptive

and they’re FARming BAbies/ Descriptive

the SLAVES ARE all WORKI::NG/ Descriptive

and it’s ON the TAble / Descriptive

their MOUTHS are CHOKI::NG/ Descriptive

BUT I’m GOing HUNGRY:: (GOing HUNGRY::) / Narrative

I’m GOing HUNGRY:: (GOing HUNGRY::) / Narrative

I’m GOing HUNGRY:: (GOing HUNGRY::) / Narrative

I’m GOing HUNGRY:: (GOing HUNGRY::) / Narrative

(instrumental interlude)

I’m GOing HUNGRY:: (GOing HUNGRY::) / Narrative

I’m GOing HUNGRY:: (GOing HUNGRY::) / Narrative

(instrumental interlude)

//I don’t MIND/ Argumentative

STEALing BREAD (I don’t MI::ND)/

NO I don’t MIND/ Argumentative

STEALing BREA::D/

I’m GOing HUNGRY:: (GOing HUNGRY::) / Narrative

I’m GOing HUNGRY::(GOing HUNGRY::)// Narrative

Singer songwriter

Like a Rolling Stone – Bob Dylan

//ONCE upON a TIME you DRESsed so FINE/ Narrative

THREW the bums a DIME IN your PRIME – Narrative DIDN’T YOU::?/

PEOple CALL SAY “BEWARE DOLL you’re Narrative BOUND to FALL/

You THOUGHT THEY were ALL -- a-KIDdin’ Argumentative YOU/

YOU Used TO -- LAUGH aBOUT/ Narrative

EveryBOdy that WA::S -- HANGin’ OUT/

122

NOW you DO::N’T -- TALK so LOUD/ Argumentative

NOW you DO::N’T -- SEEM so PROUD/ Argumentative aBOUT HAving to be SCROUNGing -- YOUR next MEA::L/

HOW does it FEEL/ Argumentative

HOW does it FEEL/ Argumentative to be withOUT a HOME/

LIKE a compLETE unKNOWN/ Argumentative

LIKE a ROLling STONE?// Argumentative

//OH you -- GONE to the FInest SCHOOl, ALL Narrative RIGHT, MISS LONEly/ but you KNOW you ONly Used to GET -- JUICED Argumentative in IT/ noBOdy’s ever TAUGHT you HOW to LIVE OUT Narrative on the STREET/ and NOW you’re GONna HAVE to GET – USED to Argumentative IT/ you SAID you’d NEver – COMpromISE/ Narrative with the MYStery TRAMP -- but NOW YOU – Narrative REAlize/

HE’s not SELling Any – Alibis/ as you STARE into the VAcuum -- OF his EYES/ Narrative and SAY -- – MAKE a Narrative DEA::L?/

HOW does it FEEL/ Argumentative

HOW does it FEEL/ Argumentative to be ON your OWN / with NO diRECtion HOME/ Argumentative a compLETE unKNOWN/ Argumentative

LIKE a ROLling STONE?// Argumentative

//OH YOU – NEver TURNED aROUND to SEE the Narrative FROWNS on the JUGglers and the CLOWNS/

When they ALL DID – TRICKS for YOU/

NEver underSTOOD that it AIN’T no GOOD/ Argumentative

123

You SHOULDN’T LET Other PEOple GET YOUR Argumentative – KICKS for YOU/

You Used to RIDE on the CHROME HORSE WITH Narrative YOUR – DIPloMAT/

Who CARried ON his SHOULDER A – SIAmese CAT/

AIN’T it HARD -- when you disCOver THAT/ Argumentative

HE REALly WASn’t -- WHERE it’s AT/

AFter HE TOOK FROM you EveryTHING – he Narrative COULD STEA::L/

HOW does it FEEL/ Argumentative

HOW does it FEEL/ Argumentative to HAVE you ON your OWN/ with NO diRECtion HOME/ Argumentative

LIKE a compLETE unKNOWN/ Argumentative

LIKE a ROLling STONE?// Argumentative

//OH – PRINCESS ON a STEEPle and ALL the -- Narrative PRETty PEOple/ they ALL DRINKin’, THINKin’ that THEY – GOT it MADE/ exCHANGin’ ALL PREcious GIFTS/ Narrative but YOU BETter TAKE your DIAmond RING-- you Instructive – instructive BETter PAWN it BABE/ you Used to BE – SO aMUsed/ Narrative at naPOleon in RAGS -- and the LANguage THAT he Used/

GO to him NOW he CALLS you you CAN’T Instructive – narrative – instructive reFUse/ when you AIN’T got NOthing YOU got – NOthing Argumentative to LOSE/

YOU’re inVIsible NOW you GOT no SEcrets – to Argumentative – argumentative conCEA::L/

HOW does it FEEL/ Argumentative

OH HOW does it FEEL/ Argumentative

To be ON YOUR OWN/ with NO diRECtion HOME/ Argumentative

124

LIKE a compLETE unKNOWN/ Argumentative

LIKE a ROLling STONE?// Argumentative

Neil Young – Heart of Gold

//I WANna LIVE/ Argumentative

I WANna GIVE/ Argumentative

i’ve BEEN a MIner FOR a HEART of GOLD/ Narrative

it’s THESE exPRESsions/ Argumentative

I NEver GIVE/

that KEEP me SEARCHin’ FOR a HEART of GO::LD/

AND i’m GETtin’ OLD/ Argumentative

KEEP me SEARCHing’ FOR a HEART of Argumentative GO::LD/

AND i’m GETtin’ OLD// Argumentative

// i’ve BEEN to HOLlyWOOD/ Narrative

I’ve BEEN to REDWOOD/ Narrative

i CROSSED the Ocean FOR a HEART of GOLD/ Narrative

i’ve BEEN in MY MIND/ Narrative

it’s SUCH a FINE LINE/ Argumentative

that KEEPS me SEARCHin’ FOR a HEART of GO::LD/

AND i’m GETtin’ OLD// Argumentative

KEEP me SEARCHIN’ FOR a HEART of Argumentative GO::LD/

AND I’m GETtin’ OLD/ Argumentative

KEEP me SEARCHIN’ FOR a HEART of GOLD/ Argumentative

you KEEP me SEARCHin’ AND i’m GROWin’ Argumentative – argumentative OLD/

KEEP me SEARCHin’ FOR a HEART of GOLD/ Argumentative

i’ve BEEN a MIner FOR a HEART of GO::LD/ Argumentative

/HA::/ (interjection)

125

Leonard Cohen – Suzanne

//suZANNE TAKES you DO::WN/ Narrative

to her PLACE NEAR the RIver/

you can HEAR the BOATS go BY::/ Narrative

you can SPEND the NIGHT beSIDE her/ Narrative

and you KNOW she’s / Argumentative

but THAT’s BE there/ Argumentative

and she FEEDS you TEA and Oranges/ Narrative

that come ALL the WAY from CHIna/

and JUST WHEN you MEAN to TELL her/ Narrative

that you HAVE no LOVE to GIVE her/

then she GETS you on her WAVElength/ Narrative

and she LETS the RIver ANswer/ Narrative

that you’ve ALways BEEN her LOver//

and you WANT to TRAvel WITH her / Argumentative

and you WANT to TRAvel BLI::ND/ Argumentative

and you KNOW / Argumentative

for you've TOUCHED her PERfect BOdy with your Argumentative MIND//

and JEsus WAS a SAIlor/ Narrative

when he WALKED upON the WAter/ Narrative

and he SPENT a LONG TIME WATCHing FROM Narrative his /

LOnely WOODen TOwer/

and WHEN he KNEW for CERtain / Narrative

ONly DROWNing men COULD SEE him/

he said ALL MEN will be SAIlors THEN/ Narrative

unTIL the SEA SHALL FREE them/

but HE himSELF was BROken / Descriptive

LONG beFORE the SKY:: would Open/

126

forSAken, ALmost HUman / Narrative

he SANK beNEATH your WISdom /

and you WANT to TRAvel WITH him/ Argumentative

and you WANT to TRAvel BLI::ND/ Argumentative

and maybe you’ll TRUST him/ Argumentative

for he’s TOUCHED your PERfect BOdy -- with his Argumentative MIND/

NOW, suZANNE TAKES your HA::ND / Narrative

and she LEADS you-- to the RIver/ Narrative

She’s WEAring RAGS and FEAthers from / Descriptive

salVAtion ARmy COUNters/

and the SUN pours DOWN like HOney/ Descriptive

on our of the HARbor/

and she SHOWs you WHE::RE to LOOK/ Narrative

aMONG the GA::Rbage A::ND the FLOwers/

there Are in the SEAweed / Descriptive

there are IN the MORning/ Descriptive

THEY are LEANing out FOR LOVE / Descriptive

and they will LEAN that WAY forEver/ Descriptive

WHILE suZANNE HOLDS the MIRror/ Descriptive

And you WANT to TRAvel WITH her/ Argumentative

and you WANT to TRAvel BLI::ND/ Argumentative

And you KNOW you can TRUST her/ Argumentative

for she’s TOUCHED your PERfect BOdy --with her Argumentative MIND//

Simon and Garfunkel – The Sound of Silence

HELlo DARKness, MY old FRIEND/ Narrative

I’ve COME to TALK with YOU aGAIN/ Narrative

beCAUSE a VIsion SOFTLY:: CREEPING/ Argumentative

127

LEFT its SEEDS WHILE i WA::S SLEEPING/

AND the VIsion – THAT was PLANted IN my Descriptive BRAIN/

STILL reMAINS/ within the SOU::ND -- of SIlence// in RESTless DREAMS i WALKED aLONE/ Narrative

NARrow STREETS of COBbleSTONE/

NEATH the HAlo OF A:: STREET LAMP/ Narrative

I TURNED my COLlar TO the COLD and DAMP/ when my EYES were STABBED BY the FLASH of Narrative a LIGHT/ that SPLIT the NIGHT/ and TOUCHED the SOU::ND – of SIlence// and IN the NAked LIGHT i SA::W/ Narrative tenTHOUsand PEOPLE, MAYbe MO::RE/

PEOPLE TALKing withOU::T SPEAKING/ Descriptive

PEOPLE HEARing withOUT LIStenING/ Descriptive

PEOPLE WRIting SONGS -- THAT VOIces Descriptive NEver SHARE/

NO one DARED/ Narrative disTURB the SOU::ND – of SIlence//

“FOOLS” said I you DO not KNO::W/ Narrative

SIlence LIKE a CANcer GRO::WS/

HEAR my WORDS that I MI::GHT TEACH Instructive YOU/

TAKE my ARMS that I MI::GHT REACH YOU/ Instructive

BUT my WO::RDS -- LIKE SIlent RAINdrops Narrative FELL/

And ECHOE::D in the WE::LLS – of SIlence// Narrative

AND the PEOPle BOWED and PRAYED/ Narrative

TO the NEon GOD they MADE/

AND the SIGN FLASHED out ITS WARNING/ Narrative

IN the WORDS that it WA::S FORMING/

128

AND the SIGNS SAID the WORDS of the Descriptive PROphets ARE WRITten ON the SUBway //

TEnement HALLS/

and WHISPE::R’d in the SOU::NDS -- of SIlence//

Billy Joel – Piano Man

//it's NIne o'CLOCK ON a SAturDAY/ Narrative

the REgular CROWD SHUFfles IN/ Narrative

THERE's an OLD MA::N SITting NEXT to ME/ Narrative

MAkin’ LOVE to his TOnic and GIN/

he SAYS, “SON, CAN you a MEmoRY/ Narrative

i’m NOT REALly SURE HOW it GOES/ Narrative

but it’s SAD and it’s SWEET and I KNEW it Narrative comPLETE/

when I WORE a YOUNGer MAN’s CLOTHES/

OH, LA la LA DI da DA::/ (interjection)

LA LA DI da DA:: da DUM/

SING us a SONG YOU’re the piAno MAN/ Instructive – expository

SING us a SONG toNIGHT/ Instructive

WELL, we’re ALL in the MOOD FOR a MEloDY/ Argumentative

and YOU’ve GOT us FEELin’ alRIGHT// Argumentative

now JOHN at the BAR is a FRIEND o’ MINE/ Descriptive

he GETS me my DRINKS for FREE/ Descriptive

and he’s QUICK with a JOKE -- or to LIGHT up Descriptive your SMOKE/

but THERE’s SOMEPLACE that HE’d RAther BE/ Argumentative

he SAYS, “BILL, I beLIEVE THIS is KILling ME”/ Narrative

AS the SMILE RAN aWAY FROM his FACE/ Narrative

“well i’m SURE THAT i COULD BE a MOvie Narrative STAR/

if I could GET OUT of this PLACE”/

OH, LA la LA:: DI da DA::/ (interjection)

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LA LA:: DI da DA:: da DU::M/

now PAUL is a REAL estATE NOveLIST/ Descriptive

who NEver had TI::ME for a WIFE/

and he’s TALKin’ with DAvy -- who’s STILL in the Narrative NAvy/

and PRObabLY WILL BE for LIFE/

and the WAITress is PRACticING POliTICS/ Narrative

as the BUSinessMEN SLOWly / Narrative

yes, they’re SHAring a DRINK THEY CALL Argumentative LONEliNESS/

but it’s DRINKin’ aLO::NE// Argumentative

SING us a SONG, YOU’re the piAno MAN/ Instructive – expository

SING us a SONG toNIGHT/ Instructive

WELL, we’re ALL in the MOOD FOR a MEloDY/ Argumentative

and YOU’ve GOT us FEELin’ alRIGHT/ Argumentative

it’s a PRETty GOOD CROWD -- for a SAturDAY/ Argumentative

and the MAnager GIVES ME a SMILE/ Narrative

cause he KNOWS that it’s ME they’ve BEEN Argumentative COMin’ to SEE/

to forGET aBOUT LIFE for a WHILE//

and the piAno, it SOUNDS LIKE a CARniVAL/ Argumentative

and the MIcroPHONE SMELLS LIKE a BEER/ Argumentative

and they SIT at the BA::R and PUT BREAD in my Narrative JAR/

and SAY, “MAN, WHAT are YOU DOin’ HERE?”/ Narrative

OH, LA la LA DI da DA::/ (interjection)

LA LA DI DU::M/

SING us a SONG, YOU’re the piAno MAN/ Instructive – expository

SING us a SONG toNIGHT/ Instructive

WELL, we’re ALL in the MOOD FOR a MEloDY/ Argumentative

and YOU’ve GOT us FEELin’ alRIGHT/ Argumentative

Joan Baez – Diamonds and Rust

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// well I’LL BE DA::MNED/ Argumentative here COMES your GHOST – aGAI::N/ Narrative but THAT’s not UNUsuA::L/ Argumentative it’s JUST that the MOON is FU::LL/ Descriptive

AND you HAPpened to CA::LL/ Narrative and HERE I SI::T/ Narrative

HAND on the TElePHO::NE/ Descriptive

HEARing a VOICE I’d KNO::WN/ Narrative a COUPLE of LIGHT YEARS aGO::/

HEADing STRAIGHT for a FA::LL/ Narrative as I reMEMber your EYES/ Argumentative were BLUEer THAN ’s E::GGS/

MY POetRY was LOUsy YOU SAI::D/ Narrative

WHERE are YOU CALling FRO::M/ Narrative

A BOOTH in the MIDWE::ST Narrative

TEN YEARS aGO/ Narrative i BOUGHT YOU SOME CUFF LI::NKS/

YOU BROUGHT ME SOMETHI::NG/ Narrative we BOTH KNOW WHAT MEmoRIES can BRING/ Argumentative

THEY BRING DIAmonds and RU::ST// Argumentative

//well YOU BURST ON the SCENE/ Argumentative alREADY a LEGE::ND/ the UNWASHED pheNOmeNO::N/ Argumentative the oRIgiNAL VAgaBO::ND/ Argumentative you STRAYED INto MY A::RMS/ Narrative and THERE you STA::YED/ Narrative

TEMpoRAriLY LOST at SEA::/

THE was YOURS for FREE::/ Argumentative

YES the GIRL on the HALF-SHE::LL/ Argumentative

WOULD KEEP YOU UNHA::RMED/

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NOW I SEE you STANDing with BROWN Narrative LEAVES/

FALling all aROUND and in your HAI::R/

NOW you’re SMIling OUT the WINdow/ Narrative

of that CRUMmy hoTEL Over WASHington SQUA::RE/

OUR BREATH COMES OUT WHITE CLOUDS/ Narrative

MINGles and HANGS in the AI::R/

SPEAKing STRICTly for ME/ Argumentative

we BOTH could have DIED THEN and THE::RE//

//NOW YOU’re TELling ME::/ Narrative

YOU’re NOT NOSTALGI::C/

THEN GIVE me anOther WO::RD FOR I::T/ Instructive

YOU WHO are SO GOOD with WO::RDS/ Argumentative

and at KEEPing THINGS VA::GUE/

‘cause I NEED SOME of THAT VAGUEness Argumentative NOW/

it’s ALL COME BACK TOO CLEARLY::/ Argumentative

YES DEARLY::/ Argumentative

And IF you’re OFferING ME DIAmonds and Argumentative RU::ST/

I’ve ALready PA::YED//

Joni Mitchell – A Case of You

//JUST beFORE OUR LOVE got LOST you SAI::D/ Narrative

i AM as CONstant as a NORTHern STAR and i SAID/

“CONstantly in the DARKness/ Narrative

WHERE’s THA::T at/

If i’ll BE in the BA::R/ Narrative

ON the BACK OF a CARTOON COASTE::R/ Narrative

In the BLUE TV SCREEN LI::GHT/

i DREW a MAP of CAnada/

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OH CA::NA::DA::/

With YOU::R FACE SKETCHed on it TWICE/

O::H, you’re in MY BLOOD LIKE HO::ly WINE/ Argumentative you TASTE so BI::Tter -- AND so SWEET/ Argumentative oh I -- could DRINK -- a CASE OF YOU:: Argumentative DARling/ and I WOULD – STI::LL be on my FEET/ Argumentative oh i would STILL be ON MY:: FEE::T/ Argumentative

O::H i am a LO::NEly PAINter/ Argumentative

I LIVE in a BOX of PAINTS/ Descriptive

I’m FRIGHtened BY the DEVIL/ Descriptive

AND i’m DRAWN to THOSE ONES that AI::N’T Descriptive aFRAI::D/

I reMEMber that TIME you TOLD me you SAID/ Narrative

LOVe is TOUCHing SOULS”/

SUREly YOU TOUCHED MINE/ Argumentative

‘cause PART of YOU POURS OUT of ME::/

In THESE LINES from TIME to TI::ME/

O::H, you’re in MY BLOOD LIKE HO::ly WINE/ Argumentative

You TASTE so BI::Tter – AND so SWEET/ Argumentative

OH I—could DRINK – a CASE OF YOU:: Argumentative DARling/

STILL i’d BE on MY FEET/ Argumentative i would STILL be ON MY:: FEE::T// Argumentative

//i MET a WOMAN/ Narrative she HA::D a MOUTH like YOURS/ Narrative she KNEW your LIFE/ Narrative she KNEW your DEvils and your DEEDS and SHE Narrative SAID/

GO:: to him -- STAY WITH him if you CA::N/ Instructive - instructive but BE prePARED to BLEE::D/ Instructive

O::H BUT YOU ARE IN my BLOOD/ Argumentative

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YOU’re MY – HO::ly WINE/ Argumentative

you’re SO:: BITter -- BITter and SO SWEET/ Argumentative

OH I – could DRINK – a CASE OF YOU:: Argumentative DARling/

STILL i’d be ON MY FEET/ Argumentative

i would STI::LL be O::N MY:: FEE::T/ Argumentative

HMMMM//

Carole King – It’s too late

//STAYED in BED all MORnin’ JUST to PASS the Narrative TIME/

there’s SOMEthin’ WRONG here THERE can BE Argumentative no denYin’ /

ONE of US is CHANGin’/ Argumentative

or MAYbe we’ve JUST STOPPED TRYin’/ Argumentative

AND it's TOO LATE BAby NOW/ Argumentative

IT’s TOO LATE/ Argumentative

THOUGH we REALly DI::D TRY to MAKE it/ Argumentative

SOMEthin’ inSIDE has DIED/ Argumentative

and I can’t / Argumentative

HIDE and I JUST CAN’T FAKE it/ Argumentative

O::H no NO NO NO NO/ (interjection)

It USED to BE so EASY, LIVin’ HERE with YOU/ Argumentative

YOU were LIGHT and BREEZY an’ i KNEW JUST Argumentative WHAT to DO/

now YOU look SO unHAPpy/ Argumentative

and I FEEL LIKE a FOOL/ Argumentative

AND it's TOO LATE BAby NOW/ Argumentative

IT’s TOO LATE/ Argumentative

THOUGH we REALly DI::D TRY to MAKE it/ Argumentative

SOMEthin’ inSIDE has DIED/ Argumentative

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and I can’t / Argumentative

HIDE and I JUST CAN’T FAKE it/ Argumentative

O::H NO:: NO // (interjection)

//THERE’ll BE good TIMES aGAIN for ME AND Argumentative YOU/

but we JUST CAN’T STAY toGETHer DON’T you Argumentative FEE::L it TOO/

still i’m GLAD FOR WHAT we HAD/ Argumentative

and HOW I ONCE LOVED YOU/ Argumentative

BUT it's TOO LATE BAby NOW/ Argumentative

IT’s TOO LATE/ Argumentative

THOUGH we REALly DI::D TRY to MAKE it/ Argumentative

SOMEthin’ inSIDE has DIED/ Argumentative

and I can’t / Argumentative

HIDE and I JUST CAN’T FAKE it/ Argumentative

O::H NO:: NO NO NO NO / (interjection)

it’s TOO LA::TE BAby/ Argumentative

it’s TOO LA::TE – NOW DARling/ Argumentative

it’s TOO LA::TE// Argumentative

James Taylor – Fire and Rain

// just YESterDAY MORnin’/ Narrative

THEY LET me KNOW YOU WERE GONE/

suZANNE the PLANS THEY MADE PUT an END Argumentative to YOU/

I WALKED OUT this MORnin’/ Narrative

and i WROTE DOWN / Narrative

I JUST CAN’T reMEMber WHO to TO/ Argumentative

//I’ve SEEN FIRE and I’ve SEEN RAIN/ Narrative - Narrative

I’ve SEEN SUNny DAYS that i THOUGHT would Narrative NEver END/

I’ve SEEN LOnely TIMES when i COULD NOT Narrative FIND a FRIEND/

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BUT i ALways THOUGHT that i’d SEE YOU Argumentative aGAIN//

//WON’T you LOOK DOWN upON me JEsus/ Instructive you’ve GOTta HELP ME MAKE a STAND/ Instructive you JUST GOT to SEE ME THROUGH anOther Instructive DAY/ my BOdy’s ACHin’/ Descriptive

AND my TIME IS AT HAND/ Descriptive and I WON’T MAKE it Any Other WAY/ Argumentative

//OH I’ve SEEN FIRE and I’ve SEEN RAIN/ Narrative - Narrative

I’ve SEEN SUNny DAYS that i THOUGHT would Narrative NEver END/

I’ve SEEN LOnely TIMES when i COULD NOT Narrative FIND a FRIEND/

BUT i ALways THOUGHT that i’d SEE YOU Argumentative aGAIN//

//BEEN WALKin’ MY MIND TO an EAsy TIME/ Narrative my BACK TURNED TOwards the SUN/

LORD KNOWS when the COLD wind BLOWS it’ll Argumentative TURN your HEAD aROUND/

Well, there’s HOURS of TIME on the TElePHONE Argumentative LINE/ to TALK aBOUT THINGS to COME/

SWEET DREAMS and FLYin’ maCHINES in Descriptive PIECES /

//OH I’ve SEEN FIRE and I’ve SEEN RAIN/ Narrative - Narrative

I’ve SEEN SUNny DAYS that i THOUGHT would Narrative NEver END/

I’ve SEEN Lonely TIMES when i COULD NOT Narrative FIND a FRIEND/

BUT i ALways THOUGHT that i’d SEE YOU Argumentative BAby-- ONE more TIME aGAIN NOW/

/THOUGHT I’d SEE YOU ONE more TIME Argumentative aGAIN/

There’s JUST a FEW THINGS COMing my WAY Argumentative this TIME aROUND now/

THOUGHT I’d SEE YOU – THOUGHT I’d SEE Argumentative

136

YOU – FIRE and RAIN now//

Van Morrison – Brown Eyed Girl

//HEY WHERE did WE GO/ Narrative

DAYS when the RAINS CAME/ Narrative

DOWN in the HOLLOW/ Narrative

PLAYin’ a NEW GAME/

LAUGHin’ and a-RUNnin’ HEY hey/ Narrative

SKIPpin’ and a JUMPin’/ Narrative

In the MISty MORning FOG with/

OUR, our HEARTS a-THUMPing /

And YOU – my BROWN EYED GIRL/

YOU MY:: – BROWN EYED GIRL/ (apostrophe)

//WHATever HAPPENED/ Argumentative

to TUESDAY and SO SLOW/

GOing DOWN the OLD MINE with a/ Narrative

TRANSIStor RAdiO/

STANDing IN the SUNLIGHT LAUGHing/ Narrative

HIDE beHIND a RAINBOW’s WALL/ Narrative

SLIPpin’ and a-SLIDing/ Narrative

all aLONG the WAterFALL/

with YOU – my BROWN EYED GIRL/

YOU MY:: – BROWN EYED GIRL (apostrophe)

DO YOU reMEMber WHEN – SING/ Argumentative

SHA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA TI DA/ (interjection)

JUST like THAT/

SHA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA TI DA/

LA TI DA//

// to / Argumentative

137

NOW that i’m all ON my OWN/ i SAW you JUST the Other DAY/ Narrative

MY – how YOU have GROWN/ Argumentative

CAST my MEmory BACK there LORD/ Instructive

SOMETIMES I’m OVERCOME THINKing Narrative ‘BOUT/

MAKing LOVE in the GREEN GRASS/ beHIND the STAdiUM/ with YOU – my BROWN EYED GIRL/

YOU MY:: – BROWN EYED GIRL/ (apostrophe)

//DO YOU reMEMber WHEN – WE used to SING/ Argumentative

SHA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA TI DA/ (interjection)

SHA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA TI DA (DEE DAH DEE DAH DEE DAH DEE DAH DEE DAH DEE)/

SHA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA TI DA (SHA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA- DEE DAH LA DEE DAH LA DEE DAH LA)//

138